Reproduction

Reproduction: It is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals

similar to themselves.

• Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.

• It is a bridge to hereditary transmission.
• It involves a continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by
copying of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the
chromosomes of the cell.

Asexual Reproduction

• It involves only one parent.

• There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
• The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the
parent cell.
• Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental
conditions and when there is an abundance of food.
• It is a faster method of reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism

(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these
first pseudopodia withdrawn (karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell divides and
then the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter
cells). It occurs during highly favourable conditions. The cell division can occur in any
plane as in case of Amoeba. However, organisms like Leishmania. (Cause Kala-azar),
which have a whip like flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite
orientation in relation to the flagellum.
Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm. Karyokinesis: Division of
Nucleus.

(ii) Multiple Fission: Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during

unfavourable conditions, the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself
forming a cyst. Within the wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many
plasmodia. When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the
Plasmodium are released.
(iii) Budding: Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The parent yeast cell develops a protrusion
or an outgrowth at its upper end. The nucleus of the parent cell divides and one of
them moves into the outgrowth which grows bigger and finally separates from the
parent cell to lead an independent existence. Very often if the conditions are highly
favourable, a chain of buds is formed.

Types of Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms:

(i) Fragmentation: Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple

body organisation like Spirogyra. Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into
smaller pieces or fragments). Each fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.
However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells from
tissues which form organs. These organs are placed at definite positions in the body.
Hence, they need to use more complex methods of reproduction.

(ii) Regeneration: It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts. Some
organisms show have high regenerative capacity it is also a means of reproduction for
example; Planaria. (Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which redivide to
form a mass of cells from which different cells undergo changes to become different
cell types and tissues. These changes occur in an organized sequence known as
development).

(iii) Budding: Seen in Hydra. Parent Hydra develops a bud at its lower end. This
grows in size and finally breaks off to live independently.

(iv) Spore Formation: Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of

thread-like structures called hyphae. The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which
reproductive structures called spores are formed. Spores are asexually reproducing
bodies having a thick protective wall. They are produced during unfavourable times
and help to tide over the unfavourable environmental conditions. When the spores
fall on a suitable medium, each one forms a new individual.
(v) Vegetative Propagation: Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative
parts such as roots, stems, and leaves.

Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types

• Natural vegetative propagation.

• Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue culture).

Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and Bryophyllum by

leaves. In bryophyllum buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margins and
when they fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

• Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.
• Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by
vegetative propagation.
• All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
• Seedless varieties can be obtained.
• The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing
methods like layering, grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or
grapes.

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a
nutrient medium under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient
medium where it forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to
another nutrient medium where it differentiates and forms a new plant.

Sexual Reproduction: The mode of reproduction that takes place with the
involvement of two individuals of two different sexes i.e. male and female.
During sexual reproduction, male organism having male sex organs produces male
gametes i.e. sperms which are small and motile and the female organism having
female sex organs produces ova which are generally large and store food. Male and
female gametes fuse to form a zygote that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction:

• Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different

organisms which promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
 • Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new
combination of genes which increases the chances of genetic variations.
• Sexual reproduction results in the origin of new species.
• Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA
matter to half so that the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of
DNA as the parents it maintains DNA in a species.

Limitation of Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the process of

combining DNA from two different organisms which may bring some undesirable
features also.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

• The reproductive parts are present in the flower.

• The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
• Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in
bud stage.
• Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
• Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain
male gametes. Each stamen has two parts—
• Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top part which has large number of
pollen grains.

The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female
gametes. It has three parts—Stigma which is top sticky part and receives pollen grains
during pollination. Style which is the middle long part and ovary which is the swollen
part and contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete.

The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpels for example;
Mustard China Rose (Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpels for example; Papaya,
Watermelon.

Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the
flower is pollination. Two types of pollination are: (i) Self-pollination: The transfer of
pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another flower of
the same plant. (ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of another flower or another flower of a different plant of the same
species. It generally takes place with the help of some agents like insects, birds, wind
and water.
Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a
zygote during sexual reproduction. Pollination is
followed by fertilisation in plants. The events are Pollen grains land
on the stigma of the ovary.
Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the
ovary, through micropyle.
Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female
germ cell (egg).

Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with
female germ cell and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo, the
fusion is known as syngamy. The other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei, the
process is known as triple fusion. So in flowering plants two fusions take place during
fertilisation. It is called double fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the
flower.
Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.

• The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
• The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
• Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e.
embryo.

Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future
plant.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and radicle
develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate
conditions is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Being: Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male parent
produces male gametes called sperms. Female parent produces female gametes called
ova. Sperms have tail and are therefore, motile. They are produced in large numbers
in the testes. Ovum is bigger, non-motile and only one ovary produces one ovum in
one month. There is no food stored in the sperms whereas ova contain stored food.
Both the gametes are microscopic unicellular and have half the number of
chromosomes as compared to the body cells.

Q what changes can be seen in human beings during puberty?

Answer Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty.
Puberty is the period during adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins
to slow down and reproductive tissues begin to mature. Onset of puberty in human
males is between 11 to 13 yrs. of age, while in human females is between 10 to 12 yrs.
of age. Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and psychological
changes in boys and girls which occur slowly over a period of time. These are called
secondary sexual characters. For instance thick dark hair start growing in new parts of
the body such as arm pits and genital area between the thighs. Thinner hair appear on
legs, arms and face. Skin becomes oily and pimples may appear on the face.
Individuals become more conscious of their bodies become more independent, more
aggressive etc.In case of boys beard and moustache start appearing, voice begins to
crack, reproductive organs develop and start producing releasing sperms.
In case of girls, breast size begins to increase, skin of the nipples darkens,
menstruation starts.
The act of mating between the male and female partner is termed as copulation.

Male Reproductive System: Male reproductive system consists of the following

components

 1 pair of testes
 A system of ducts

 Epididymis
 Vas deferens or the sperm duct
 Urethra
 A system of glands
 Seminal vesicles
 Prostrate gland
 Cowper’s gland
 A copulatory organ called a penis.

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies outside
the abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This is so because
the testes have to be maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the body in
order to produce functional sperms.
Functions of testes

 To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

 To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is
responsible for producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in
males.

Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms are stored
here and they mature in the epididymis.
Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens rises
up and enters into the abdominal cavity. It unites with the duct coming from the
urinary bladder to form a common duct called urethra which passes through the penis
and opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts of the three glands also open and
pour their secretions into the vas deferens.

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male
body.

Functions of the glands: They produce different secretions which provide nutrition as
well as medium for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.

Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from the
body to. the outside.

Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is richly
supplied with blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following components

 1 pair of ovaries
 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
 A uterus/womb
 A vagina/birth canal.

Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of
birth each girl child already contains thousands of immature ova. These ova start
maturing only from the time of puberty. Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in
one month and each ovary releases an ovum in alternate months. The release of an
ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known as ovulation.
Functions of ovary

 To produce and release ova

 To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like
structures called fimbriae. The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic bag like
structure called uterus.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the
female gametes and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as
endometrium. The narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets
attached to the endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine months
till the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular
tube through which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months. It also serves as
the canal for receiving the semen at the time of copulation.

The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation. The sperms travel
upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form
the zygote. The zygote divides and redivides as it descends into the uterus and the
embryo gets implanted in the endometrium. The endometrium thickens so as to
receive the embryo.

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called placenta, which is a disk-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. It contains
finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on the mother’s side blood spaces surround
the villi. Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the
mother through the placenta. When the embryo starts resembling a human is formed,
it is termed as a foetus. The foetus continues
to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the baby is delivered
as a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.

Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the
ruptured cells and tissues of the endometrium through the vagina of the female. It is a
28-day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from puberty). The
flow of blood continues for 2 to 8 days. If the ovum does not get fertilized, then the
endometrium starts sloughing off and there is loss of blood and mucous etc. through
the vagina. In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the endometrium becomes thick and
spongy for nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation does not occur. A lady with
a developing embryo in her womb is termed as pregnant. The beginning of
menstruation at puberty is known as menarche. The stoppage of menstruation when
the woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.

Reproductive Health: Sexually transmitted diseases and birth control.

A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is
infected. These are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be
caused by bacteria for example; syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for
example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of these diseases can be avoided by
using birth control measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual act.

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the fallopian
tube :
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn over the penis before sexual
intercourse. The semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into the vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over the
cervix in a woman’s body by a doctor.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus and
its insertion causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo in
the uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects.

Chemical methods

 Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the

form of creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just before
copulation.
 Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but
do not stop menstruation.

Surgical methods

 Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

 Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian
tubes in females.
  Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate
the developing embryo. This practice can, however, be misused to carry out
female foeticide which involves the killing of the female foetus. It should be
avoided at all cost as it disturbs the male-female ratio in a population.

What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?

Answer:
DNA copying has following importance in reproduction:

 It maintains the characteristics of species.

 It maintains the continuity of life.
 From this, the characteristics and features of organisms are transformed to their
progeny.
 It produces variations in organisms which is the basis of evolution of new
species.

Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
Answer:
The various populations of organisms interact with many types of ecological niches.
This is important for them to survive in given conditions. In case of any damage caused
to the ecological conditions of the population, the population gets adversely affected.
The organisms which are able to survive, may reproduce to develop population which
is adapted or suited to the varied conditions. Hence variation is beneficial to species,
but not to the individuals.

How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores ?

Answer:
An organism is benefited by reproducing through the spores because spores are
surrounded by a thick layer which protects them in adverse conditions. When the
favourable conditions occur, these spores start to grow again. In this way they are
successfully live in unfavourable conditions.

Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new
individuals through regeneration ?
Answer:
In complex multicellular organisms, specialised cells make up tissues, tissue make up
organs, organs make up organ systems and finally organ systems make up organisms.
Since complex multicellular organisms have a very high degree of organisation in their
body, they cannot be reproduced from their cut body parts by the process of
regeneration.
For example, a dog is a complex multicellular organism which cannot be regenerated
from its cut body part say, a cut tail. This is because the cells present in the cut tail of a
dog cannot produce dog’s organs like heart brain, lungs, stomach, intestines and
limbs, etc, needed for the making of a complete dog.

What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction ?

Answer:
(i) In asexual reproduction, the offspring are almost identical to their parent because
they have the same genes as their parent. So, much genetic variation is not possible in
asexual reproduction. This is a disadvantage because it inhibits the further evolution of
the organism.
(ii) In sexual reproduction the offspring, although similar to their parents, are not
identical to them or to one another. This is because the offspring receive some genes
from the mother and some from the father. Because of the mixing of genes of mother
and father in various different combinations, all of the offspring have genetic
variations. In this way, sexual reproduction leads to a greater variety in population.
This means that a species (animal or plant) can adapt quickly to changes in its
surroundings. This is because there are always likely to be some individuals which are
more suited to the changes than others, and these individuals will survive and
reproduce themselves.