EDU591

Public Policy

925 North Spurgeon Street, Santa Ana, CA 92701

Phone: 714-547-9625 Fax: 714-547-5777
www.calcoast.edu

Rev. 04/23
 Tracking Your Academic Activities
Verifying an accurate course completion time is essential for accreditation. To meet both
accreditation requirements and award academic credit, educational institutions must document the
total number of hours students spend completing designated academic activities related to their
coursework.

The total hours are then translated into academic credit based on a prescribed method of measuring
educational attainment known as the Carnegie Unit. 90 hours of student preparation time and 45
hours of student engagement time are required for a 3 credit hour course.

Using the attached form as an example, keep track of the time you spend on each lesson, pre-test,
self-test, unit test, writing assignment, reading assignment, outside reading, final examination, etc.
You will not be required to turn in the worksheet; however, at the end of the course you will receive
a Student Course Survey and the final question will ask how long it took you to complete the course.
Your assistance in completing this requirement and providing the university with this valuable data is
greatly appreciated.

As you fill out the worksheet, please keep in mind that your Academic Engagement Activities should
total approximately 45 hours. Some examples of this type of activity may include:

Lesson Review Exercises Unit Examinations

Key Term Reviews Proctored Final Examination
Analysis Course Academic Online Discussions
Study Guide Review Student/Instructor Interaction
Writing Assignments Documents/Student Resources
Review Grading Rubric

As you fill out the Academic Preparation Activities, please keep in mind that these should total
approximately 90 hours. Some examples of this type of activity may include:

Pre-Test Review Grading Rubric

Reading Assignments Study Lesson Review Exercises
Key Term Reviews Internet/Web Research
Studying for Examinations Reading Websites
Writing Assignments Suggested Outside Reading
 Sample Worksheet for Tracking Your Academic Activities
This worksheet was developed to help you track your time. You are not required to turn it in.
Upon completion of this course, you will be asked to complete a survey. The last question on the survey will ask
you the number of hours it took to complete the course. Course credit is based on the Carnegie Unit - a prescribed
method of measuring educational attainment. For each 3 unit semester course, students will complete a variety of
academic activities including:
45 hours of Academic Engagement and 90 hours of Academic Preparation = 135 hours in total.

Time to Time to Time to Time to Time to

Total Time
Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete
Spent
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Final
Academic Engagement Activities

Lesson Review Exercises

Key Term Review Exercises

Study Guide Review

Student Resources

Review Grading Rubric

Case Studies/Critical Analysis

Writing Assignments

Complete Unit Examinations

Course Academic Online Discussions

Student/Instructor Interactions

Total Academic Engagement required for a 3 unit course = 45 hours Total =

Academic Preparation Activities

Pre-Test

Reading Assignments

Review Case Studies/Critical Analysis

Key Term Review Exercises

Study for Examinations

Suggested Outside Readings

Web Research

Review Writing Assignments

Review Completed Examinations

Review Grading Rubric

Reading Websites

Study Lesson Review Exercises

Total Academic Preparation required for a 3 unit course = 90 hours Total =

Total hours: Academic Engagement and Academic Preparation related to this course. Grand Total
Other Activities/Comments - (Please note all time for additional course related activities):
 Pre-test Instructions

Thank you for taking the time to complete the required pre-test. The purpose of the pre-test is to measure
your knowledge of the subject matter at the beginning of each course.

Please be assured, your score on the pre-test will not be part of your course grade. We do not want you to
try to study for it or be worried about doing well on the pre-test. It is simply a measure of your “starting
place,” that will be used for improving course content and to meet accreditation requirements.

If you receive your course materials online:

• Please log in to your Coast Connection student portal to complete your pre-test before moving
on in this study guide.

If you receive your course materials by mail:

• You will receive your pre-test and answer sheet as a part of your coursework packet. You must
complete the pre-test before moving on in this study guide.

• Once you have completed your pre-test, please mail or fax your answer sheet to the
University at:

California Coast University

925 N. Spurgeon Street
Santa Ana, CA 92701
Fax: 714-547-1451

If you have any questions, please feel free to contact the Student Services Department. Thank you for your
cooperation.
EDU 591
Public Policy

Text: Public Policy: Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives

7th Edition, 2021

Study Guide
ISBN (U.S.): 9781544374611

Author(s): Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong

Publisher: Sage

925 North Spurgeon Street, Santa Ana, CA 92701

Phone: 714-547-9625 Fax: 714-547-5777
www.calcoast.edu

Rev. 04/23
All rights reserved. No part of this may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval
system without written permission, except for the inclusion of brief quotation in review.

Copyright ©2023 by California Coast University

EDU591 Public Policy
Message From
the President

W elcome to California Coast University. I hope you will find this course
interesting and useful throughout your career.

This course was designed to meet the unique needs of students like you who are
both highly motivated and capable of completing a degree program through
distance learning.

Our faculty and administration have been involved in distance learning for over
forty years and understand the characteristics common to successful students in
this unique educational environment.

This course was prepared by CCU faculty members who are not only outstanding
educators, but who have real world experience. They have prepared these
guidelines to help you successfully complete your educational goals and to get the
most from your distance learning experience.

Again, we hope that you will find this course both helpful and motivating. We send
our best wishes as you work toward the completion of your program.

Sincerely,

Thomas M. Neal
President
EDU591 Public Policy
Syllabus

Course Number EDU591

Course Title Public Policy

Faculty Taiebeh Hosseinali, Ed.D.

Course Description Public Policy addresses the broader public policy environment in
which educational policy functions. The course examines the larger
governmental context in order to provide a holistic approach to
understanding not just the policy process, but also the use of policy
analysis. The course offers a concise review of institutions, policy
actors, and major theoretical models, and explains the nature of
policy analysis and its practice through evaluative criteria in key
policy areas.

Units of Credit 3 Units of Credit

Course Objectives Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:

• Define public policy and examine the importance of

understanding public policy.
• Examine the process for analyzing public policy and assessing
policy alternatives at various levels.
• Discuss major areas, issues, and controversies in public policy.
• Evaluate best practices for policy analysis, citizen participation,
and policy change.
• Demonstrate proficiency with academic writing related to public
policy.

Learning Resources Textbook: Public Policy: Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives

7th Edition, 2021
Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong
CQ Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.

ISBN (U.S.): 9781544374611

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Syllabus

All course examinations are based on the contents of the textbook

required for this course. To successfully complete the examinations,
you will need the textbook. You may rent the textbook from the CCU
rental library or you may purchase the textbook from another source.

The Study Guide

The study guide is designed as a workbook to help you further
understand the materials in the textbook and master the course
content. Each study guide chapter corresponds to a chapter in the
textbook. Although this study guide is developed by California Coast
University, it does contain materials provided by the publisher of the
textbook.

In addition, you may notice images/references/links to additional text

materials outside of the textbook. If so, these images/references/links
may be part of the publisher’s “pay-for-access” online platform. Our
courses are not designed to incorporate these additional resources
and you will NOT need to purchase these additional features to be
successful in this course.

The Student Portal

To assist you with your educational program, every student has access
to their own student portal. The student portal contains important
information on your messages, account, academic plan, the rental
library, student orientation, student handbook, student resources, and
forms.

Your “Academic Plan” details your program requirements with all of

your required courses listed. For each course, you will find a course
description, course objectives, textbook information, course syllabus,
writing assignment information, and examination information. In
addition, there are course notes—including PowerPoints—to
accompany your textbook, learning activities, and other important
resources.

The student portal is designed to help you track your progress and
keep you connected to your educational program and courses during
your time at California Coast University.

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The Library Information and Resources Network, Inc. (LIRN)

Students are provided access to the Library and Information
Resources Network, Inc. (LIRN). LIRN provides a centralized
management of electronic information resources that allow students
to access multiple research databases through one portal. Detailed
information on the Library and Information Resources Network,
Inc. is available on the California Coast University website under
the Resources tab. For additional information on using the network,
LIRN provides a User Guide to help students search for the needed
information. This helpful resource is available on the LIRN website.
For information on accessing LIRN, please contact California Coast
University - [email protected] or (714) 547-9625.

Your Course Grade

Your grades on course examinations are determined by the percentage
of correct answers. The university uses the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct

B = 80% – 89% correct
C = 70% – 79% correct
D = 60% – 69% correct
F = 59% and below correct

Your grade in this course will be based on the number of points you
earn. Grades are based on the percentage of points you earned out of
a total of 500 points:

Four Unit Examinations

100 points each 400 points total 80% of your grade
Final Examination
100 points 100 points total 20% of your grade

Mastering the Course Content

In order to successfully complete this course, we recommend that
you do the following before beginning:
• Be sure that you have the correct edition of the course
textbook. Check the ISBN number of your textbook with the
ISBN number listed on the cover page of this study guide.
• Review the table of contents at the end of this syllabus.
You will only be responsible for the chapters in the textbook
that are listed in the table of contents.

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Each study guide contains several components selected and

developed by the faculty to help you master the content of the
course. Each chapter in the study guide corresponds to a chapter in
the textbook. Study guides vary depending on the course, but most
will include:

Learning Objectives
Overviews
Self Tests
Summaries
Key Terms
Critical Analysis Questions

The most efficient way to complete this course is to read the

material in both the study guide and textbook in the sequence in
which it appears, generally from beginning to end.

Read the Overviews and Summaries

Before reading a chapter of your textbook, review the corresponding
learning objectives, overview, key terms and summary sections in the
study guide. These were prepared to give you a preview of the content
to be learned.

Review the Critical Analysis and/or Case Study Questions

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper
understanding and appreciation for the course subject matter. This
section will encourage you to give additional thought to the topics
discussed in the chapter.

Read and Review the Chapter

Once you have the scope and organization of the chapter in mind,
turn to the corresponding chapter in the textbook and read the
materials carefully. Keep the learning objectives, self test questions,
and critical analysis questions in mind as you read.

Highlight important concepts and information in your study guide and

write notes in the study guide as you read the textbook. These notes
will help you study for the unit and final examinations.

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Check Your Mastery of Each Chapter

When you feel that you have mastered the concepts presented in the
chapter, complete the study guide self test and critical analysis
questions without referring to the textbook or your notes. Correct your
responses using the answer key and solutions guide provided in the
study guide. Your results will help you identify any areas you need to
review.

Unit Examinations
Each course contains four unit examinations and a final
examination. Unit examinations consist of 25 objective (multiple
choice) test questions. The final examination consists of 100
objective (multiple choice) questions.

Unit examinations are open-book, do not require a proctor and are

not timed. This will allow you to proceed at your own pace. As you go
through the study guide, it will prompt you on when to complete a
unit exam (approximately after every three to six chapters). The Table
of Contents in this syllabus will also give you an overview of which
textbook chapters are covered in each of the four unit exams.
It is recommended that you check your answers against the materials
in your textbook for accuracy.

Writing Assignments
Each course includes a written component. The writing assignments
give students the opportunity to demonstrate a level of subject
mastery beyond the objective unit examinations, which reflects his/
her ability to analyze, synthesize, evaluate and apply his/her
knowledge. Writing assignments are based on course materials,
textbooks, and outside research.

Writing assignments are judged on the quality of the response in

regard to the question. Word count is NOT one of the criteria that is
used in assigning points to writing assignments. However, students
who are successful in earning the maximum number of points tend to
submit writing assignments that fall between 750-1000 words (3-4
pages) per question.

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Syllabus

Plagiarism
All work must be free of any form of plagiarism. Put written answers
into your own words. Do not simply cut and paste your answers from
the Internet and do not copy your answers from the textbook.

Plagiarism consists of taking and using the ideas, writings or

inventions of another, without giving credit to that person and
presenting it as one’s own. This is an offense that the university takes
very seriously. An example of a correctly prepared written response
may be found by visiting the Coast Connection student portal. You
can find this in the portal by clicking on Student Resources and then
Writing Basics.

Citation Styles
The majority of your response should be your own original writing
based on what you have learned from the textbook and outside
materials, if applicable. Be sure to provide a citation and a reference
for any materials used, including the required textbook. The
following points are designed to help you understand how to provide
proper citations and references for your work:

• Sources are listed in two places.

• The first, a citation, is briefly listed within your answer. This

includes identifying information that directs the reader to
your list of references at the end of your writing
assignment.

• The second, a reference, is at the end of your work in the list

of references section.

• All sources cited should follow APA style and provide enough
identifying information so that the reader can access the
original material.

More detailed information about citations and references can be

located on the Coast Connection student portal. You can find this in
the portal by clicking on Student Resources and then Writing Lab.

Submitting Your Unit Examinations and Writing Assignments via the Internet
Students may access the online testing features via the Coast
Connection student portal. Multiple choice unit examinations may be
completed and submitted online.

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Go to the California Coast University homepage at www.calcoast.edu

and click on the Student Login icon at the upper right hand corner.
After logging into your account, click on My Academic Plan and
select the course you are working on to complete the unit
examination. More detailed instructions on completing the
examination online will be provided on that page. Remember to keep
a copy of your answers for your own personal records.

Writing assignments may be submitted online as well. After logging

into the student portal, click on My Academic Plan and select the
course you are working on to complete the Writing Assignments.
Here, you will find further information and instructions on how to
submit Writing Assignments through the student portal. Remember
to keep a copy of your Writing Assignments for your own personal
records.
Alternatively, if you experience difficulty submitting your Writing
Assignments through the student portal, then you may email your
assignments as a Word document attachment to the following email
address:

[email protected]

When doing so, please adhere to the following guidelines:

• Always submit your name, student number, course number,

course title and Writing Assignment number (i.e. Writing
Assignment 1, 2, 3, or 4) with your Writing Assignments.

• Begin each Writing Assignment by identifying the question

number you are answering followed by the actual question
itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions

(i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

• All responses must be typed double-spaced, using a

standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type
size for ease of reading and grading.

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Submitting Your Unit Examinations by Mail or Fax

Send your completed unit examinations along with any writing
assignments to the following mailing address:

California Coast University

Testing Department
925 N. Spurgeon Street
Santa Ana, CA 92701

Unit examination answer sheets can also be faxed to the

Grading Department at (714) 547-1451. Please do not
resize your fax.

The Grading Department WILL NOT accept faxed Writing

Assignments.

Challenging a Test Item

We make every effort to ensure that all examination items are fair,
free of errors, and can be answered by reading and understanding
the material in your textbooks. However, problems sometimes arise in
the selection or interpretation of test items. For example, you might
argue that two alternatives could be correct, based on the material
you read, or that the correct answer is not among the choices.
Occasionally, a typographical error might make a question difficult to
answer.

If you encounter a problem with a test item while taking your exam,
you may “challenge” it by providing a brief explanation along with the
page number(s) from the textbook in which the correct answer can be
found. Likewise, you may also submit a test item challenge after your
exam has been graded if you feel a test item was scored incorrectly.
Students may submit up to two test item challenges for each unit
exam and up to four test item challenges for the final exam. Test item
challenges are not permitted for the pre-test. You may submit test
item challenges via the Coast Connection student portal or by U.S.
mail.

Submitting Your Test Item Challenges via the Internet

Please log into the Coast Connection student portal for specific
instructions on challenging a test item. You will submit your test item
challenges directly through the student portal.

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Submitting Your Test Item Challenges by Mail

• For each test question you wish to challenge, fill in option “F” on
the answer sheet for that question.
• On a separate sheet of paper, indicate your name and student ID
number, identify the examination you are working on (i.e., Unit
Exam 1, 2, 3, etc.), and the specific question number you are
challenging.
• Write out the question and its given choices and explain why you
are “challenging” the test item.
• Provide a page reference from the textbook to support your
answer. If you do not provide a page reference, we may not be
able to give you credit.
• Mail your multiple choice answer sheet and test item challenge
documents to the Testing Department.

The information you provide is important to us. It will help us further

validate and correct any possible errors in the testing materials.

If you follow the Test Item Challenge procedure, your challenge will
be reviewed and if correct, you will be given credit. You should allow
an additional week for the review and scoring of your examination.

Repeating a Unit Exam

Requests to retake a unit examination will only be honored if the
final exam has NOT been sent.

Students may retake one unit examination per course, free of charge.
The cost for each additional, repeated exam will be $90. Payment
must be paid in full prior to repeating a unit exam and can be done
via the student portal or by submitting a Repeat Unit Exam form.

Please contact the Testing Department for more information. When

repeating a unit exam through the student portal, the original grade
will be cleared out once you click Re-take.

Final Examination
Scheduling a Final Examination

Final examination requests can be submitted online through the

Coast Connection student portal, via U.S. mail, or by calling the
Testing Department at (714) 547-9625.

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If you would like to request a final exam online, log into the Coast
Connection student portal and click on My Academic Plan. Select the
course you are working on and submit the Final Exam Request form
located at the bottom of the page. ALL INFORMATION MUST BE
FILLED IN.

A final exam scheduling form is also located on the last page of this
study guide and can be mailed or faxed to the university. Please
fill out ALL required fields if you choose to submit your final exam
request using this form.

After we receive the Final Examination Request Form, CCU will send
your final examination to your designated proctor via email or mail,
along with instructions.

Proctors
California Coast University requires that graduate students complete
all final examinations under the supervision of a proctor.

The proctor is selected by the student and approved by the

university. A proctor can be any reputable person EXCEPT a
relative, someone who resides with the student, or a current/former
California Coast University student. Typical examples of approved
proctors include friend, neighbor, job supervisor, co-worker, librarian,
counselor, etc.

Proctors will have the following responsibilities:

• Ensure that all final examination materials are kept secure and
confidential.
• Ensure that the student completes the examination without any
outside assistance of any kind other than the course textbook,
notes and other study materials.
• Verify the student’s identification based on a government-issued
photo ID. Proctors will need to verify the student’s name and date
of birth.
• Sign the final examination answer sheet (unsigned answer sheets
will not be graded).
• Return the signed and completed answer sheet to California
Coast University for grading and evaluation via mail, fax, or
through the student portal.

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EDU591 Public Policy
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Submitting Your Final Examination

Submitting Final Examinations via the Internet

For online submissions, once you have logged into the student portal,
click on My Academic Plan, select the course you are working on, and
then click Take Exam to complete the final examination. Your proctor
must input the unique password he/she was sent in order to unlock
your final examination questions. Remember to keep a copy of your
answers for your own personal records.

Submitting Final Examinations by Mail or Fax

Mail your completed and signed final examination answer sheet to:

California Coast University

Testing Department
925 N. Spurgeon Street
Santa Ana, CA 92701

Final examination answer sheets can also be faxed to the Grading

Department at (714) 547-1451. Please do not resize your fax.

Your Overall Grade Point Average (G.P.A.)

In addition to receiving a passing grade for each course, all students
must maintain a required overall G.P.A. of 3.0 (B) on a 4.0 scale in
order to graduate.

A = 4 grade points
B = 3 grade points
C = 2 grade points
D = 1 grade point
F = 0 grade points

Students who do not meet the overall G.P.A. requirement by the end
of their program must pay the current cost of tuition to repeat courses
until they improve their overall G.P.A.

Be sure to keep a copy of all work you submit to the university.

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If you have any questions about how to proceed through the course or regarding any California Coast
University policies and procedures, the easiest way to get help is to send us a message through the
student portal, via email, or phone the university.

University office hours are Monday through Friday from 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., Pacific Standard Time.

California Coast University

925 N. Spurgeon Street, Santa Ana, California 92701
Phone: (714) 547-9625 Fax: (714) 547-5777
Test Answer Sheet Fax Line: (714) 547-1451

Email: [email protected]

Don’t forget: You are not alone! We are here to help you achieve your dream!

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Learning Objectives
The learning objectives for this course are listed below:

Chapter 1: Public Policy and Politics

1. Evaluate both the definition of public policy and the nature of public policy.
2. Delineate the key concepts associated with the study of public policy.
3. Describe the different contexts in which public policy is made.
4. Examine the reasons for governmental involvement in public policy.
5. Explain why citizens should understand public policy.
6. Examine the reasons for evaluating public policies today.

Chapter 2: Government Institutions and Policy Actors

1. Explore the growth of government throughout U.S. history.

2. Analyze the structure of the U.S. government and the implications for policymaking
capacity.
3. Examine the challenges of policymaking posed by the separation of powers.
4. Identify and assess major governmental and nongovernmental actors most involved in the
policy process.
5. Determine ways to improve governmental policy capacity.
6. Evaluate how citizen involvement can make a difference in policy development.

Chapter 3: Understanding Public Policymaking

1. Examine different theories of public policy and how they help to explain the decisions
made.
2. Examine the policy process model from the steps associated with making public policy
to the role of policy analysis in the design and formulation of policy actions and the
evaluation of policies.
3. Assess different types of public policy and how their characteristics affect their
development and treatment in the policy process.
4. Characterize the types of government functions and evaluate basic differences among
policies and the political conditions that lead to them.

Chapter 4: Policy Analysis

1. Explain the nature of policy analysis.

2. Examine how policy analysis is used in the policymaking process.
3. Compare and contrast the different types of policy analysis.
4. Identify when certain types of analysis are needed.

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Chapter 5: Public Problems and Policy Alternatives

1. Explain how to describe, measure, and analyze public problems and how to think about
their causes and possible solutions.
2. Examine how to find pertinent information about problems and governmental actions.
3. Assess the policy tools that governments have available to address problems.
4. Explore how to think creatively about which policy alternatives or tools are likely to work
best for a given problem.

Chapter 6: Assessing Policy Alternatives

1. Examine evaluative criteria for judging the value of policy proposals or alternatives.
2. Explain how to apply the methods of policy analysis.
3. Delineate three key economic approaches to policy analysis.
4. Distinguish between the different types of decision making and impact analyses.
5. Compare the ethical approach of policy analysis against other methods.

Chapter 7: Economic and Budgetary Policy

1. Examine the role of federal economic policymaking and its challenges.

2. Explain the major goals associated with economic policy.
3. Analyze the tools used by the Federal Reserve Board and the government to achieve
positive outcomes.
4. Delineate the major steps of the federal budgetary process.
5. Examine notable economic policies and their consequences.
6. Identify some of the critical economic issues of the day.
7. Assess how to address the federal deficit and the ways in which to evaluate it.

Chapter 8: Health Care Policy

1. Examine the history and evolution of government involvement in health care.

2. Explain major government health care programs.
3. Assess important health care policy issues.
4. Identify concerns over, and actions to address, rising health care costs.
5. Analyze the role of managed care organizations.
6. Determine measures that can be taken to reduce health care costs.
7. Assess the role that quality of care plays in the health care system.
8. Analyze the issues surrounding health care policy.

Chapter 9: Welfare and Social Security Policy

1. Examine issues related to poverty and different perspectives about why it occurs.
2. Differentiate between social insurance programs and means-tested programs.
3. Describe the basics of the Social Security program and different policy options offered to
improve it.
4. Assess both past and current welfare-related programs.

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Chapter 10: Education Policy

1. Examine issues associated with the government’s role in both K–12 and higher education.
2. Address some of the common concerns associated with K–12 and higher education.
3. Identify education policy reform efforts to address quality concerns.
4. Examine the issues surrounding policy choices that could be used to address problems in
higher education.
5. Assess policy reforms that have been suggested to address school quality issues.

Chapter 11: Environmental and Energy Policy

1. Examine the nature of environmental and energy policies and the key concepts associated
with them, including climate change.
2. Explore the history of government involvement in environmental and energy policy.
3. Assess areas of consensus and conflict in addressing environmental and energy concerns.
4. Compare major U.S. environmental policies and their impacts.
5. Explain major U.S. energy policies and their impacts, including those directed at climate
change.
6. Analyze issues surrounding environmental and energy policy.

Chapter 12: Foreign Policy and Homeland Security

1. Analyze the nature of foreign policy and homeland security and the key concepts
associated with them.
2. Assess major issues in foreign policy and homeland security.
3. Evaluate significant foreign and defense policy actions taken since the end of World War
II.

Chapter 13: Politics, Analysis, and Policy Choice

1. Explain how policy analysis can clarify the problems and policy alternatives that citizens
and policymakers face.
2. Evaluate policy proposals and actions for their effectiveness, efficiency, and equity, among
other concerns.
3. Assess the government’s capacity for problem solving and how it might be improved.
4. Examine the dynamics of policymaking and the opportunities that the policy process
presents for citizens to participate in decision making.

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Additional Resources and Learning Activities

Learning goes beyond the textbook, exams, and writing assignments. To help you find out more about each
course or your major, we have developed resources and learning activities to get you thinking about and
exploring your area of interest. You will find these located in the student portal under each course page.
Resources and learning activities are developed in conjunction with our faculty, advisory council members,
students and graduates. Check back often as we are always updating and adding new things!

PowerPoints: To support your learning, PowerPoint presentations for your textbooks are listed on the
student portal under Course Notes. The PowerPoints are designed to help you review and master the
course concepts and to support different learning styles.

Resources: Resources are designed to provide additional enrichment for students and to provide
information on trends and changes happening in the various fields. Some examples of resources include:

• Professional organizations related to the course or major.

• Government resources related to the course or major.
• Sites to assist you with skill development—writing, finance, resumes, etc.
• Videos, books, professional journals, movies, etc. related to the course content.
• Training, certificate, job opportunities, etc. related to the course content.

Learning Activities: Activities are designed to help you explore your courses and develop and deepen your
understanding of each subject matter. Some of the many activities include:

• Interviewing a professional in your field of study.

• Visiting the website of a professional organization related to your course.
• Attending a professional conference.
• Watching a video.
• Researching journal articles in your subject.
• Visiting government sites such as the U.S. Dept. of Labor to explore career options and outlook.
• Setting up an internship in your field of study.

While these are optional, we suggest you spend some time exploring them.

Reading List: A reading list is available for students looking for resources not found on the Internet. You
can find the reading lists in the student portal under the “School Resources” tab. As an alternative, feel
free to ask your Student Success Advisor to send you the reading lists by mail.

Education is a Lifelong Journey:

We are all learning all the time. With that in mind, we know education goes beyond courses, degree
programs, colleges and universities, and diplomas. It is a lifelong journey. It is in this spirit that our
courses and degree programs are designed to help you develop and deepen your knowledge of various
subjects and to challenge you to demonstrate greater:

• Critical Thinking • Ethical Reasoning • Social Responsibility

• Global Citizenship • Civic Engagement • Lifelong Learning

We wish you success on your educational journey!

xxvi
EDU591 Public Policy
Table of Contents

Unit One
Chapter 1: Public Policy and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2: Government Institutions and Policy Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Chapter 3: Understanding Public Policymaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Unit 1 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Unit Two

Chapter 4: Policy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Chapter 5: Public Problems and Policy Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Chapter 6: Assessing Policy Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Unit 2 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Unit Three

Chapter 7: Economic and Budgetary Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Chapter 8: Health Care Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Chapter 9: Welfare and Social Security Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Chapter 10: Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Unit 3 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Unit Four

Chapter 11: Environmental and Energy Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Chapter 12: Foreign Policy and Homeland Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Chapter 13: Politics, Analysis, and Policy Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Unit 4 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Writing Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167-170

Final Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Final Exam Scheduling Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

xxvii
EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter One
Public Policy and Politics

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Evaluate both the definition of public policy and the nature

of public policy.

2. Delineate the key concepts associated with the study of

public policy.

3. Describe the different contexts in which public policy is

made.

4. Examine the reasons for governmental involvement in public

policy.

5. Explain why citizens should understand public policy.

6. Examine the reasons for evaluating public policies today.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 2-33 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

1
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter provides a foundation and orientation to vocabulary and concepts for the
rest of the text; it clarifies basic concepts and discusses why we should be aware of public
policy decisions. Because public policy is not made in a vacuum, this chapter explores the
social, economic, political, governing, and cultural contexts that affect the development and
implementation of policy decisions. There are political, moral/ethical, and economic rationales
for government intervention. The chapter details how market failures can occur in a variety of
ways. Finally, the chapter introduces the concept of policy analysis, presenting some criteria for
analyzing public policy: effectiveness, efficiency, equity, and feasibility.

2
EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Common pool resources:

Information failure:

Logic of collective action:

Market failure:

Negative externality:

Political feasibility:

Positive externality:

Pure private good:

Pure public goods:

Toll goods:

3
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

Public policy is what public officials choose to do or not to do about public problems.
Public problems are conditions the public widely perceives to be unacceptable and, therefore,
require intervention. In general terms, the term policy refers to a purposive course of action that an
individual or group consistently follows in dealing with the problem. The formal definition of policy
is, “a standing decision characterized by behavioral consistency and repetitiveness on the part of
both those who make it and those who abide by it.”

Whether in the public or private sector, policies also can be thought of as the instruments
through which societies regulate themselves and attempt to channel human behavior in acceptable
directions. In general terms, policy makers speak about:

• Intentions: the purposes of government action.

• Goals: the stated ends to be achieved.
• Plans and proposals: the means for achieving goals.
• Programs: the authorized means for pursuing goals.
• Decisions or choices: specific actions that are taken to set goals, develop plans, and
implement programs.

When we refer to government, we are referring to the institutions and political process
through which public policy choices are made. In the United States, the principle of federalism
guides the American system of governance which may be summarized as:
• Sharing of authority in a federal system: in a federal system, the national government
shares authority with the States and local governments.
• Implementation of national policies: policy implementation chiefly done by the states
through an elaborate system of intergovernmental relations in which the federal
government grants legal authority to the states to carry out national policies.
• State and local governments play the dominant role in certain policy areas: in policy areas,
such as education, crime control, and land use regulation, state and local governments
play the dominant role.

Politics is the exercise of power in society or in specific decisions over public policy. It
is the processes through which public policies are formulated and adopted, especially in regard
to the roles played by elected officials, organized interest groups, public opinion, and political
parties. Politics is how conflicts in society, such as the gun control debate, are expressed and
resolved in favor of one set of interests or social values or another.

Politics is about who gets what, when, and how. Politics is about power and influence
in society as well as in the processes of policy making within government. It concerns who
participates in, and who influences, the decisions that governments make, and who gains and who
loses as a result. Politics can also refer to the issue positions that different groups of people—gun
owners, environmentalists, health insurance companies, automobile companies—adopt and the
actions they take to promote their values.

4
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

Politics is related to the electoral process in that citizen’s select the policy makers who
represent them. Electoral politics is a major component of the policy making process. Politics
exerts strong influence on policy making because elected officials necessarily must try to anticipate
how their policy statements and actions might affect their chances for reelection. As such, political
incentives motivate public officials to pay particular attention to the policy preferences of their
core constituencies, especially the activist, while also trying to appeal to the general electorate.

Public policy is riddled with politics. For example, the debate over smoking and its health
effects has raged a long time. For decades, the federal government has sought to discourage
smoking out of concern for its adverse effects on public health. Yet, while the Office of The
Surgeon General and the Food and Drug administration (FDA) take this position, the USDA has
continued its longtime policy of subsidizing tobacco farmers. These decisions are influenced by
a public that is divided on the issue, by the actions of interest groups that represent the tobacco
industry, and by public health studies that are used by other groups to press for further government
action to reduce smoking.

Policy analysis is the examination of components of public policy, the policy process,
or both. Put another way, it is the study of the causes and consequences of policy decisions.
Policy analysis is the use of reason and evidence to choose the best policy among a number of
alternatives. Policy analysis encourages deliberate critical thinking about the cause of public
problems, various ways governments and/or the private sector might act on them, and which policy
choices make the most sense. Policy analysis requires not only knowledge of government and
politics but also the ability to evaluate the policy actions.

Both government enacted laws and public policies affect how the legally mandated
services will be aimed at the public good. Public policy can conflict among values because it deals
with tough questions. Policies represent which of many different values receive the highest priority
in any given decision. David Easton has said that politics is, “the authoritative allocation of values
for a society.” The actions of policy makers can determine definitively and with the force of law
which of society’s different and sometimes conflicting values will prevail. Citizens benefit from
studying public policy because it sharpens their analytical skills, helps them decide what political
positions and policies to support, and helps them determine how best to evaluate democratic
governance. Informed citizens can effectively speak out on policy development and government
actions and are better equipped to evaluate a candidate’s policy ideas.

5
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Which option describes government policy with regard to regulation of amusement park rides
in the United States?

a. complicated and varied across the nation, with different levels and agencies of government
involved
b. regulated stringently by the federal government
c. completely unregulated
d. regulated by state governments

2. ______ refers to the institutions and political processes through which public policy choices
are made.

a. Government
b. Federalism
c. Policy analysis
d. Politics

3. ______ has been defined as “who gets what, when, and how” or the exercise of power in
making decisions of public policy.

a. Equity
b. Feasibility
c. Government
d. Politics

4. A recession is likely to affect the policies that Congress and the president adopt to stimulate
jobs. This is an example of which context affecting the development of public policy?

a. economic
b. political
c. governing
d. social

5. The ideology of individual members of Congress is an example of the ______ context that
affects the development of public policy.

a. governing
b. social
c. cultural
d. political

6
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. The United States saw an increase in environmental legislation in the 1970s due in part to
pressure from environmental groups. This represents what type of rationale for government
intervention?

a. economic reasons
b. moral or ethical reasons
c. market failures
d. political reasons

7. Negative externality and information failure are both examples of:

a. politics
b. market failure
c. political culture
d. toll goods

8. Cable television services are an example of a ______.

a. pure private good

b. toll good
c. common pool resource
d. pure public good

9. ______ argue for less government intrusion into the economy and decision making within
business and industry.

a. Liberals
b. Conservatives
c. Moderates
d. Independents

10. Which of the following are considered public goods?

a. houses
b. food and clothing
c. maintenance of highways
d. personal computers

7
EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Choose three of the contexts that surround policy making and explain how each context can affect
the decisions that are made or can influence the policy emphases that emerge. As part of your
explanation of a context, give an example of how a certain context had an impact on a policy that
was enacted. (Chapter 1, Learning objective 3)

2. Examine the four kinds of market failures that lead to government involvement in public policy.
For each type of market failure, discuss the following: (a) the nature of the failure, that is, what it
looks like and how it occurs; (b) an illustrative example; and (c) the way in which government may
address the failure. (Chapter 1, Learning objective 4)

8
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Common pool resources: Resources that are shared by a society and available to all concerned
such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and public lands. Also represents a type of market failure in which a
good is defined by its ability not to be jointly consumed and for which exclusion is not feasible.

Information failure: A type of market failure that occurs when willing buyers and sellers do not
possess all of the information needed to enter into a transaction or exchange.

Logic of collective action: An interest group theory that suggests that a single individual would be
irrational to join an interest group when almost no personal gain would follow.

Market failure: A term used when the private market is not efficient; some argue that such a
failure provides a justification for government intervention.

Negative externality: A type of market failure that occurs when two parties interact in a market and
a third party is harmed as a result, and does not get compensated.

Political feasibility: A calculation of the likely acceptability to policy makers of proposed policy
ideas or alternatives. Refers to whether elected officials are likely to support the idea. This is
assumed to reflect a broader social acceptability of the same ideas or alternatives.

Positive externality: A type of market failure that occurs the same way as a negative externality, but
the third party gains something from the two-party interaction and does not have to pay for it.

Pure private good: A good or service where the consumer enjoys all the benefits and bares all the
costs.

Pure public goods: A type of market failure in which a good, such as police protection, is defined
by its ability to be jointly consumed and for which exclusion is not feasible.

Toll goods: A type of market failure whereby a good is defined by its ability to be jointly consumed,
and an exclusion is feasible. An example is cable television services.

9
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. a

2. a

3. d

4. a

5. d

6. d

7. b

8. b

9. b

10. c

10
EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Choose three of the contexts that surround policy making and explain how each context can
affect the decisions that are made or can influence the policy emphases that emerge. As part
of your explanation of a context, give an example of how a certain context had an impact on a
policy that was enacted. (Chapter 1, Learning objective 3)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Select any of five contexts (social, political, governing, economic, and cultural). For example,
the governing context concerns itself with the nation’s constitutional design, which includes
separation of powers. Because of separation of powers, there is a requirement that in order for
policy to be made, there often needs to be an agreement between the legislative and executive
branches of government. This could lead to gridlock, compromise, and settling on broad
policies that all can support. Things like the economy, social/demographic trends, political
culture, and political power all affect the issues that get dealt with by government and how
the issue is resolved. Many different examples could be given, such as the social context of
the aging population and interest in Medicare or Social Security reform and the recession and
interest in bills that create jobs.

2. Examine the four kinds of market failures that lead to government involvement in public
policy. For each type of market failure, discuss the following: (a) the nature of the failure, that
is, what it looks like and how it occurs; (b) an illustrative example; and (c) the way in which
government may address the failure. (Chapter 1, Learning objective 4)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Monopolies: when one person or company controls and dominates the market, many examples
are possible, and all examples should show dominance by one company.

Externalities
• Negative: two parties interact in a market, and as a result of that transaction, a third
party is harmed. Many examples are given of negative externalities of pollution due to
manufacturing or emissions.
• Positive: a transaction between two parties benefits a third party, such as education.
Government will invest in the support of these transactions because of the benefit to
society.

Information failure: situations in which consumers don’t have complete information needed for
a transaction in the market. Examples of information failures: health insurance policies, safety
of drugs and food, and financial markets. Government intervenes to protect consumers when
they are not able to get or understand the information that will help them choose wisely on
their own.

Markets generally are not concerned with the public good: Other than pure private goods, the
government may need to get involved to protect the public good for the other types of goods.
Many examples can be used. Government can use a variety of tools to regulate, manage, and
create programs to protect the public good.

11
EDU591 Public Policy

Notes

12
EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Two
Government Institutions and Policy Actors

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explore the growth of government throughout U.S. history.

2. Analyze the structure of the U.S. government and the

implications for policymaking capacity.

3. Examine the challenges of policymaking posed by the

separation of powers.

4. Identify and assess major governmental and

nongovernmental actors most involved in the policy process.

5. Determine ways to improve governmental policy capacity.

6. Evaluate how citizen involvement can make a difference in

policy development.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 34-73 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

13
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter explores government institutions and policy actors. The chapter examines
the growth of government throughout U.S. history and the challenges of policymaking posed by
the separation of powers. The chapter also examines how the public influences policy solutions
and the role of interest groups, followed by an explanation of other informal policy actors such as
the media, issue networks, lobbyists, or expert involvement in policy development, as well as how
citizen involvement can make a difference in policy development.

14
EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Bicameral:

Block grants:

Categorical grants:

Filibuster:

Issue networks:

Policy capacity:

Policy gridlock:

Precedent:

Subgovernments:

Unfunded mandates:

15
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

This chapter examines the interrelationships of the major government institutions and
informal actors involved in making public policy. The chapter begins with a discussion of the
growth of government.

The first Congress represented thirteen states, had sixty-five representatives, and
twenty-six senators. The bureaucracy consisted of three cabinet-level departments (War, Treasury,
and Foreign Affairs, to which one more, Justice, was added). Government has grown enormously
from those early beginnings and the reasons are many, including:
• The expansion of the United States in physical area and population.
• American society has become more complex and faces more challenging problems.
• The public’s acceptance of business regulation. Even though politicians still like to talk
about the free-market economy, the United States has moved away from it to a regulated,
or mixed, economy.
• Changing attitudes about government’s role in social welfare: under the New Deal, the
federal government signaled its responsibility to provide a minimal level of support for
certain individuals, including the poor, farmers, and the elderly.
• America’s role in the world. After World War II (1941–1945), the United States emerged
as a superpower and took a larger role in world affairs. The government had to grow to
keep up with the new responsibilities in foreign affairs and national defense.

Effects of government growth:

1. Government policies affect most of what people do every day.
2. Government growth has led to an entire occupational sector. Not only are governments
at all levels major employers, but also their buying power has a substantial impact on
numerous economic sectors that rely on government programs and spending.
3. The scope of government increases the likelihood of conflicting public policies and greater
difficulty in addressing society’s problems.
4. Policymaking in a large, complex government organization takes more time and effort to
analyze problems, discuss alternatives, decide on solutions, and implement programs than
in a smaller entity.

A major force in policymaking is public opinion (what the public thinks about a particular
issue or set of issues at any point in time). It is a major force even if it constitutes an indirect or
passive form of action on the public’s part. Public opinion influences what elected officials try to
do, especially on issues that are highly salient, or of great importance to voters, or on those that
elicit strong opinions, such as abortion rights or gun control.

Public opinion is rarely the determinative influence on policymaking but it sets boundaries
for public policy actions—policymakers cross those boundaries at their own risk. Public opinion
can be communicated through polls or surveys but people can also express their opinions through
their political participation, which may include not just voting but attending meetings, writing or
speaking to government officials, joining interest groups (who can lobby on behalf of the whole
group), and backing referendums and initiatives placed on state or local ballots.

16
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

The media today play an interesting and evolving role in the policy process as well. At the
most basic level, the media report information that helps to inform the citizenry about the politics
of the day and the policies being debated and passed. This information helps shape public opinion
regarding these policies. The media also can influence the policy agenda by the way they cover
news stories and politics, perhaps picking up on a story and bringing it to the public’s attention in
such a way that raises its importance and sparks activity on the issue.

17
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. ______ is usually expressed as the aggregate sum of individual attitudes and opinions of the
adult population.

a. Research reporting
b. Public opinion
c. Informal actors information
d. Agenda setting

2. Federal ______ grants are transfers of federal dollars to the states where the states have
substantial discretion in how to spend the money to meet the needs of their citizens.

a. categorical
b. regulatory
c. block
d. stimulus

3. In the United States, both the national and state governments have authority to enact laws and
policies. This system is known as ______.

a. communism
b. capitalism
c. decentralization
d. federalism

4. ______ refers to the checks and balances that our Constitution sets up among the three
branches of government.

a. Federalism
b. Separation of powers
c. Policy capacity
d. Cooperative federalism

5. ______ of the federal government are headed by a secretary appointed by the president and
have many subsidiary agencies.

a. Policy programs
b. Independent regulatory agencies
c. The three branches
d. Cabinet-level departments

18
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. The case of healthcare reform exemplifies ______.

a. that the constitutional structure of the U.S. government often makes policymaking difficult
b. the complexity caused by categorical grants and unfunded mandates
c. the power of the presidency to overcome incremental reform
d. the use of sanctions and diplomatic maneuvers by government bureaucrats

7. ______ refers to the ability to identify, assess, and respond to public problems.

a. Policy analysis
b. Policy capacity
c. Incremental policy development
d. Decentralization

8. Compared to the past, the public is more accepting of business regulation such as the
regulation of market failures. This acceptance has led to ______.

a. growth in the size and power of government

b. increasing polarization of political views
c. changes in the structure of Congress
d. changes in the Constitution

9. One of the biggest differences between a cabinet-level department (agency) and an

independent regulatory commission is that ______.

a. the president may not remove a commissioner of an independent regulatory commission

because of policy disagreements
b. independent regulatory commissions are part of the judicial branch
c. an independent regulatory commission does not make policy
d. only cabinet department heads are confirmed by the Senate

10. The founders of the United States established a government structure with numerous checks
and balances due to which of the following motives?

a. A desire to prevent too much power being assumed by slave-holding Southern states
b. To ensure that the new government could not tyrannize the population
c. The desire to build a strong, deliberative process that would lead to slow implementation
of policy and incremental change
d. A desire to maintain the greatest amount of power in the legislative branch or Congress
since that branch remains closest to the will of the people

19
EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Restate the meaning of the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution in your own words and explain
the policy-making tension that it has created between states and the federal government. (Chapter
2, Learning objective 1)

2. Characterize the ways that organized interest groups influence policy. What trends are occurring
relative to interest groups and their impact on U.S. policy? (Chapter 2, Learning objective 4)

20
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Bicameral: The term used to describe a two-house Congress. In the United States, this consists of
the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Block grants: Transfers of federal dollars to the states where the states have substantial discretion
in how to spend the money to meet the needs of their citizens.

Categorical grants: Transfers of federal dollars to the states where the funding must be used for
specific purposes.

Filibuster: The senatorial procedure whereby a single senator or group of senators can talk for an
extended period of time in hope of delaying, modifying, or defeating a proposal.

Issue networks: A term coined by political scientist Hugh Heclo to describe informal arrangements
or relationships among policy actors in the making of public policy.

Policy capacity: The ability of government to identify and evaluate public problems and to develop
suitable policies to deal with them.

Policy gridlock: When political decision makers are unable or unwilling to compromise in a way
that permits public policy action.

Precedent: The legal doctrine in which judges rely on prior court decisions in the making of
current decisions.

Subgovernments: The term used to describe how policy making occurs in less formal settings or
venues and involves policy actors within particular issue areas, such as National Defense.

Unfunded mandates: Federal requirements placed upon the state governments without sufficient
funds for implementation.

21
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. b

2. c

3. d

4. b

5. d

6. a

7. b

8. a

9. a

10. b

22
EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Restate the meaning of the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution in your own words
and explain the policy-making tension that it has created between states and the federal
government. (Chapter 2, Learning objective 1)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

The Tenth Amendment of the Constitution: “The powers not delegated to the United States
by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively,
or to the people.” These powers are often called the reserve powers of the states and are the
basis for their right to legislate in many areas. Despite the federal government’s involvement
in public-policy issues that were formerly the states’ exclusive domain, state and local
governments also have grown substantially over the past 50 years. The federal government
has assumed authority over many policy areas that were formally under state authority. This
causes some confusion and complicates the policy-making process.

2. Characterize the ways that organized interest groups influence policy. What trends are
occurring relative to interest groups and their impact on U.S. policy? (Chapter 2, Learning
objective 4)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

According to Vaughan and Arsneault, nonprofits and public policy interact in four primary
ways: they make policy, they influence policy, they are affected by policy, and they are
subject to policy-governing operations. Lobbying is a key activity of interest groups. Growing
numbers of interest groups have a greater and greater impact.

23
EDU591 Public Policy

Notes

24
EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Three
Understanding Public Policymaking

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Examine different theories of public policy and how they

help to explain the decisions made.

2. Examine the policy process model from the steps associated

with making public policy to the role of policy analysis in the
design and formulation of policy actions and the evaluation
of policies.

3. Assess different types of public policy and how their

characteristics affect their development and treatment in
the policy process.

4. Characterize the types of government functions and evaluate

basic differences among policies and the political conditions
that lead to them.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 74-110 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

25
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter introduces several models and theories that further explain how policy
makers reach decisions. After considering five competing approaches (elite, group, institutional,
rational choice, and political systems), the focus is placed on a sixth—the policy process model
—one of the most widely used in the study of public policy. This rational-comprehensive model
is particularly helpful for highlighting how policy analysis contributes to the formulation of policy
alternatives and evaluation of policy outcomes.

The chapter also presents some of the common instruments that the government can use
when it is making public policy and provides examples of regulation, taxing and spending, and
education and information. Finally, the chapter looks at the typologies of public policy identified by
Theodore J. Lowi, including distributive, redistributive, and regulatory policies.

26
EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Advocacy coalition framework (ACF):

Competitive regulation:

Distributive policies:

Elite theory:

Group theory:

Institutional theory:

Political systems theory:

Punctuated equilibrium model:

Rational choice theory:

Systematic agenda:

27
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

This chapter provides an understanding of public policymaking by exploring theories and

models used by political scientists to explain and describe the nature of policymaking and policies.
Theories explain why certain things happen the way they do. Models are descriptive in nature and
less concerned with explanation. Among the most common are:

• Elite theory: The primary assumption of elite theory is that the values and preferences of
the general public are less influential in shaping public policy than those of a smaller,
unrepresentative group of people, or elites.
• Group theory: A policy making theory that sees public policy as the product of a
continuous struggle among organized interest groups—it tends to believe that power in the
US political system is widely shared among interest groups, each of which seeks access to
the policy making process.
• Institutional theory: A policy making theory that emphasizes the formal and legal aspects
of government structures. Institutional models look at the way governments are arranged,
their legal powers, and their rules for decision making.
• Rational choice theory: A policy making theory that draws heavily from economics—it
assumes that in making decisions, individuals are rational actors who seek to attain their
preferences or further their self-interest. The goal is to deduce or predict how individuals
will behave under a variety of conditions.
• Political systems theory: A policy making theory that stresses the way the political system
responds to demands that arise from its environment, such as public opinion and interest
group pressures. Systems theory emphasizes the larger social, economic, and cultural
context in which political decisions and policy choices are made.
• The policy process model: Conceptualizes policy making as a sequence of steps associated
with making public policy, although it should be noted that in practice these steps can
overlap:
1. Agenda setting: how problems are perceived and defined, command attention, and
get onto the political agenda.
2. Policy formulation: the design and drafting of policy goals and strategies for
achieving them; often involves the use of policy analysis.
3. Policy legitimation: the mobilization of political support and formal enactment of
policies. Includes justification or rationales for the policy action.
4. Policy implementation: provision of institutional resources for putting the
programs into effect within a bureaucracy.
5. Policy and program evaluation: measurement and assessment of policy and
program effects, including success or failure.
6. Policy change: modification of policy goals and means in light of new information
or shifting political environment.

Methods of policy analysis can provide knowledge and insights that might influence every
stage of policymaking, from how the agenda is set and policies are formulated to how existing
programs are evaluated and changed. For example, economic and budgetary analysis had a
powerful influence on the discussions and decisions regarding the Affordable Care Act.

28
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

The role of government in addressing public problems hinges on the necessity of

intervention by the government to deal with a problem or not. For example, governments chose
for years not to regulate smoking in public places, and then chose to do so in an escalating series
of actions as scientists learned more about the health consequences of exposure to secondhand
smoke. Now many states even prohibit smoking in bars and nightclubs. However, most cities and
states chose to do nothing about rising levels of childhood obesity because they determined this
was largely a matter of private or family choice. Once government chooses to intervene, there are
instruments of public policy that can be implemented. Instruments typically encompass a wide
range of designs and implementation approaches including: government management (direct
services or management of resources), taxing and spending, and market mechanisms as well as
education, information, and persuasion.

Public policy scholars think about the different kinds of policies that governments adopt
and why they do so. Theodore J. Lowi’s types of government functions is useful in analyzing the
complex relations between different political arenas. Lowi’s typology:
• Provides a simple but helpful way to classify different kinds of government programs and
policies.
• Allows students of public policy to understand the debate surrounding the issue.
• Helps us understand why policies may or may not gain approval, how they might be
implemented, and the public’s acceptance of them.

Lowi’s Typology:
• Distributive policies: individual programs or grants that a government provides without regard
to limited resources or zero-sum situations. Examples include college research grants, weapons
procurement, agricultural subsidies, highways and bridges, and other public construction
projects. These kinds of policies are often noncontroversial because they tend to be visible
only to those directly involved, and members usually do not seriously question each other’s
pet projects because to do so may jeopardize their own. One might expect such policies to be
particularly attractive when spending limits and budget deficits are viewed as unimportant,
because the potential exists for most members of Congress to get something out of this kind of
spending.
• Redistributive policies: for every redistributive policy, winners and losers are associated with its
approval, which makes such policies controversial and difficult to adopt. Because redistributive
policies provide benefits to one category of individuals at the expense of another, they often
reflect ideological or class conflict. Some examples include welfare, Social Security, affirmative
action, and tax policy.
• Regulatory policies: regulatory policy is government restriction of individual choice to keep
conduct from transcending acceptable bounds. Competitive regulation is mostly associated
with regulating specific industries and their practices, such as computer software and
communications companies. Competitive regulatory policy includes the licensing of radio and
television broadcasting, antitrust actions, and policies associated with net neutrality, which is
intended to keep Internet access free and open—that is, without blocking or discriminating
against any particular applications or content on a network. Protective or social regulation
protects the general public from activities that occur in the private sector. Protective regulatory
policy includes consumer protection and workplace health and safety rules, such as those
administered by the Consumer Product Safety Commission and OSHA.

29
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. ______ refers to the occasion when the public is aware of and discussing an issue even though
politicians may not be discussing the issue.

a. Institutional agenda
b. Systemic agenda
c. Political agenda
d. Government agenda

2. Market mechanisms as tools or instruments of policy are defined as ______.

a. those that rely upon the laws of supply and demand

b. regulating how transactions are conducted in the market
c. using forms of persuasion and education
d. government management of individuals or corporations

3. The ______ theory of policymaking emphasizes the formal and legal parts of governmental
structure.

a. elite
b. group
c. institutional
d. rational choice

4. The policy instrument of ______ refers to government attempts to convey important information
to citizens in order to influence their behavior.

a. analysis
b. formulation
c. education
d. privatization

5. The policymaking stage that is considered to be the most critical is ______.

a. policy implementation
b. policy evaluation
c. policy formulation
d. agenda setting

30
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. Which statement describes the importance of theories in helping us to understand

policymaking?

a. Theories help us understand why certain policies are adopted.

b. Theories describe relationships between political actors.
c. Development of theories helps to engage citizens in policymaking.
d. Theories must be developed before effective policymaking can occur.

7. ______ are tools that policy makers have available to use during the policymaking process.

a. Policy typologies
b. Policy evaluations
c. Policy processes
d. Policy instruments

8. The authority of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to issue radio and television
broadcasting licenses is an example of a ______ policy.

a. salient
b. redistributive
c. distributive
d. regulatory

9. These types of policies have “winners” and “losers.” In other words, some groups benefit at
the expense of others.

a. salient
b. redistributive
c. distributive
d. competitive regulatory

10. Welfare is an example of a ______.

a. regulatory policy
b. redistributive policy
c. distributive policy
d. pork barrel project

31
EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. How do the saliency and conflict associated with an issue affect how or if it gets on the
government’s agenda? Explain your answer. (Chapter 3, Learning objective 2)

2. Discuss the problem-definition and agenda-setting stages of policymaking. What are the factors
that shape how a problem may be defined? Discuss an example of a public problem that has been
framed in varying ways by opposing groups. The authors state, “the mere existence of a problem is
no guarantee that it will attract government attention.” What facilitates the movement of certain
issues onto the agenda? (Chapter 3, Learning objective 2)

32
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Advocacy coalition framework (ACF): A policy making theory developed by Paul Sabatier and Hank
Jenkins-Smith that focuses on the “interactions of competing advocacy coalitions,” particularly
within a policy subsystem, such as agriculture or environmental protection. Each coalition consists
of policy actors from different public and private institutions and different levels of government
that share a particular set of beliefs about the policies that government should promote.

Competitive regulation: Regulatory policies that are most associated with the regulation of specific
industries and their practices.

Distributive policies: Individual programs or grants that a government provides without regard to
limited resources or zero-sum situations (in which one group’s gain is another’s loss).

Elite theory: A policymaking theory that emphasizes how the values and preferences of governing
elites, which differ from those of the public at large, affect public policy development.

Group theory: A policymaking theory that sees public policy as the product of a continuous struggle
among organized interest groups; it tends to believe that power in the U.S. political system is
widely shared among interest groups, each of which seeks access to the policy making process.

Institutional theory: A policymaking theory that emphasizes the formal and legal aspects of
government structures. Institutional models look at the way governments are arranged, their legal
powers, and their rules for decision making.

Political systems theory: A policy making theory that stresses the way the political system responds
to demands that arise from its environment, such as public opinion and interest group pressures.
Systems theory emphasizes the larger social, economic, and cultural context in which political
decisions and policy choices are made.

Punctuated equilibrium model: Suggests that we can get dramatic policy change when the
conditions are right. Thus, we may have long periods in which policy stability is the norm, in part
because those who dominate the policy process are “privileged groups of elites” and who are
largely satisfied with the status quo.

Rational choice theory: A policymaking theory that draws heavily from economics—it assumes that
in making decisions, individuals are rational actors who seek to attain their preferences or further
their self-interest. The goal is to deduce or predict how individuals will behave under a variety of
conditions.

Systematic agenda: Issues the public is aware of and may be discussing. Also referred to as the
societal or social agenda.

33
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. b

2. a

3. c

4. c

5. d

6. a

7. d

8. d

9. b

10. b

34
EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. How do the saliency and conflict associated with an issue affect how or if it gets on the
government’s agenda? Explain your answer. (Chapter 3, Learning objective 2)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Saliency refers to the importance of an issue to the general public, and conflict refers to the
amount of conflict surrounding a policy among policy makers. Given this, an issue that is highly
salient and has low levels of conflict is most likely to be on the government agenda. Policy
makers want to deal with issues people care about but not spend a lot of time associated with
high conflict.

2. Discuss the problem-definition and agenda-setting stages of policymaking. What are the factors
that shape how a problem may be defined? Discuss an example of a public problem that
has been framed in varying ways by opposing groups. The authors state, “the mere existence
of a problem is no guarantee that it will attract government attention.” What facilitates the
movement of certain issues onto the agenda? (Chapter 3, Learning objective 2)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

This is the first stage in the policy process model. Problems are not always objectively clear, and
as a result, problems can be framed in a variety of ways depending on one’s bias. Politicians
can spin a problem, so opposing political camps may define a problem differently. Poverty is an
example, where conservatives see it as a failure of personal responsibility, and liberals may see
it as due to environmental barriers and circumstances. Once a problem garners the attention of
lawmakers, they begin to formulate policy proposals. There is competition for agenda space; not
everything can be analyzed by government. Political influence by elected officials, actions by
government actors, and the policy streams are likely to influence agenda setting.

35
EDU591 Public Policy

Notes

36
EDU591 Public Policy
Unit One

Additional Resources

We recognize that students learn in different ways and that learning goes beyond the textbook, exams, and
writing assignments. To help you explore your field of study, we have provided a variety of PowerPoints,
learning activities, and resources that will hopefully get you thinking about your course and major in new
ways and deepen your understanding of the subject matter.

PowerPoints
Many students are visual learners. For each course, we have provided PowerPoint presentations to help you
explore the subject through graphics, text, and videos. Some of the PowerPoints correspond to chapters in
the textbook, while others present an overview of the subject matter.

Learning Activities and Resources

Learning activities and resources provide avenues to explore both your individual courses and your major.
We have created a variety of activities and resources for you to have a more engaging learning experience.
To give you some guidelines, we suggest you:
• Spend some time exploring and engaging in the large variety of learning activities and resources
listed in the student portal.
• Choose activities and resources that are of interest to you.
• Check back as we will be adding new material on a regular basis.

Examples of some of the learning activities and resources include:

• Watching a video related to your course
• Conducting an informational interview with someone working in the field
• Exploring professional organizations related to your course
• Finding a book or journal article related to your field and read up on the subject
• Brainstorming and researching your subject using the keywords in your study guide or text
• Exploring professions related to your course
• Attending a conference related to your course
• Finding a mentor who is working in the field
• Researching professional certifications or advanced training related to your subject
• Exploring the “Questions for Consideration”
• Conducting a case study analysis

Reading List
A reading list of books and journal articles related to your major is available on the student portal
under “student resources” and listed by each school: Administration and Management, Arts and Sciences,
Behavior Science, Criminal Justice, and Education. You may also ask your Student Success Advisor for a
copy if you are unable to access it via the student portal.
We hope you will find all of these activities and resources interesting, thought-provoking, and enjoyable!

Now, it’s time to take your Unit One Examination!

Please read the following pages before you begin.

Remember, we’re rooting for you!

37
EDU591 Public Policy
Unit 1 Examination
Instructions

The Unit Examination

At the conclusion of each unit, you will have a unit examination. The
unit examination contains 25 multiple-choice questions.

If you are completing your work online, you will find the unit
exam questions by logging into the Student Portal, clicking on My
Academic Plan, and then selecting the course you are working on.

For students who receive coursework by mail, the exam questions and
answer sheets are included separately from this study guide as a part
of your coursework packet.

Each of the multiple-choice questions are based on the unit you are
completing.

For the unit examination, your grade on the examination will be

determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university
utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct 4 grade points

B = 80% – 89% correct 3 grade points
C = 70% – 79% correct 2 grade points
D = 60% – 69% correct 1 grade point
F = 59% and below correct 0 grade points

Completing The Unit One Multiple-Choice Examination

Before beginning your examination, we recommend that you
thoroughly review the textbook chapters and other materials covered
in each unit, and follow the suggestions in the Mastering the Course
Content section of the syllabus.

We encourage you to take your time, go through the examination,

and identify questions you know the answers to. A good strategy is
to answer all of the questions you are familiar and comfortable with
first, and then go back to work on items that you find more difficult.

If you wish to challenge a particular item, please review the

Challenging a Test Item section of the syllabus.

Writing Assignments
Each course requires students to submit a total of FOUR Writing
Assignments. Please refer to the Writing Lab pages located after the
Unit 4 Examination Instructions page for more details.

Good luck with your multiple-choice examination!

38
EDU591 Public Policy
You Can Do It

You have just completed Unit 1 of this course.

You are off to a great start!

Keep up the good work!

39
EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Four
Policy Analysis

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain the nature of policy analysis.

2. Examine how policy analysis is used in the policymaking

process.

3. Compare and contrast the different types of policy analysis.

4. Identify when certain types of analysis are needed.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 112-137 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

40
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter addresses the purposes and nature of policy analysis. The chapter also
examines how policy analysis is used in the policymaking process, the different types of policy
analysis, and when certain types of analysis are needed. The chapter concludes with an overview
of the major elements of policy analysis, from defining a problem to constructing and assessing
alternative courses of action.

41
EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Assessing alternatives:

Democratic political process:

Incremental decision making:

Problem:

Proximate causes:

Rational-comprehensive approach:

Rational decision making:

Root causes:

42
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

The primary function of policy analysis is to satisfy the need for pertinent information and
thoughtful, impartial assessments in the policymaking process. Policy analysis involves looking
ahead to anticipate the consequences of decisions and thinking seriously and critically about them.
It is an alternative to making snap decisions based on ideology, personal experience, or limited or
biased assessment of what should be done. Even though such policy analysis is an intellectual or
professional activity, it takes place within a governmental setting and thus reflects political forces
as well. The way the analysis is done and its effects on decision making reflect that basic reality.
Policy choices usually reflect some combination of political preferences and various assessments of
the problem and possible solutions to it. Policy analysis can help to clarify the problem, the policy
choices available, and how each choice stands up against the different standards of judgment that
might be used.

This chapter explores the different approaches analysts use to study public problems:
• Rational decision making models: defines a problem, indicates the goals and objectives
to be sought, considers a range of alternative solutions, evaluates each of the alternatives
to clarify their consequences, and then recommends or chooses the alternative with the
greatest potential for solving the problem.
• Rational-comprehensive approach: it is sometimes substituted by less demanding
incremental decision making.
• Incremental decision making: in political settings, incremental decision making is a
realistic approach, given ideological and partisan constraints and the ever-present pressure
from interest groups and other constituencies.

The chapter presents the steps in the policy analysis process:

• Agenda-setting stage of policymaking: defining and analyzing problems is usually part of
the agenda-setting stage of policymaking, and sometimes so is the construction of policy
alternatives.
• Policy formulation stage of policymaking: formal construction of alternatives is part of
policy design and hence fits into the policy formulation stage of policymaking.
• Policy legitimation or approval stage of policymaking: development of evaluative
criteria also can be part of policy formulation, but it mainly falls into the stage of policy
legitimation or approval. Assessing alternatives similarly can take place during both the
formulation and legitimation stages of policymaking as policy actors consider which
solutions they prefer and which may succeed politically.
• Conclusion drawing stage of policymaking: analysts and policymakers may draw
conclusions about preferred policy alternatives as policy is formulated, debated, and
adopted.

The chapter emphasizes the uses of policy analysis today and its importance for making
and implementing public policy. The chapter summarizes the role of think tanks, which are
highly influential in the policy analysis process. Also highlighted are outlines of the scientific,
professional, and political approaches to policy analysis:

• Scientific approach: some individuals, especially academics, study public policy

for scientific purposes—that is, to build understanding of public problems and the
policymaking process. They seek “truth” through scientific methods regardless of whether

43
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

the knowledge is relevant or useful in some immediate way. Their purpose is to deepen,
broaden, and extend the policy maker’s capacity for judgment, not to provide him or her
with answers.
• Professional approach: some individuals adhere to strong professional norms for economic
analysis, modeling of complex situations, forecasting future trends, and program
evaluation.
• Political approach: some individuals are committed to specific values and goals and
sometimes to ideological and partisan agendas. In the political approach analysts try to
emphasize studies and findings that help to advance those values and goals.

Regardless of whether the policy research falls into the scientific, professional, or
political category, analysts face important choices about the kind of assessment needed for a
given study and what approaches to use. Policy analysts make many choices as they conduct
their work, such as whether to focus on the root causes of public problems or to make pragmatic
shorter-term adjustments; whether to stress comprehensive analysis or to emphasize short-term
policy relevance; and whether to favor rational analysis of problems or try to foster democratic
participation and feedback.

44
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Think tanks study problems and alternatives in order to help policy makers make decisions.
The type of policy analysis typically conducted by think tanks is called ______.

a. scientific
b. professional
c. political
d. economic

2. The ______ approach to policy analysis defines a problem, indicates the goals and objectives
to be sought, considers a range of alternative solutions, evaluates each of the alternatives to
clarify their consequences, and then recommends or chooses the alternative with the greatest
potential for solving the problem.

a. political
b. generative
c. elite
d. rational-comprehensive

3. Policy analysis draws from the ideas and methods of which of the following disciplines?

a. economics
b. sociology
c. political science
d. all of the above

4. Making modest changes in policy is known as ______.

a. incremental decision making

b. rational-comprehensive policymaking
c. constructing policy alternatives
d. root cause policymaking

5. Policy analysis that puts a priority on citizen involvement and alignment with public opinion
emphasizes ______.

a. democratic political processes

b. rational comprehensive decision making
c. scientific analysis
d. pragmatic adjustments

45
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. Which of the following is MOST likely to conduct political forms of policy analysis?

a. National Rifle Association

b. Brookings Institution
c. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
d. National Academy of Sciences

7. The purpose of policy analysis is to ______.

a. provide information and impartial assessments of options to aid the policymaking process
b. evaluate existing policy criteria
c. legitimize and implement public policies
d. provide rational-comprehensive models of public behavior

8. In the 1980s, the federal government sponsored a decade long study of the causes and
consequences of acid rain at a cost of ______ million.

a. 100
b. 300
c. 500
d. 700

9. In which year did the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) call for a total ban on cell
phone use while driving (no calling, texting, or updating)?

a. 2000
b. 2011
c. 2013
d. 2016

10. Your textbook focuses on ______ or the likely success of proposals in solving the problem at
hand.

a. equity
b. feasibility
c. effectiveness
d. efficiency

46
EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. In policy analysis, what is involved in “analyzing the problem”? What are the challenges one
faces in doing so? What is the benefit of a good analysis to policymaking? (Chapter 4, Learning
objective 2)

2. Describe the objectives, advantages, and limitations of the three types of policy analysis. Provide
examples of organizations or studies for each type. (Chapter 4, Learning objective 3)

47
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Assessing alternatives: Determining the merit of possible policy choices, often through the use of
policy analysis.

Democratic political process: Opportunities for citizen involvement in decision making and
ensuring public review of policy ideas.

Incremental decision making: A way of making decisions that emphasizes consideration of a

limited number of policy alternatives and their effects.

Problem: Existence of an unsatisfactory set of conditions for which relief is sought, either through
private means or from the government. Commonly used in discussion of societal issues that call for
a governmental response in the form of public policy.

Proximate causes: Those causes of public policy problems that are most direct or immediate, and
sometimes easier to handle. Often contrasted with underlying, or root, causes of problems.

Rational-comprehensive approach: A way of making decisions that considers all significant policy
alternatives and all of their major consequences; often contrasted with incremental decision
making which is thought to be more realistic and practical.

Rational decision making: An approach to decision making that attempts to follow a series
of logical or rational steps: defining a problem, identifying goals and objectives to be sought,
evaluating alternative solutions, and recommending one that best achieves the goals and
objectives.

Root causes: The basic or fundamental causes of public problems, sometimes referred to as
underlying causes. Often contrasted with proximate causes.

48
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. b

2. d

3. d

4. a

5. a

6. a

7. a

8. c

9. b

10. c

49
EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. In policy analysis, what is involved in “analyzing the problem”? What are the challenges one
faces in doing so? What is the benefit of a good analysis to policymaking? (Chapter 4, Learning
objective 2)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

First, defining the problem. The problem may be seen in a variety of ways, and to some, it may
not even be a problem. Politics are often involved. Understanding the scope and nature of the
problem using operational measures and data is another problem. Some challenges are that
the problem may be tough to measure, or there may be disagreement about how to measure it.
Learn about the problem’s causes (root and proximate) that face the challenge of complexity of
problems and finally set goals for reduction of the problem. A good job analyzing the problem
helps the policy maker identify policy actions more effectively.

2. Describe the objectives, advantages, and limitations of the three types of policy analysis. Provide
examples of organizations or studies for each type. (Chapter 4, Learning objective 3)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Scientific, professional, and political policy analysis. Scientific analysis seeks to build theory
and can be limited by being too theoretical and not practical. Professional analysis will analyze
policy alternatives for solving problems and can be limited by the narrowness of the research or
neglect to study all the factors. Political analysis seeks to advocate/support preferred positions
and is sometimes limited by its ideological biases that may raise issues of credibility. Sometimes
these studies lack analytical depth.

50
EDU591 Public Policy

Notes

51
EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Five
Public Problems and Policy Alternatives

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain how to describe, measure, and analyze public

problems and how to think about their causes and possible
solutions.

2. Examine how to find pertinent information about problems

and governmental actions.

3. Assess the policy tools that governments have available to

address problems.

4. Explore how to think creatively about which policy

alternatives or tools are likely to work best for a given
problem.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 138-165 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

52
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

The last chapter provided an initial introduction to the process of policy analysis. This
chapter and the following chapter reviews each of the steps in the process in more detail.
This chapter explains how to describe, measure, and analyze public problems and how to think
about their causes and possible solutions. The chapter also addresses how to find pertinent
information about problems and governmental actions. Additionally, the chapter explores the policy
tools that governments have available to address problems and outlines how to think creatively
about which policy alternatives or tools are likely to work best for a given problem.

53
EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Ideal situation:

Issue framing:

No-action analysis:

Operational measures:

Parallel situation:

Passive collection:

Policy design:

Problem analysis:

Quick survey:

Supply and demand perspectives:

54
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

This chapter offers an overview of how to analyze public problems to gain an

understanding of their causes and measure their magnitude and effects on society. Policy analysis
takes place within a political context that can lead to competing problem diagnoses and varied
recommendations.

The problem definition stage of policy analysis can be influenced by politics; the way
problems are framed affects the policy solutions that are developed. Based on their interpretation
of data, policymakers construct public policy alternatives designed to alleviate the problems.

Problem analysis involves trying to answer the basic questions about the nature of the
problem, its extent or magnitude, how it came about, its major causes, and why it is important to
consider as a matter of public policy. Public problems are difficult to understand; the challenge
is even more daunting given that we are bombarded daily with limited, biased, and conflicting
messages in numerous electronic and print formats. One of the most vexing issues is how to
interpret information that comes to us without a meaningful context. The contextual data is
essential to make complete sense of a problem and estimate the effect a proposal will have.

In this chapter emphasis is placed on obtaining operational measures for problems, how
to think clearly about the causes of problems and how to set goals for their resolution, and how to
find pertinent information through the use of library-based and Internet sources. The chapter also
expands on the many instruments of public policy that are available for governments to address
problems (from regulation to public education to research), the use of public policy typologies, and
the policy design perspective.

The text emphasizes the importance of thinking creatively about policy action. Strategies
to apply creative thinking to policy action include:

• No-action analysis: this begins with the present policy as a baseline. Many will favor this
strategy during times of budget constraints, when programs are vulnerable to cutbacks
or elimination. For example, the idea of keeping Amtrak, the national railroad passenger
corporation, alive by continuing its government subsidies because the passenger train
system is an alternative to travel by car or airplane.
• A quick survey: this involves talking with people in a policy network or searching through
hearing transcripts, minutes of meetings, newspaper accounts, and the like for pertinent
information about a problem and policy alternatives. The idea here is that people familiar
with the issues have probably raised many alternatives, and interviewing them, distributing
questionnaires to them, or reviewing what they have written or said on the issues should
produce a shortlist of possible policy alternatives. It is particularly useful at local levels
where gaining access to principal policy actors is a real possibility.
• literature review: this is an examination of books, journal articles, Internet sites, and other
sources. The purpose here is to look for policy alternatives that have been proposed or
considered previously.
• Passive collection: this means finding out what others have suggested in a policy area.
• Looking at a parallel situation: this involves looking in other policy areas for ideas about
what might be done. Analysts need to be alert to possible analogies. What seems to be
a new problem may present many of the same issues as an earlier one. By listing and
thinking about the attributes of the present problem, its relationship to other problems
may become more apparent.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

• Brainstorming: this is a popular technique to encourage creative thinking in public

policy or in organizational change. It takes place in an informal meeting of people who
share an interest in finding solutions to a given problem. The goal is to produce a list
of possibilities. In the second phase of the meeting, the participants pare down the
suggestions to come up with a shorter list of alternatives worthy of further consideration.
• Ideal situation: the goal is to envision an ideal future and use that vision to generate ideas
for moving in the desired direction. Too often in public policy debates the participants
assume that an ideal situation is unattainable and, therefore, not worthy of serious
consideration, but excluding the ideal guarantees that it will never come about.

56
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Which of the following states wanted to enact a law that would entail requiring proof of
immigration status?

a. Alabama
b. California
c. Nebraska
d. Colorado

2. ______ are observable ways, such as test scores, to define a problem.

a. Cost-benefit analyses
b. Operational measures
c. Pragmatic measures
d. Policy alternatives

3. Which of the following statements regarding the politics of problem definition is TRUE?

a. Defining and measuring problem is merely an exercise in analysis.

b. There are fixed goals in the policy process.
c. Policy actors work together to agree on one definition.
d. Problem definition is the strategic representation of situations.

4. Which creative thinking tool begins with an analysis of the status quo as a baseline?

a. analogy
b. brainstorming
c. no-action analysis
d. quick surveys

5. The case of immigration reform illustrates the importance of ______.

a. the policy tool of sanctions

b. risk analysis
c. a strong problem analysis
d. the policy tool of regulation

6. Which of the following illustrates an operational measure of the safety of a community?

a. index crime rates, such as violent and property crimes

b. automobile crashes per capita
c. how safe residents report that they feel on a survey
d. all of the above

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

7. When the government encourages you to buy a home by allowing you to take an interest
deduction, it is using which policy instrument?

a. regulating
b. educating
c. taxing and spending
d. charging fees

8. Cities that use “visioning” exercises to get citizens to think about what they desire for future
development in their community are using ______ to compare policy alternatives.

a. a case study
b. a parallel situation
c. a literature review
d. an ideal situation

9. The Affordable Care Act (Obama’s health-care law) included funding for many pilot projects
and special studies that will be used to select future policy options to use on a more
widespread basis. The funding of these efforts is an example of the policy tools called ______.

a. ration
b. hortatory tools
c. conduct research
d. use of market incentives

10. Statistical information can be displayed in which of the following ways?

a. pie charts
b. line figures
c. bar charts
d. all of the above

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EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Examine the steps and issues involved in analyzing a problem and explain why it is difficult.
(Chapter 5, Learning objective 1)

2. Explain how policy analysts come up with policy proposals. Also, examine five methods or
approaches that policy makers can use to develop policy proposals, and explain why they would
use each. (Chapter 5, Learning objective 4)

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Ideal situation: A reference used in policy analysis whereby a highly preferable or ideal goal or
solution to a problem might be set.

Issue framing: The practice in which policy makers and interest groups do whatever they can to set
the policy agenda in their favor by defining problems their way.

No-action analysis: A policy alternative that considers the advantages or disadvantages of taking no
new action and thus keeping a current policy in place. Maintains the status quo.

Operational measures: A specific way to define and measure a policy problem, such as a rate of
poverty or unemployment; often useful when quantitative measures of problems are needed.

Parallel situation: A similar condition in a related policy area that might provide ideas for what
actions might be undertaken to address a problem.

Passive collection: Finding out what others have suggested in a given policy area by speaking with
a program’s clients or administrators, advocates of various positions, and organizations that have
taken a position on the issues.

Policy design: A form of policy analysis that occurs during policy formation where an analyst
considers how the various components of a proposed policy fit together and how they are likely to
work to solve a problem. Involves consideration of what actions government will take and how they
will affect “target populations” or the people most affected by the policy.

Problem analysis: A series of methods that can be used to analyze the causes of public problems,
where they exist, what effects they have, and what might be done about them.

Quick survey: Talking with people in a particular policy network or searching through hearings
transcripts, minutes of meetings, newspaper accounts, and the like for pertinent information about
a problem and policy alternatives.

Supply and demand perspectives: Two views on how to think about public problems. One focuses
on the quantity of the good or service that is, or can be made, available (supply) and the other
focuses on its use by the public (demand)—which might increase or decrease. For example, energy
policy could try to increase the supply or decrease the demand through conservation.

60
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. a

2. b

3. d

4. c

5. c

6. d

7. c

8. d

9. c

10. d

61
EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Examine the steps and issues involved in analyzing a problem and explain why it is difficult.
(Chapter 5, Learning objective 1)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Problem analysis is the first stage of policy analysis. The problem should be defined, and
just defining the problem may involve politics and varying viewpoints about the nature of the
problem (its cause and impacts). The problem should be operationalized, or measured, and then
data collected to document its scope and severity.

2. Explain how policy analysts come up with policy proposals. Also, examine five methods or
approaches that policy makers can use to develop policy proposals and explain why they would
use each. (Chapter 5, Learning objective 4)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Policymakers can change current policies, use creative thinking, conduct no-action analysis, use
quick surveys, and conduct a literature review, passive collection, parallel situations, state-level
test policy implementation, or brainstorming.

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EDU591 Public Policy

Notes

63
EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Six
Assessing Policy Alternatives

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Examine evaluative criteria for judging the value of policy

proposals or alternatives.

2. Explain how to apply the methods of policy analysis.

3. Delineate three key economic approaches to policy analysis.

4. Distinguish between the different types of decision making

and impact analyses.

5. Compare the ethical approach of policy analysis against

other methods.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 166-202 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

64
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter concludes the focus on the methods of policy analysis begun in the previous
two chapters by discussing the assessment of policy alternatives. We will examine the evaluative
criteria for judging the value of policy proposals or alternatives and take a look at how to apply the
methods of policy analysis. This chapter also distinguishes between the different types of decision
making and impact analyses. Additionally, the chapter weighs the ethical approach of policy
analysis against other methods.

65
EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Contingent valuation methods:

Cost benefit analysis:

Cost effectiveness analysis:

Discount rate:

Ethical analysis:

Impact assessment:

Implementation analysis:

Opportunity costs:

Program evaluation:

Risk assessment:

Risk evaluation:

Risk management:

Sensitivity analysis:

66
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

This chapter concludes the focus on the methods of policy analysis by introducing a
range of evaluative criteria commonly used to analyze policy, such as effectiveness, efficiency, and
equity.

• Effectiveness: this can be measured in terms of the likelihood of reaching a specific policy
objective, such as reducing automobile accident rates by 20 percent over a five-year period
or keeping the costs of health care from rising by more than the level of inflation.
• Efficiency: analysts need to inquire into the distribution of benefits and costs as part of
any attempt to examine economic efficiency and its acceptability. Economic efficiency
measures the ratio of economic costs to economic benefits of a policy option.
• Equity: the term equity has at least two different meanings in contemporary policy
debates: process equity and outcomes (end-result) equity. The first refers to the
decision-making process that is used. John Rawls promoted quite a different conception
of equity, particularly in his book A Theory of Justice (1971). Rawls argued that equity
or fairness refers to just outcomes or the fair distribution of societal goods such as
wealth, income, and political power. Indeed, equity criteria are likely to be central to
any consideration of redistributive policies such as tax reform, welfare reform, efforts to
enhance access to education or health services, and assistance to the poor.

Such criteria can be used to assess proposed policy options or to evaluate the merits of
existing government programs, from education to energy conservation. The chapter offers many
examples of how such criteria can be applied when evaluating policy action.

Policymakers develop measures of policy outcomes, assess the outcomes relative to costs,
and weigh the fairness of policies while considering ethics and moral values of policy alternatives.
In the latter context, in a classic essay on the role of principles in policy analysis, political theorist
Charles W. Anderson argued that there are “certain fundamental considerations that must be
accounted for in any policy evaluation.” This “repertoire of basic concepts” includes “authority,
the public interest, rights, justice, equality, and efficiency.”

The chapter reviews each of the major methods of policy analysis which draw heavily from
economics:

• Economic approaches: includes cost-benefit analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis, and risk

assessment methods.
• Decision making and impacts: includes forecasting and impact assessment.
• Political and institutional analysis: includes assessment of political feasibility as well as
policy implementation and program evaluation.
• Ethical analysis: in which the concern is consideration of the ethics of policy action.

The chapter’s purpose in outlining these methods is two-fold—to convey basic information
about these methods (including their strengths and limitations) as well as to show how they can be
used in the study of public policy. While analyzing information through these methods is essential,
we also need to appreciate how politics and values affect the conduct of policy analysis and how
analysis can be used to empower citizens and motivate them to participate in the policy process.

67
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Evaluative criteria are ______.

a. the policy alternatives available to policy actors

b. those that measure the policy actors involved in a policy issue
c. justifications or rationales for a policy or government action
d. arbitrary standards that are the same for all policy issues

2. Which decision making tool studies the expected outcomes of a policy proposal while also
calculating the expected financial impact?

a. cost-benefit analysis
b. risk assessment
c. implementation analysis
d. forecasting

3. Policy analysts can estimate the value of the time sitting in traffic through ______.

a. contingent valuation methods

b. sensitivity analysis
c. risk evaluation
d. impact assessment

4. Which of the following does not attempt to assign dollar values to potential benefits but
instead compares different policy alternatives that can produce these benefits in terms of their
relative costs?

a. cost-effectiveness analysis
b. risk assessment
c. program evaluation
d. impact analysis

5. Nearly every policy proposal is concerned with the criterion of ______.

a. effectiveness
b. liberty
c. technical feasibility
d. equity

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. In some states, legislators may be more likely to propose laws allowing gay marriage than in
other states. Gay marriage is more ______ in the states that pass such laws.

a. equitable
b. technically feasible
c. effective
d. socially acceptable

7. Being stuck in traffic imposes ______ on drivers because they could be doing something more
productive with their time.

a. a policy gridlock
b. an opportunity cost
c. a risk assessment
d. an inducement

8. Equity concerns are central when it comes to ______ policies since different groups of people
pay for and benefit from these policies.

a. redistributive
b. regulatory
c. monetary
d. salient

9. ______ is a close relative of cost-benefit analysis.

a. Risk assessment
b. Opportunity costs
c. Risk evaluation
d. Risk management

10. ______ can be defined as a procedure for producing factual information about future states of
society on the basis of prior information about policy problems.

a. Effectiveness
b. Equity
c. Risk management
d. Forecasting

69
EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Compare and contrast cost-effectiveness analysis and cost-benefit analysis. (Chapter 6, Learning
objective 3)

2. Differentiate between the political and institutional approaches to understand proposed policy
alternatives. (Chapter 6, Learning objective 5)

70
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Contingent valuation methods: The use of surveys to determine the economic value that people
place on certain goods or services for which there is no market value used in cost benefit analysis
to consider intangible costs or benefits, such as a safe community or clean water.

Cost benefit analysis: A form of policy analysis in which the costs and benefits of proposed policy
actions are considered carefully. Often, although not always, the major costs and benefits are
measured quantitatively by their value in dollars.

Cost effectiveness analysis: A comparison of the relative value of policy alternatives in terms of
a given benefit that is delivered; a method for comparing policy alternatives when a dollar value
cannot easily be placed on the benefits of the action, such as the value of lives that are saved by
requiring safer automobiles.

Discount rate: A calculation made in conducting cost benefit analysis that takes into account the
changing value of a dollar over time. Future costs and benefits are “discounted” to present value
by using estimated inflation rates.

Ethical analysis: Policy analysis that is based on ethical principles or norms, such as personal
freedom or equality. It can supplement analysis based largely on economic, political, or
administrative concerns.

Impact assessment: A form of policy analysis that examines the likely effects or impacts of
proposed or adopted policies. This may be environmental, social, economic, or other significant
impacts.

Implementation analysis: A form of policy analysis that examines the process and effects of
implementing public policy. Can be used to anticipate likely implementation problems prior to
adoption or to document actual problems after a policy has been put into effect.

Opportunity costs: Common in economic analysis; one considers the value of opportunities that are
foregone when time or resources are spent on a given activity. It is what people might have done
with the same time or resources if they had had the choice.

Program evaluation: Focuses more on policy results or outcomes than on the process of
implementation, but the two go together. Evaluation of any program may be an essential part of
long-term implementation success, and there are many different ways to evaluate a program.

Risk assessment: A calculation or estimate of the risks to society posed by a given situation, such
as terrorism or natural hazards—for example, hurricanes. A specialized and technical form of
policy analysis that can identify risks and estimate their severity.

71
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Risk evaluation: The use of various methods to determine the level of risk that is acceptable to the
public and policy makers. For example, to what extent should the nation protect its citizens against
the risk of air pollution or unsafe food or water? Risk evaluation addresses the question of how safe
is safe enough.

Risk management: Public policies that are adopted to manage or control various risks. For
example, anti-terrorist policies are designed to lower the risk that terrorism presents for public
safety and pollution control policies aim to reduce the risk to public health posed by various
chemicals.

Sensitivity analysis: A way to adjust policy analysis by making it sensitive or responsive to changes
in any one variable so that the consequences can be better understood under varying assumptions.
For example, forecasting can be made sensitive to different assumptions about economic growth or
inflation.

72
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. c

2. a

3. a

4. a

5. a

6. d

7. b

8. a

9. a

10. d

73
EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Compare and contrast cost-effectiveness analysis and cost-benefit analysis. (Chapter 6, Learning
objective 3)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Both are measures of efficiency, that is, the benefits relative to the invested costs. Cost-benefit
analysis monetizes the impacts or outcomes. Cost-effectiveness analysis does not attempt
to put the benefits of an action in dollar terms; it assumes that benefits will occur using the
alternatives and may select an alternative based on the least cost.

2. Differentiate between the political and institutional approaches to understand proposed policy
alternatives. (Chapter 6, Learning objective 5)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Political feasibility analysis studies the policy actors who will play a significant role in the
decision and evaluates the nature of their support for a policy proposal and their likely
actions with regard to the policy. Implementation analysis studies how a program can best be
implemented or whether a program is being implemented as it was intended to be. Program
evaluation relates to the effectiveness of this program.

74
EDU591 Public Policy

Notes

75
EDU591 Public Policy
Unit Two

Additional Resources

We recognize that students learn in different ways and that learning goes beyond the textbook, exams, and
writing assignments. To help you explore your field of study, we have provided a variety of PowerPoints,
learning activities, and resources that will hopefully get you thinking about your course and major in new
ways and deepen your understanding of the subject matter.

PowerPoints
Many students are visual learners. For each course, we have provided PowerPoint presentations to help you
explore the subject through graphics, text, and videos. Some of the PowerPoints correspond to chapters in
the textbook, while others present an overview of the subject matter.

Learning Activities and Resources

Learning activities and resources provide avenues to explore both your individual courses and your major.
We have created a variety of activities and resources for you to have a more engaging learning experience.
To give you some guidelines, we suggest you:
• Spend some time exploring and engaging in the large variety of learning activities and resources
listed in the student portal.
• Choose activities and resources that are of interest to you.
• Check back as we will be adding new material on a regular basis.

Examples of some of the learning activities and resources include:

• Watching a video related to your course
• Conducting an informational interview with someone working in the field
• Exploring professional organizations related to your course
• Finding a book or journal article related to your field and read up on the subject
• Brainstorming and researching your subject using the keywords in your study guide or text
• Exploring professions related to your course
• Attending a conference related to your course
• Finding a mentor who is working in the field
• Researching professional certifications or advanced training related to your subject
• Exploring the “Questions for Consideration”
• Conducting a case study analysis

Reading List
A reading list of books and journal articles related to your major is available on the student portal
under “student resources” and listed by each school: Administration and Management, Arts and Sciences,
Behavior Science, Criminal Justice, and Education. You may also ask your Student Success Advisor for a
copy if you are unable to access it via the student portal.
We hope you will find all of these activities and resources interesting, thought-provoking, and enjoyable!

Now, it’s time to take your Unit Two Examination!

Please read the following pages before you begin.

Remember, we’re rooting for you!

76
EDU591 Public Policy
Unit 2 Examination
Instructions

The Unit Examination

At the conclusion of each unit, you will have a unit examination. The
unit examination contains 25 multiple-choice questions.

If you are completing your work online, you will find the unit
exam questions by logging into the Student Portal, clicking on My
Academic Plan, and then selecting the course you are working on.

For students who receive coursework by mail, the exam questions and
answer sheets are included separately from this study guide as a part
of your coursework packet.

Each of the multiple-choice questions are based on the unit you are
completing.

For the unit examination, your grade on the examination will be

determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university
utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct 4 grade points

B = 80% – 89% correct 3 grade points
C = 70% – 79% correct 2 grade points
D = 60% – 69% correct 1 grade point
F = 59% and below correct 0 grade points

Completing The Unit Two Multiple-Choice Examination

Before beginning your examination, we recommend that you
thoroughly review the textbook chapters and other materials covered
in each unit, and follow the suggestions in the Mastering the Course
Content section of the syllabus.

We encourage you to take your time, go through the examination,

and identify questions you know the answers to. A good strategy is
to answer all of the questions you are familiar and comfortable with
first, and then go back to work on items that you find more difficult.

If you wish to challenge a particular item, please review the

Challenging a Test Item section of the syllabus.

Writing Assignments
Each course requires students to submit a total of FOUR Writing
Assignments. Please refer to the Writing Lab pages located after the
Unit 4 Examination Instructions page for more details.

Good luck with your multiple-choice examination!

77
EDU591 Public Policy
You Can Do It

With Unit 2 complete, you are half way through the course.

Take a break and reward yourself

for a job well done!

78
EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Seven
Economic and Budgetary Policy

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Examine the role of federal economic policymaking and its

challenges.

2. Explain the major goals associated with economic policy.

3. Analyze the tools used by the Federal Reserve Board and the
government to achieve positive outcomes.

4. Delineate the major steps of the federal budgetary process.

5. Examine notable economic policies and their consequences.

6. Identify some of the critical economic issues of the day.

7. Assess how to address the federal deficit and the ways in

which to evaluate it.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 204-249 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

79
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter is the first policy chapter in the text that focuses on one policy area: the
power of the government to influence the economy. The chapter examines the role of federal
economic policymaking and its challenges and the major goals associated with economic policy.
The chapter explores the tools used by the Federal Reserve Board and the government to achieve
positive outcomes. The chapter also addresses the major steps of the federal budgetary process as
well as notable economic policies and their consequences. Additionally, the chapter discusses how
to address the federal deficit and the ways in which to evaluate it.

80
EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Balance of trade:

Consumer price index (CPI):

Entitlement program:

Fiscal policy:

Full employment:

Line-item veto:

Monetary policy:

National debt:

Progressive tax:

Regressive tax:

Supply-side economics:

Tax expenditures:

81
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

Managing national deficits and debt is only one of the economic and budgetary tasks to
which the federal government must attend on a continuous basis. Economic policy is critical to
all other government functions, but most people probably do not recognize it as readily as they do
other substantive policy areas such as the environment, education, health care, or welfare.

Economic policymaking is crucial to almost everything the government does. In a narrow

sense, economic policy is the development of programs and policies that are intended to affect
economic conditions in the nation, such as reducing unemployment or increasing economic
growth. This chapter concentrates on the major economic policy goals: economic growth, low
unemployment and inflation levels, positive trade balances, and deficit and debt management:

• Economic growth: economic growth means an increase in the production of goods and
services each year, and it is expressed in terms of a rising gross domestic product (GDP).
The last time the government had budget surpluses was in the late 1990s and early 2000s
and it was largely due to strong economic growth that generated increased tax revenues. A
low rate of economic growth can be a sign of an impending recession, which is generally
defined as negative growth over two or more consecutive quarters. Economic growth may
make redistributive programs palatable because people are more likely to accept policies
that redirect some of their money to others if they have experienced an increase in their
own wealth. Economic growth also allows more people to receive benefits or increases
in existing benefits from government programs. For a simple explanation, imagine the
government is dealing with four areas of expenditures in a given year. If in the following
year the economy grows, the budget pie becomes larger. Percent changes in the GDP over
the past twenty years have ranged from a low of −2.0 (2009) to a high of 6.7 (2005). The
rate of growth since 2010 has remained somewhat consistent at 3.5 to 4.54 percent per
year in current dollars—that is, unadjusted for inflation.
• Low Levels of Unemployment: unemployment not only harms the people without jobs
but also has two effects on the economy and the government’s budget: the higher the
number of people who are unemployed, the lower the number of people who are paying
income or Social Security taxes, and that means less revenue is coming into the Treasury
to pay for government programs; second, the unemployed may be eligible for a number
of government programs geared toward people with low incomes, such as Medicaid, food
stamps, or welfare payments, so the government needs to pay out more money when
unemployment levels rise. Most of these programs are entitlements, meaning that the
government is required to pay all those who are eligible.

Unemployment in the United States stayed between 4 and 6 percent between 1997 and
2008, but it increased to over 9 percent in 2009 and continued at these higher rates for a
few years before showing a continuous decline since 2011 getting as low as 3.7 percent in
late 2018 before rising to 4.0 percent in early 2019.

Another aspect of employment that influences public policy is the changing character of
jobs in the U.S. economy and in other advanced, industrialized nations. During most of
the twentieth century, many of the best jobs for those without a college education were in
manufacturing, but a shift from this traditional sector to the service economy has occurred
and, in general, jobs in the service sector do not pay as much as factory jobs. The past

82
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

several decades have witnessed a significant increase in the two-income family, even in the
face of higher divorce rates and the increasing number of single-parent families.
• Low Levels of Inflation: a simple definition of inflation is an increase in the costs of goods
and services. Inflation is an inevitable part of the U.S. economy, but policymakers try to
keep it under control, which is no more than about 3 percent a year. The United States
had a good record on inflation. During the past ten years, inflation, as measured by the
Consumer Price Index (CPI), was between −0.4 percent and 3.2 percent, although in
2009 the CPI actually was a negative number, suggesting deflation in the economy.
• Positive Balance of Trade: a positive balance of trade is an economic goal related to the
role of the United States in an international economy. For a number of decades, the nation
has failed to meet this goal; in fact, it has had a large negative balance of trade. Among
the many reasons for this state of affairs are the large amounts of oil imported into the
United States (although this has been on the decrease in recent years), the desire of
consumers to purchase foreign products such as Japanese or German electronics, and
the relative weakness in other countries’ economies that translates into their inability to
purchase U.S. goods.
• Deficit and debt management: the United States saw budget surpluses in the late 1990s,
but it still had a large national debt to pay off, and that debt has increased as the nation
has returned to deficit spending. The national debt, which is the accumulation of all of
the deficits the nation has run, was nearly $22 trillion in December 2018. Limiting the
occurrences of federal deficits and the amount of the national debt are serious goals
for the United States because they show fiscal responsibility. The national debt took on
new political importance in past budget negotiations as the United States has had to
increase its debt ceiling, which is in essence the legal limit on the amount of money the
government can owe.

The chapter discusses fiscal tools (taxing and spending decisions), monetary tools (those
used by the Federal Reserve Board), and others. The chapter reviews the federal budget process
and how it affects economic policy. The chapter explains “supply-side” economics and tax policy
designed to spur economic growth through tax cuts to individuals with high incomes. It reviews
government policy regarding the deficit and recent economic crises at both the federal and state
levels.

Finally, the chapter focuses discussion on the economic, political, and ethical issues that
surround the current budgetary shortfall facing U.S. governments at all levels. Reducing the deficit
by cutting entitlement programs may raise the strongest ethical argument, especially as it relates
to Social Security and Medicare. Some of the expenditures may include programs that some would
say represent an oversized government or illustrate government intrusion. To the extent that one
can show that some of these programs are unnecessary or wasteful, the ethical argument can be
very persuasive, especially in times of budget austerity. Addressing the deficit by increasing taxes
runs into issues of fairness and personal freedom. Typically, those supporting limited government
also push for citizens to be taxed at the lowest possible level. Tax expenditures such as breaks for
oil drilling, excluding capital gains at death, or even deductions for home mortgage interest are not
necessarily fiscally neutral.

It is important to note that budget estimates for deficits or surpluses are just estimates.
They are based on economic assumptions that may or may not prove to be reasonable. Minimal
increases or decreases in economic growth, for example, can affect the deficit by billions of dollars.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. The ______ is a measure that represents the average change in price over time of a market
basket of consumer goods and services.

a. CPI
b. Fed
c. GDP
d. CBO

2. ______ policy is a term that describes taxing and spending tools.

a. Fiscal
b. Regulatory
c. Monetary
d. Distributive

3. The government shutdown of October 2013 was due to ______.

a. a showdown between political parties over Obamacare and the budget

b. the federal government exceeding the Fed’s target inflation rate
c. a filibuster of the health-care law staged by House Tea Party elected officials
d. the impending passage of the Affordable Care Act

4. What is the major instrument through which any government sets its overall economic policy
each year?

a. the Federal Reserve Board

b. the monetary policy
c. the federal budget
d. the Economic Stimulus Program

5. Which branch of government typically initiates the budgetary process?

a. executive
b. federal
c. legislative
d. senate

6. How has the nature of U.S. jobs changed in the past few decades?

a. Jobs in the service sector are growing while the manufacturing sector is decreasing.
b. Construction jobs have rapidly decreased while retail jobs are increasing.
c. Government jobs have rapidly increased due to the growing size of government.
d. Jobs in the manufacturing sector are growing while the service sector is decreasing.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

7. Attaining the goal of economic growth may make ______ more acceptable to the general public
since the public’s own earnings may be increasing.

a. welfare and other redistributive programs

b. an unfavorable balance of trade
c. globalization
d. unemployment

8. Which of the following economic policy concerns is often present with a growing economy and
high levels of employment?

a. increasing deficits
b. high labor-force participation
c. increasing entitlement costs
d. growing inflation

9. During times of inflation, which of the following is done by the Fed?

a. pass a budget that cuts the deficit

b. decrease the money supply
c. increase the balance of trade
d. offer tax breaks for certain economic activity

10. According to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), the United States can expect to see a
$______ billion deficit in 2017.

a. 400
b. 501
c. 665
d. 673

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EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Examine the positions that opposing sides take with regard to the U.S. balance of trade. Why do
some argue that a negative balance of trade is undesirable, while others argue that a negative
balance of trade is not a problem? (Chapter 7, Learning objective 2)

2. Explain the difference between fiscal policy and monetary policy. How does each tool work? Who is
responsible for them? (Chapter 7, Learning objective 3)

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Balance of trade: An economic goal related to the role of the United States in an international
economy; examines the value of a nation’s exports compared to its imports.

Consumer price index (CPI): An economic statistic used to measure the inflation rate. The index is
calculated by examining percent price changes for a typical market basket of goods.

Entitlement program: A program in which payment obligations are determined by the law that
created it, not by the budget associated with that program. Under entitlement programs, any
person who meets the eligibility requirements is entitled to receive benefits from the program.

Fiscal policy: A term that describes the taxing and spending tools at the government’s disposal to
influence the economy.

Full employment: A goal of economic policy generally defined as the lowest level of unemployment
that can be sustained in light of the structure of the overall economy. Also described as the
condition in which everyone who wishes to work at the prevailing wage rates can find a job.

Line-item veto: A budgeting tool that allows chief executives to delete specific items from an
appropriations bill without rejecting the whole bill.

Monetary policy: A tool used by the Federal Reserve board to influence economic policy goals; it
attempts to control economic fluctuations through tools such as changes to the reserve requirement
by controlling the amount of money in circulation, also referred to as the money supply.

National debt: The accumulation of all of the deficits the nation has run historically.

Progressive tax: A tax that is based on the philosophy that higher earners should pay higher taxes
both in terms of actual dollars and as a percentage of income.

Regressive tax: A tax that, when applied, taxes all individuals at the same rate regardless of their
income or socio-economic standing.

Supply-side economics: An economic theory that states that the government can increase
economic growth by cutting taxes, especially for the richest individuals.

Tax expenditures: Tax subsidies, such as an investment credit or deduction, designed to favor
a particular industry, activity, or set of persons. Called an expenditure because such a subsidy
reduces government revenue and thus is like spending money. Also sometimes called corporate
welfare.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. a

2. a

3. a

4. c

5. a

6. a

7. a

8. d

9. b

10. c

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EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Examine the positions that opposing sides take with regard to the U.S. balance of trade. Why do
some argue that a negative balance of trade is undesirable, while others argue that a negative
balance of trade is not a problem? (Chapter 7, Learning objective 2)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

It is viewed as a problem because the world does not see U.S. goods as competitive or desirable,
and industries and jobs may be at risk. It is seen as no problem since countries would not trade
at all if they didn’t see value in doing so.

2. Explain the difference between fiscal policy and monetary policy. How does each tool work? Who
is responsible for them? (Chapter 7, Learning objective 3)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Fiscal policy is a tool to achieve economic goals through the budget process. The President and
Congress are responsible for these actions. Monetary policy attempts to achieve these goals
through changes in the money supply, and the Fed is responsible for this policy. Also involved
are the tools of taxing and spending changes and monetary policy tools (e.g., change in interest
rates) and how these may affect the economy.

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EDU591 Public Policy

Notes

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EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Eight
Health Care Policy

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Examine the history and evolution of government

involvement in health care.

2. Explain major government health care programs.

3. Assess important health care policy issues.

4. Identify concerns over, and actions to address, rising health

care costs.

5. Analyze the role of managed care organizations.

6. Determine measures that can be taken to reduce health care

costs.

7. Assess the role that quality of care plays in the health care
system.

8. Analyze the issues surrounding health care policy.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 250-291 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

91
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter takes a look at health care policy in the United States. The chapter examines
the history and evolution of government involvement in health care, the major government health
care programs, the important health care policy issues, and concerns over, and actions to address,
rising health care costs. The chapter also addresses the role that quality of care plays in the health
care system and the role of managed care organizations in the health care system. Additionally, the
chapter also provides a discussion of ethical issues in health care policy.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Fee-for-service:

Health maintenance organization (HMO):

Managed care:

Medicaid:

Medicare:

Merit good:

Patients’ rights:

Portability:

Preferred provider organization (PPO):

Single payer insurance:

Third party payers:

Tricare:

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EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

Health care policy includes all the actions that governments take to influence the provision
of health care services and the various government activities that affect or attempt to affect
public health and well-being. Health care policy can be viewed narrowly to mean the design and
implementation of the range of federal and state programs that affect the provision of health care
services, such as Medicare and Medicaid. Health care also can be defined more broadly and more
meaningfully by recognizing that government engages in many other activities that influence both
public and private health care decision making. Health care policymaking involves things like how
we decide to deal with concerns such as access to health insurance and the provision and cost of
health care services.

This chapter details the development of health care policy in the United States, largely
focusing on recent developments and major policies currently active. Broader health care concepts
like single-payer or national health care are covered first, including predominant approaches in
the United States like managed care and preventative care. The details of landmark policies like
Medicare and Medicaid, health care for veterans, and the Affordable Care Act are followed by
discussions of their effectiveness and current policy issues surrounding these and other approaches
to health care.

The chapter also addresses ethical issues in health care policy, such as patients’ rights,
and how these ethical dilemmas are dealt with alongside more practical issues of economic
viability and effectiveness. For example, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
(HIPAA) guarantees that employees who change jobs have the right to insurance coverage, even if
that coverage comes at a higher cost. That is, they have the right of portability for their insurance
coverage—they can take guaranteed coverage with them if they change jobs, and they do not have
to endure the waiting period that policies often impose to limit coverage of preexisting conditions.
The Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA) was designed to allow employees
to remain on an employer’s health insurance policy for up to eighteen months.

Finally, the chapter focuses discussion on whether the greater emphasis should be placed
on preventative health care. Preventive health care has to be evaluated in terms of ethics, too. One
of the concerns is equity, or fair treatment for all groups in the population, and another is whether
governments (or employers) are justified in taking actions that may impinge on individual rights.
Lifestyle choices and wellness activities are part of the equity question when it comes to provision
of generous prescription drug coverage or other health care insurance benefits.

94
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. In the United States, health care is viewed as a ______, in contrast to many other developed
countries, which consider health care to be a right.

a. public good
b. merit good
c. pooled benefit
d. hybrid good

2. The Veterans Health System faces concerns related to ______.

a. poor quality of medical care and growing numbers of veterans needing care
b. rising costs of preventive care and poor quality of medical care
c. cost increases and reduced profitability
d. increased access to care among veterans and reduced costs

3. What did Medicare Part D seek to address?

a. the rising number of uninsured

b. the rising cost of health care
c. the reduced demand for health care
d. the rising costs of prescription drugs

4. In a national health insurance system, ______ is/are generally responsible for paying the cost
of health care.

a. the national government

b. employers
c. private insurance companies
d. the individual patient

5. Overall, the two broad problems that the U.S. health care system faces are ______.

a. inadequate funding for prescription drugs and cost of Children’s Health Care (SCHIP)
b. poor access to health care and insufficient funding for medical research
c. growing costs and poor access to health-care services
d. Medicare and Medicaid program inefficiencies and cost

95
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. What feature makes the U.S. health care system distinct from those of most other countries?

a. universal coverage that our citizens enjoy

b. the significant involvement of many for-profit companies and providers of care
c. the greater focus on preventive care
d. the more extensive government involvement

7. In the United States, the patient or an insurance company pays for the medical service
rendered. This is called ______.

a. Medicare
b. boutique health care
c. Medicaid
d. fee-for-service health care

8. What has the transition in the United States from fee-for-service approaches to health care to
managed care accomplished?

a. it has held down medical costs and increased preventative care

b. it has reduced demand
c. it has insured most Americans
d. it has increased the quality of medical services and expanded access

9. The Veterans’ Health Care Eligibility Reform Act passed in ______.

a. 1996
b. 1998
c. 2000
d. 2002

10. Medicare expenditures alone totaled about ______ billion in 2017.

a. 500
b. 600
c. 620
d. 702

96
EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. In theory, explain how the use of health maintenance organizations (HMOs) help to control health
care costs. Is this true in actuality? (Chapter 8, Learning objective 5)

2. Explain how the increasing cost of health care can be contained. Weigh the strategies discussed in
Chapter 8 against the criteria of effectiveness, cost, and equity. (Chapter 8, Learning objective 4)

97
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Fee-for-service: The traditional way to pay for medical services, whereby the patient or health
insurer pays for the services rendered with no restraint on overall costs. Managed care programs are
offered as an alternative.

Health maintenance organization (HMO): A form of managed care in which an individual chooses
or is assigned to a healthcare provider network that contracts with physicians to deliver healthcare
systems. HMO’s promote cost effective healthcare by negotiating lower fees with health care
providers, limiting access to expensive services, and often emphasizing preventative health care.

Managed care: A variety of efforts to organize and manage health care services—for example,
through health maintenance organizations. Designed as one way to contain rising health care costs
that had soared under the old, unrestrained “fee-for-service” system.

Medicaid: A federal state health insurance program that assist the poor and disabled. The federal
government sets standards for services and pays about half the cost. States pay the rest and set
standards for eligibility and overall benefit levels.

Medicare: A National Health insurance program for senior citizens. Covers basic medical care
for those age 65 and older, and others with permanent disabilities, diabetes, or end stage renal
disease.

Merit good: A good or service to which people are entitled as a right. Some argue that healthcare
should be considered a merit good and as such be provided by either employers or government
regardless of ability to pay.

Patients’ rights: A privilege of patients to see medical specialists or have a specific medical
treatment, or to sue their health care provider in order to gain those services or be compensated for
their loss.

Portability: A right guaranteed by a 1996 federal law in which employees can take their guaranteed
insurance coverage with them (that is, the insurance is portable) if they change jobs.

Preferred provider organization (PPO): An alternative to a health maintenance organization in which

enrollees have a financial incentive to use physicians on an approved list but may opt to see other
health professionals (preferred providers) at a higher cost.

Single payer insurance: A common healthcare policy in industrialized nations in which the national
government provides health insurance to all citizens. Also called National Health insurance.

98
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Third party payers: In healthcare policy, refers to insurance companies, employers, governments, or
other parties that pay for most health care expenses.

Tricare: A health insurance program offered by the U.S. Department of Defense; includes
substantial benefits for retirees with at least 20 years of military service when they become eligible
for Medicare.

99
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. b

2. a

3. d

4. a

5. c

6. b

7. d

8. a

9. a

10. d

100
EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. In theory, explain how the use of health maintenance organizations (HMOs) helps to control
health care costs. Is this true in actuality? (Chapter 8, Learning objective 5)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

HMOs argue that they are trying to ensure that limited health care dollars are spent efficiently
and fairly and that patients be provided with only safe and proven treatments. They fear
that expanding patients’ rights might lead to the use of unnecessary and possibly dangerous
procedures, resulting in higher insurance fees and injuries to patients.

2. Explain how the increasing cost of health care can be contained. Weigh the strategies discussed
in Chapter 8 against the criteria of effectiveness, cost, and equity. (Chapter 8, Learning
objective 4)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

A number of items can be considered. These can include an increase in preventative care,
increase in managed care, regulation of prescription drugs, and requiring patients to pay more of
their healthcare costs. For any alternative, discuss the analytical criteria of effectiveness, cost,
and equity. For example, increasing managed care would likely decrease cost given statistics
showing this already. The equity issue might be one of limiting choice for lower income levels or
higher income levels having different or more options.

101
EDU591 Public Policy

Notes

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EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Nine
Welfare and Social Security Policy

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Examine issues related to poverty and different perspectives

about why it occurs.

2. Differentiate between social insurance programs and means-

tested programs.

3. Describe the basics of the Social Security program and

different policy options offered to improve it.

4. Assess both past and current welfare-related programs.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 292-327 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

103
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter delves into welfare and Social Security policy. The chapter examines issues
related to poverty and different perspectives about why it occurs. The chapter addresses the
differences between social insurance programs and means-tested programs. The chapter also
explains the basics of the Social Security program and different policy options offered to improve
it. Additionally, the chapter takes a look at both past and current welfare-related programs.

104
EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Culture of poverty:

Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC):

Food stamp program:

Gini coefficient:

Means-tested programs:

Poverty:

Social Security:

105
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

This chapter examines poverty and the variety of programs that aim to reduce it. The
chapter outlines the benefits and financing of the Social Security program, one of a number of
federal programs designed to help individuals maintain a minimum income level after retirement.
Social Security’s changing demographics are presented to illustrate the potential problems the
program may face in the future—especially its continued financial viability.

It is important to distinguish between Social Security and Welfare. Social Security is

designed to help individuals maintain a minimal level of income after retirement or, if they are
unable to continue working, before they reach retirement age. The Welfare system is currently
administered under the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996
(PRWORA); reauthorized in 2006. This law was a major reform of the old Aid to Families with
Dependent Children (AFDC), and it provides support to individuals with low incomes. The programs
differ in terms of public acceptance, sources of financing, and the potential challenges they face in
the future.

To better understand the social welfare programs, one first needs to know something about
poverty in the United States. Poverty exists and needs to be addressed, and it becomes an even
greater concern during times of economic downturns. The American social and cultural perspective
encourages individualism and promotes equality of opportunity. But this is an ideal. The reality
is that this leads to a tendency to blame the poor for their own circumstances when in fact, it is
inequality of opportunity that prevents many from increasing their standard of living. Deep poverty
is defined as a household income less than half of the federal poverty amount. Over 6 percent of
the population lives under these conditions.

There are different ways to examine poverty in the U.S. The official definition from the
federal government is: a family of four is below the poverty line if its annual income was less than
$25,100 in the forty-eight contiguous states. From the income distribution perspective, the more
unequal the distribution of income, the greater the potential poverty problem. Viewing poverty in
terms of demographic characteristics (such as race, gender, and age) is yet another perspective on
the problem. For example: single mothers, children, and poorly educated young people have a hard
time rising out of poverty.

The Gini coefficient is a way of demonstrating a nation’s income equality and inequality.
Income equality is represented by a forty-five-degree line on which each percentage of the
population is making the same percentage of the income. As a curve deviates away from the
forty-five-degree line, it shows an increase in income inequality. The implicit interpretation of the
curve is that if a few people are making a large percentage of the income, more people are put
at risk of poverty. The chapter then discusses other means-tested welfare programs, including
the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, Earned Income Tax Credit, and the Personal
Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 (PRWORA). The latter was the major reform of
the former Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program, and its efficacy is discussed.

106
EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

The chapter concludes by focusing its discussion on poverty and how it can be addressed.
Can we do better addressing poverty? One recommendation, The AEI/Brookings recommendation,
is to promote delayed, responsible childbearing. Research suggests that children born from
unplanned pregnancies or to nonmarried people are more likely to be in poverty. The medical
technology exists to address this issue, but its use is often met with ethical controversies. Those
supporting policies geared toward more intensive counseling on the issue of childbearing or making
birth control more available point to data and research regarding the benefits in reducing unwanted
pregnancies and how this will potentially lead to better lives for all. Opponents suggest that such
policies encourage young women and men to partake in premarital sex.

Questions of equity often examine the difference between equality of opportunity and
equality of results. The United States has focused historically more on equality of opportunity.
For example, in terms of education funding there are equity and equality concerns. The lack of
government funding in early childhood raises equity concerns due to the differences between
the rich and poor in accessing pre-kindergarten education and development. This difference can
carry through to a child’s continued preparation and education in the future. Not providing such
opportunities for all seems to go against The United States’ perspective of equality of opportunity.

107
EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) is a refundable federal income tax for working individuals
and families that is intended to ______.

a. encourage people to work

b. reduce the culture of poverty
c. encourage people to file income taxes
d. reduce the TANF caseload

2. The highest quintile (20%) of the U.S. population earns about ______ of the total income in
the country.

a. 20%
b. 30%
c. 40%
d. 51%

3. The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) emphasized ______.

a. personal responsibility and subsidies for the elderly

b. welfare subsidies for families with children and children’s health care
c. work requirements for those receiving subsidies and lifetime limits
d. expansion of the federal food assistance programs

4. By the year 2033, it is estimated that only ______ workers will be paying for each Social
Security beneficiary.

a. four
b. three
c. two
d. five

5. According to an analysis by the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, what was the effect of
the Social Security program on the poverty rates of older adults?

a. Almost half of older adults were kept out of poverty by the Social Security program.
b. The program was ineffective on many measures.
c. 1 in 10 older adults was kept out of poverty by Social Security.
d. The situation is too complex to determine impacts.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. One of the major criticisms of the federal poverty level is that ______.

a. it is too high
b. the poverty-line calculation is based on assumptions made in the mid-1960s
c. it doesn’t take into account the “culture of poverty”
d. it relies too heavily on the Gini coefficient

7. The primary goal of all welfare and social security programs is to ______.

a. create higher wage jobs for the poor

b. reduce the number of people living in poverty
c. assist people to obtain adequate and affordable housing
d. reduce unemployment

8. One of the major risks that opponents criticize regarding the proposal to partially privatize
Social Security funding is that ______.

a. employers may fail to participate

b. individuals may not make wise investment choices for the money they are responsible to
invest
c. too many individuals will participate, leading to a breakdown of the system
d. the federal government will not be able to fund even the smaller portion for which it is
responsible

9. The current Social Security program, financed by payroll taxes, is capped at just over
$132,900 of income. This is an example of ______.

a. a regressive tax
b. an unfunded mandate
c. a progressive tax
d. privatization

10. Children make up only 25% of the population, but they comprise ______ of the nation’s poor.

a. 15%
b. 33%
c. 46%
d. 55%

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EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. While the privatization of Social Security has received a lot of attention and support, others oppose
privatization. Examine the pros and cons of this proposal. (Chapter 9, Learning objective 3)

2. Explain the two major perspectives on the causes of poverty. What implications do these
perspectives have on preferred policy options? (Chapter 9, Learning objective 4)

110
EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Culture of poverty: A term used by some to describe how those living in poverty learn to work the
welfare system to their benefit and pass this information on to their children, who remained poor.

Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): A tax credit for people who work but have low wages; it reduces
the amount of taxes they owe or provides a tax refund.

Food stamp program: A plan administered by the Department of Agriculture that provides
low-income households with coupons that they can use to purchase food. Also called the
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, or SNAP.

Gini coefficient: A graphical way to demonstrate a nation’s income equality/inequality by charting

the percentage of income made by quintiles of families.

Means-tested programs: Social programs in which recipients must meet an income test in order to
qualify for benefits.

Poverty: Defined by the Census Bureau as falling below a specified level of annual income that is
adjusted each year to reflect the rising cost of living.

Social Security: A government entitlement program that provides money for retired workers and
their beneficiaries and disabled workers.

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Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. a

2. d

3. c

4. c

5. a

6. b

7. b

8. b

9. a

10. b

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Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. While the privatization of Social Security has received a lot of attention and support, others
oppose privatization. Examine the pros and cons of this proposal. (Chapter 9, Learning
objective 3)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Pros: The government would be able to reduce costs and control payouts, while individuals could
earn more money than they would currently receive under Social Security.

Cons: Many individuals may not have the skills to manage the money responsibly and the risks
of falling stock markets.

2. Explain the two major perspectives on the causes of poverty. What implications do these
perspectives have on preferred policy options? (Chapter 9, Learning objective 4)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

One view, typically held by conservatives, is that people choose not to improve themselves and
learn to accept welfare without really trying to get off of it. This viewpoint opposes granting
benefits such as food or cash benefits. The other perspective, typically held by liberals, believes
that poor people have had unequal opportunities and that is why they remain poor. This
perspective favors welfare support programs.

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Notes

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Objectives

Chapter Ten
Education Policy

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Examine issues associated with the government’s role in

both K–12 and higher education.

2. Address some of the common concerns associated with

K–12 and higher education.

3. Identify education policy reform efforts to address quality

concerns.

4. Examine the issues surrounding policy choices that could be

used to address problems in higher education.

5. Assess policy reforms that have been suggested to address

school quality issues.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 328-366 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

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EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter addresses education policy. The chapter examines issues associated with the
government’s role in both K–12 and higher education. The chapter addresses some of the common
concerns associated with K–12 and higher education and identifies education policy reform efforts
to address quality concerns. The chapter also takes a look at the issues surrounding policy choices
that could be used to address problems in higher education. Additionally, the chapter outlines
policy reforms that have been suggested to address school quality issues.

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Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Charter school:

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA):

Merit pay:

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP):

School choice:

School vouchers:

Teacher quality:

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Summary

This chapter explores education policy. Traditionally, public education has been in
the hands of state and local government. State governments have the major responsibilities
in education policy with respect to curriculum, teacher training and certification, and funding
public schools. The first major education legislation passed by Congress was the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) in 1965 and that law raised the amount of federal funding for
primary and secondary education.

The federal government has an interest in higher education because education is

associated with positive externalities. Policy makers want to encourage individuals to attend college
and to help defray the cost of doing so. A better-educated population stimulates economic growth.
Among the early programs in support of higher education was the Morrill Act, approved in 1862. It
helped to develop the nation’s land-grant college system, which in turn contributed significantly to
economic development during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Land-grant colleges focused
initially on practical fields such as agriculture and engineering, but they eventually broadened their
scope to include the full range of arts and sciences.

The GI Bill and Pell Grant provide money directly to eligible students to make attending
college more affordable. The GI Bill, originally the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, was
instrumental in the decision of tens of thousands of veterans to attend college after World War II.
Congress continues to update the law to help fund higher education programs for eligible veterans,
and many veterans today rely on these funds to pay for their college education. The Pell Grant
program offers awards, not loans, of as much as $6,095 to eligible undergraduates, depending on
financial need and costs of attending college.

More recently, the federal government has begun to respond to the problems in public
education at all levels. For example, student performance statistics show wide variation in the
quality of education from state to state, and the government has attempted to impose higher
standards where needed.

Indeed, society benefits from a well-educated populace. Because of this, education policy
debates are fraught with concerns about equity of access to education. In exploring equity issues in
K–12 and higher education in the United States, the chapter focuses on quality, affordability, cost,
and value of education.

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Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Education is often cited as something that benefits more than just the person getting the
education; it benefits society in a number of other ways. This is called ______.

a. redistributive policy
b. positive externality
c. buoyancy of community funding
d. market-based incentives

2. The ______ is a national test measuring student performance.

a. No Child Left Behind

b. Educate America Test
c. Secondary Assessment of Quality
d. National Assessment of Educational Progress

3. Which policy allows parents to send their children to any public school in a particular area?

a. affirmative action
b. school vouchers
c. school choice
d. charter schools

4. The growing cost of tuition at public universities in the United States is directly related to
______.

a. decreasing funding for higher education by states

b. inflation
c. technology
d. decreasing support for higher education from the federal government

5. Which of the following is one of the MOST important funding issues for K–12 education?

a. declining funding for school choice programs

b. lack of buoyancy of property taxes when compared to education costs
c. the diminishing achievement gap between poorer and wealthier children
d. the regressive federal financing for education

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. One of the major criticisms of President Bush’s No Child Left Behind educational policy was
that ______.

a. students don’t have enough study time

b. students are taught differently from school to school
c. there were issues with implementation
d. it does not include high school testing

7. By most recent accounts, what is the MOST important issue facing U.S. higher education
today?

a. discontinuation of Pell Grant program

b. retirements by baby boomer faculty
c. reduced access to college among low-income students
d. declining quality of educational programs

8. Congress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), its first major
education legislation, in ______.

a. 1960
b. 1962
c. 1965
d. 1970

9. Federal Pell Grants are one program that addresses the needs of low-income individuals. These
grants provide up to ______.

a. $4,569
b. $5,815
c. $5,987
d. $6,095

10. No Child Left Behind was enacted in ______.

a. 2000
b. 2002
c. 2004
d. 2006

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EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Have affirmative action programs in higher education been effective? Provide one argument for
and one argument against affirmative action programs in higher education. (Chapter 10, Learning
objective 4)

2. Analyze the concerns about K–12 education and higher education using the evaluative criteria of
effectiveness, efficiency, and equity. (Chapter 10, Learning objective 4)

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Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Charter school: A school reform idea in which a school is government supported but independent.
A State Board of Education gives an independent entity the responsibility for establishing a school
and delivering education services with limited control by the school board.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA): A new version of the federal education law ESEA, signed
by President Obama in 2015, that reversed much of the federal government’s control of public
education and returned control to the States and local districts.

Merit pay: The idea that teacher pay increases should be based on performance in the classroom;
this is sometimes linked to how students perform on standardized exams.

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): The test that is required by the No Child
Left Behind Act to determine whether schools are meeting appropriate standards.

School choice: The term used to describe any school reform effort that provides parents with
options regarding where to send their children, including charter schools and voucher programs.
Sometimes the term is used more specifically to describe programs in which parents can send
children to public schools in a particular area.

School vouchers: A school reform idea in which the government provides individuals with a certain
amount of money that can be applied to a student’s education; often associated with a way to
provide people with a private school option they may not have been able to afford in the past.

Teacher quality: An issue in education policy that concerns a teacher’s ability in the classroom.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. b

2. d

3. c

4. a

5. b

6. c

7. c

8. c

9. d

10. b

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EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Have affirmative action programs in higher education been effective? Provide one argument
for and one argument against affirmative action programs in higher education. (Chapter 10,
Learning objective 4)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

A supporting argument would be that these programs promote diversity and enhance the student
learning experience. An opposing argument might be that the programs prevent the admission of
better-qualified students and raise the issue of fairness.

2. Analyze the concerns about K–12 education and higher education using the evaluative criteria of
effectiveness, efficiency, and equity. (Chapter 10, Learning objective 4)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Concerns about K–12 include declining quality and teacher effectiveness. There are major
efficiency concerns about what is being spent (increasing costs in both higher and K–12
education) versus the outcomes being achieved. There is equity of opportunity concerns at both
levels.

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Notes

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EDU591 Public Policy
Unit Three

Additional Resources

We recognize that students learn in different ways and that learning goes beyond the textbook, exams, and
writing assignments. To help you explore your field of study, we have provided a variety of PowerPoints,
learning activities, and resources that will hopefully get you thinking about your course and major in new
ways and deepen your understanding of the subject matter.

PowerPoints
Many students are visual learners. For each course, we have provided PowerPoint presentations to help you
explore the subject through graphics, text, and videos. Some of the PowerPoints correspond to chapters in
the textbook, while others present an overview of the subject matter.

Learning Activities and Resources

Learning activities and resources provide avenues to explore both your individual courses and your major.
We have created a variety of activities and resources for you to have a more engaging learning experience.
To give you some guidelines, we suggest you:
• Spend some time exploring and engaging in the large variety of learning activities and resources
listed in the student portal.
• Choose activities and resources that are of interest to you.
• Check back as we will be adding new material on a regular basis.

Examples of some of the learning activities and resources include:

• Watching a video related to your course
• Conducting an informational interview with someone working in the field
• Exploring professional organizations related to your course
• Finding a book or journal article related to your field and read up on the subject
• Brainstorming and researching your subject using the keywords in your study guide or text
• Exploring professions related to your course
• Attending a conference related to your course
• Finding a mentor who is working in the field
• Researching professional certifications or advanced training related to your subject
• Exploring the “Questions for Consideration”
• Conducting a case study analysis

Reading List
A reading list of books and journal articles related to your major is available on the student portal
under “student resources” and listed by each school: Administration and Management, Arts and Sciences,
Behavior Science, Criminal Justice, and Education. You may also ask your Student Success Advisor for a
copy if you are unable to access it via the student portal.
We hope you will find all of these activities and resources interesting, thought-provoking, and enjoyable!

Now, it’s time to take your Unit Three Examination!

Please read the following pages before you begin.

Remember, we’re rooting for you!

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EDU591 Public Policy
Unit 3 Examination
Instructions

The Unit Examination

At the conclusion of each unit, you will have a unit examination. The
unit examination contains 25 multiple-choice questions.

If you are completing your work online, you will find the unit
exam questions by logging into the Student Portal, clicking on My
Academic Plan, and then selecting the course you are working on.

For students who receive coursework by mail, the exam questions and
answer sheets are included separately from this study guide as a part
of your coursework packet.

Each of the multiple-choice questions are based on the unit you are
completing.

For the unit examination, your grade on the examination will be

determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university
utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct 4 grade points

B = 80% – 89% correct 3 grade points
C = 70% – 79% correct 2 grade points
D = 60% – 69% correct 1 grade point
F = 59% and below correct 0 grade points

Completing The Unit Three Multiple-Choice Examination

Before beginning your examination, we recommend that you
thoroughly review the textbook chapters and other materials covered
in each unit, and follow the suggestions in the Mastering the Course
Content section of the syllabus.

We encourage you to take your time, go through the examination,

and identify questions you know the answers to. A good strategy is
to answer all of the questions you are familiar and comfortable with
first, and then go back to work on items that you find more difficult.

If you wish to challenge a particular item, please review the

Challenging a Test Item section of the syllabus.

Writing Assignments
Each course requires students to submit a total of FOUR Writing
Assignments. Please refer to the Writing Lab pages located after the
Unit 4 Examination Instructions page for more details.

Good luck with your multiple-choice examination!

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EDU591 Public Policy
You Can Do It

Unit 3 is done!
You’re close to the finish line
and we’re cheering you on to victory!

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EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Eleven
Environmental and Energy Policy

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Examine the nature of environmental and energy policies

and the key concepts associated with them, including
climate change.

2. Explore the history of government involvement in

environmental and energy policy.

3. Assess areas of consensus and conflict in addressing

environmental and energy concerns.

4. Compare major U.S. environmental policies and their

impacts.

5. Explain major U.S. energy policies and their impacts,

including those directed at climate change.

6. Analyze issues surrounding environmental and energy policy.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 367-411 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

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EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter explores environmental and energy policy. The chapter explains the nature of
environmental and energy policies and the key concepts associated with them, including climate
change. The chapter discusses the history of government involvement in environmental and energy
policy. The chapter outlines areas of consensus and conflict in addressing environmental and
energy concerns. The chapter also takes a look at major U.S. environmental policies and their
impacts, including those directed at climate change.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Cap-and-trade policy:

Carbon tax:

Command and control:

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards:

Direct regulation:

Ecosystem-based management:

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS):

Inter-generational equity:

Multiple use:

Resource subsidies:

Sustainable development:

Toxic Release Inventory (TRI):

User fees:

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EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

This chapter discusses the history of environmental and energy policy in the United
States, primarily over the course of the last few decades. A 1990 law, the Global Change Research
Act, requires all presidential administrations to compile such an assessment no less than every
four years. These reports cover such topics as: important data on the effects of global change
on the natural environment, agriculture, energy production and use, land and water resources,
transportation, and human health and welfare.

Global emissions of carbon dioxide, largely generated by use of fossil fuels, rose
significantly in 2018 after several years of decline, driven by strong economic growth in the
United States, China, and India. Climate change refers not just to “global warming” or rising
temperatures. It also includes other global and regional weather patterns linked to increased levels
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The Obama administration approved the Clean Power Plan
first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in June 2014—the final version was
unveiled by President Obama on August 3, 2015. The U.S. took several significant steps to reach
U.S. commitments under it to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. These included a plan that
was to help phase out older coal-burning power plants and stronger vehicle fuel economy standards
that would sharply reduce the use of gasoline. Acknowledging that at that time a Republican-
controlled Congress was unlikely to approve such steps, the Obama White House relied on
administrative rules to put them into effect, particularly through regulatory actions by the federal
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

The energy Americans use and its sources—especially fossil fuels, which constitute nearly
80% of U.S. energy use—can have profound environmental impacts. This chapter describes and
evaluates U.S. environmental and energy policies. It discusses their evolution, especially since
the 1970s and 1980s, when most of the key policies were approved. It details various landmark
legislation and clarifies what these policies attempted to accomplish, what they resulted in,
and whether they were effective. The chapter covers older landmark environmental policy and
contemporary policy and environmental issues in order to present some alternatives and concerns
for climate change and energy policy.

The ethical issues of climate change and energy policy that concern how the various policy
proposals affect different groups of citizens now and in the future is discussed in this chapter. To
be considered in the debate is intergenerational equity or what is fair to future generations. Climate
change forecasts suggest that the most serious adverse impacts will be felt mostly by people fifty
or more years in the future. Those opposed to a strong climate change policy for the United States
raise a different kind of equity concern. Why should the United States lead in these efforts when
so little has been required of rapidly developing nations such as China and India? The United
States and other developed nations have been the main generators of greenhouse gases and thus
could fairly be said to be obliged to play a greater role in reducing emissions now. One thing is
for certain, discussions about climate change, environmental ethics, and hot-button energy issues
demonstrate the complexity of modern environmental policy and the practical and sometimes
moral dilemmas that environmental policy faces.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Which of the following agencies has PRIMARY responsibility for implementing environmental
laws in the United States?

a. Department of the Interior

b. Department of Natural Resources
c. Council on Environmental Quality
d. Environmental Protection Agency

2. Which level of government enacts laws related to environmental policy?

a. state
b. federal
c. local
d. all of the above

3. Which statement describes the nature of the seven major environmental statutes enacted in
the 1970s?

a. They were a diverse set of public policies.

b. The statutes as a group were focused on issues of pollution related to use of energy.
c. The statutes were developed by environmental agencies.
d. Each of the statutes could be described as broad and far-reaching in scope and lacking
focus.

4. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, for the first time, developed ______.

a. a set of strict regulations focused solely on coal emissions across the United States
b. uniform air quality standards for the entire United States
c. market incentives for industry to reduce harmful emissions
d. an agreement between industry and the government about how to address declining air
quality

5. What did new Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards passed in a 2007 energy bill
improve?

a. controls on greenhouse gas emissions

b. the fuel efficiency of automobiles
c. the price of gasoline, by lowering gas taxes across the country
d. automobile emissions and traffic congestions, by raising gas taxes across the country

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

6. Which BEST describes the recent history of energy policymaking in the United States?

a. not much activity until the mid-1980s followed by a period of significant policymaking
activity that continues today
b. policy stalemate from the 1970s through the 2000s
c. period of incremental policy change followed by numerous significant policies enacted in
the 1990s
d. period of incremental policy change followed by a high level of regulation

7. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 ______.

a. mandates that agencies engage in policy analysis before they make decisions
b. required environmental impact statements
c. states that its enactment signified the beginning of the modern era in environmental policy
d. all of the above

8. With regard to environmental policy formulation, in the 1970s, ______ was the norm in the
United States, while ______ was the norm in the 1980s and 1990s.

a. consensus; disagreement
b. disagreement; consensus
c. partisanship; cooperation
d. state leadership; federal leadership

9. Environmental policies such as the Clean Air Act, Water Pollution Control Act, Safe Drinking
Water Act, and Toxic Substances Control Act (and others) tended to emphasize which policy
tool?

a. privatization
b. subsidies to business
c. market incentives
d. command and control regulation

10. With regard to climate change policy, many conflicts arise regarding how the various policy
proposals affect different groups of citizens now and in future generations. This relates to
______.

a. ethical and equity concerns of policy

b. political feasibility
c. cost-effectiveness of policy
d. effectiveness of policy

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EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Examine the evolution of U.S. environmental policy over the past 50 years. How has U.S.
environmental policy changed over the years (use the following time periods: pre-1960s,
mid-1960s to 1970s, 1980s to early 2000s, and currently)? Why have these changes occurred?
(Chapter 11, Learning objective 2)

2. Define the term “intergenerational equity” and explain how it relates to climate change and energy
policy. (Chapter 11, Learning objective 6)

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Cap-and-trade policy: A policy action that relies on market-based mechanisms in which an overall
cap or ceiling is set and trading of permits or allowances is allowed within that cap. The cap may
be lowered overtime.

Carbon tax: A tax on gasoline or on all fossil fuels, often proposed as a revenue-neutral tax in which
other taxes are lowered by the same amount as the new tax on carbon.

Command and control: The traditional approach to environmental regulation (also called direct
regulation) in which government sets and enforces standards for air quality, water quality, and
other resources.

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards: A federal program that mandates achievement
of an average level of fuel efficiency for a given automaker’s line of vehicles. That is, it sets
minimum fuel economy standards, but only for the average of all vehicles produced.

Direct regulation: Also called command and control, or simple regulation, in which government
regulates or controls the environmental, health, and safety performance of industry or other
facilities through the setting and enforcement of standards and sometimes through requirements
for certain technologies to be used.

Ecosystem-based management: A comprehensive approach to natural resource management that

emphasizes the integrated treatment of entire ecosystems and their functions. Contrasts with
efforts to deal with a specific species or body of land or water.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): A form of impact assessment in which government

agencies must provide details on the environmental consequences of major actions, such as
highway construction, and make them public prior to a final decision on the project.

Inter-generational equity: An ethical principle that emphasizes fairness or equity among

generations. Important for environmental policies that have substantial affects far into the future,
such as actions on climate change.

Multiple use: The principle that any natural resource, such as public forest land, can be used
simultaneously for multiple purposes or uses—for example, timber harvesting and recreation. A
long-standing element of federal land and forest policies.

Resource subsidies: Government policies that provide financial incentives (subsidies) to develop
and use specific resources, such as land, water, minerals, and forest. Traditionally a major
component of federal natural resource policies.

Sustainable development: Economic growth that is compatible with environmental systems and
social goals.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Toxic Release Inventory (TRI): A report published each year that can be accessed on the
Environmental Protection Agency’s website and elsewhere. The TRI describes toxic chemicals that
industrial facilities release into the air, water, and land in communities across the country.

User fees: Specific fees or charges that the user of a natural resource pays. These could be fees for
entering a National Park, harvesting timber from public lands, or mining minerals on public lands.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. d

2. b

3. a

4. b

5. b

6. b

7. d

8. a

9. d

10. a

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EDU591 Public Policy
Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Examine the evolution of U.S. environmental policy over the past 50 years. How has U.S.
environmental policy changed over the years (use the following time periods: pre-1960s,
mid-1960s to 1970s, 1980s to early 2000s, and currently)? Why have these changes occurred?
(Chapter 11, Learning objective 2)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Prior to the 1960s, environmental policy was mostly concerned with regulating natural
resources, and the environment was not a prominent concern in society. However, the public
became aware of concerns about pollution, which led to a time period in the late 1960s to
1970s of much activity, where many command-and-control–oriented regulations addressed
pollution and human health issues. In the 1980s, more conflict arose regarding the cost of these
regulatory policies and their impact on stifling business and the economy. Deep cuts were made
to environmental agency budgets. This led to attempts at regulatory reform and the movement to
attempt to consider cost (efficiency) more explicitly in the development of environmental policies
in the 1980s and 1990s, although they were largely ineffective. The early 2000s continued to
be a time of incremental policy reform, growing conflict between the parties, and policy gridlock.
Many of these conflicts continue to this day. However, the Obama administration found ways
to accomplish environmental goals without having to pass laws, through enforcing existing
regulations, such as the CAFÉ standards and clean air legislation. The Trump administration
took a different stance on these issues by challenging the CAFE standards and withdrawing from
the Paris Agreement, effectively reversing many of Obama’s rules on climate change.

2. Define the term “intergenerational equity” and explain how it relates to climate change and
energy policy. (Chapter 11, Learning objective 6)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Intergenerational equity considers what is fair to future generations. Climate change will impact
future generations much more severely than today’s generations; climate change policy (or lack
thereof) raises ethical issues about how climate change will impact people in the future much
more than today.

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Notes

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EDU591 Public Policy
Objectives

Chapter Twelve
Foreign Policy and Homeland Security

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Analyze the nature of foreign policy and homeland security

and the key concepts associated with them.

2. Assess major issues in foreign policy and homeland security.

3. Evaluate significant foreign and defense policy actions taken

since the end of World War II.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 412-449 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

141
EDU591 Public Policy
Overview

This chapter turns its attention to foreign policy and homeland security. The chapter
explains the nature of foreign policy, homeland security, and the key concepts associated with
them. The chapter also addresses the major issues in foreign policy and homeland security.
Additionally, this chapter outlines the significant foreign and defense policy actions taken since the
end of World War II.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Cold War:

Defense policy:

Deterrence:

Foreign policy:

Globalization:

International Monetary Fund (IMF):

Marshall Plan:

Nuclear proliferation:

Realpolitik:

Terrorism:

World Bank:

World Trade Organization (WTO):

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EDU591 Public Policy
Summary

This chapter explores the interrelated issues of foreign policy and homeland security and
begins by examining the surveillance program of the NSA.

Throughout 2013, the nation was gripped by news of the National Security Agency’s
(NSA) extensive and secretive domestic surveillance operations that far exceeded what the public
and policy makers thought was taking place. Many of the news stories in 2013 followed the
release of thousands of classified documents by Edward J. Snowden, a then twenty-nine-year-old
former NSA contractor who worked for the consulting company Booz Allen Hamilton. Two of the
newspapers that published stories based on the NSA documents that Snowden provided to them—
the Washington Post and the Guardian—won the prestigious Pulitzer Prize for public service.
The sharply varying assessments of Snowden’s release of classified documents and of the NSA’s
massive domestic surveillance operations illustrate well the contemporary challenge of providing
for the nation’s security.

The chapter also looks at the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) which was created
through an executive agency reorganization in the aftermath of the 2001 attacks and the need
to thoroughly examine such agencies to make sure they are as capable as they can be of carrying
out U.S. policy and protecting the nation from security threats. Instead of the major policies
and programs, the chapter emphasizes key issues in foreign policy and homeland security and
addresses questions about the effectiveness of new policies adopted in the years following the
terrorist attacks of 2001.

The chapter also takes a look at policies within the larger context of new and complex
global challenges that confront the United States in the twenty-first century, including national
security threats posed by the growth of international terrorism, often defined as the unconventional
use of violence for political gain. Policy analysis can help in understanding contemporary
challenges in foreign policy and homeland security as much as it can in domestic policy areas such
as education, the environment, and health care.

The chapter considers the efficacy of government agencies responsible for foreign and
defense policy. After describing some of the major historical events related to U.S. foreign
policy, including the Marshall Plan, NATO, the Cold War, the development of the United Nations,
globalization, and military buildup, the chapter explores the growing role of covert intelligence. The
Iraq War brought to the surface the new costs and challenges of fighting terrorism and the need to
coordinate government efforts to combat the threat it poses around the world. Foreign aid is one of
the key instruments of foreign policy today, and the chapter features an exploration of its goals and
priorities.

Finally, the chapter explores certain homeland security issues in greater detail. These
include an examination of transportation security. A focused discussion at the end of the chapter
examines the issue of civil liberties in an age of terrorism through the analytical lenses of
effectiveness, efficiency, and legal and ethical concerns. Both liberals and conservatives agree that
it is imperative that the nation improve its gathering of information related to possible terrorism,
including domestic intelligence. The essential question they must address is how best to balance
competing needs of security and civil liberties.

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Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. The most important policymaking body of the United Nations, the ______ has a rotating
membership of 10 nations that includes five permanent members.

a. Security Council
b. Trade Council
c. World Bank
d. Peace Council

2. The ______ analyzed many failures of the FBI, CIA, and other departments and agencies
involved in national security, leading to the most sweeping overhaul of the intelligence
functions of government.

a. Blueprint for America’s Security

b. 9/11 Commission Report
c. Department of Homeland Security
d. Pentagon

3. All of the following are key presidential advisers on issues of foreign policy EXCEPT:

a. National Security Adviser

b. Secretary of State
c. Attorney General
d. National Security Council

4. The largest percentage of foreign aid today goes to ______.

a. Latin America
b. the Middle East
c. the Asia Pacific
d. Eastern Europe

5. This controversial law provided for an increase in the use of surveillance by the U.S.
government to prevent terrorism.

a. The Protect America Act

b. The National Security Act
c. The Protect Our Borders Act
d. The USA PATRIOT Act

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Self Test

6. The major thrust of the U.S. foreign policy between the 1950s and early 1990s could be
described as ______.

a. a policy of deterrence through military buildup

b. data mining and surveillance practices
c. using diplomacy to rebuild alliances after the Cold War
d. increase in the capacity to address terrorism

7. The ______ includes a range of U.S. military and government officials who advise the President
on issues of foreign policy and other matters.

a. Emergency Management Council

b. National Security Council
c. Panel on Homeland Security
d. National Homeland Security Review Commission

8. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was developed in response to the threat of aggression
from whom?

a. Germany
b. Iran
c. China
d. The Soviet Union

9. The National Security Council is chaired by the ______.

a. President
b. Vice President
c. Speaker of the House
d. Secretary of Defense

10. The National Security Agency (NSA) began operating during which war?

a. Civil War
b. Korean War
c. World War I
d. World War II

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Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Assess the goals of the Marshall Plan and determine if it was effective. (Chapter 12, Learning
objective 1)

2. Examine the changes in focus of the U.S. foreign policy beginning after World War II. What was
the major thrust of activities immediately after World War II, in the 1960s through 1980s, in the
1990s through 2001, and in the modern times? How did the focus and priorities of U.S. policies
shift? (Chapter 12, Learning objective 3)

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Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Cold War: The period of persistent hostility, but not overt “hot” war, between the former Soviet
Union and the United States that lasted from 1945 until the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991.

Defense policy: A major component of foreign policy that encompasses the conduct of military
affairs, such as choice of weapons systems and deployment of troops. Intended to achieve policy
goals set by civilian policy makers in the White House and Congress.

Deterrence: A policy strategy used most often in national defense in which the object is to
deter or prevent a potential enemy from taking actions harmful to the nation. The strategy of
nuclear deterrence, for example, was based on the assumption that no nation would engage in a
preemptive, or first-strike, war because the likely retaliation would be too massive to accept.

Foreign policy: The collection of government actions that affect U.S. national security and the
economic and political goals associated with it. Encompasses issues as diverse as international
trade, economic assistance to poor nations, immigration to the United States, and action on
human rights abuses around the world.

Globalization: The growing interrelationship of all nations through global trade. Facilitates the
development of an international marketplace in an increasingly connected world.

International Monetary Fund (IMF): An international financial institution that promotes

international trade by increasing the exchange stability of the major currencies. Similar to the
World Bank, the IMF also lends money to developing nations.

Marshall Plan: The plan adopted in 1947 for the economic rebuilding of Europe after the end of
World War II. Named for Secretary of State George Marshall.

Nuclear proliferation: The spread of nuclear weapons, knowledge, and technology to new nations
such as India and Pakistan. The United States and other nuclear powers often expressed concern
over such proliferation because it may increase security risks.

Realpolitik: A hardheaded or practical appraisal of national interests that emphasizes competition

among nation-states.

Terrorism: Usually defined as the unconventional or unlawful use or threat of violence to achieve
political or social ends. Terrorism encompasses the strategies and tactics of diverse groups around
the world.

World Bank: An institution that loans money to developing nations for certain kinds of development
projects.

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Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

World Trade Organization (WTO): The WTO was established in 1995 and administers trade
agreements among 150 nations to settle conflicts over trade disputes. Its existence reflects the
global marketplace of the 21st century.

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Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. a

2. b

3. c

4. b

5. d

6. a

7. b

8. d

9. a

10. b

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Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Assess the goals of the Marshall Plan and determine if it was effective. (Chapter 12, Learning
objective 1)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

The goal of the Marshall Plan was to help rebuild Europe after World War II. The plan was to
offer humanitarian aid to assist in Europe’s recovery and to encourage nations in Europe to work
together to improve economically. The United States also was aware that a stronger Europe
could help to block the expansion of Communism from the East as well as stimulate the U.S.
economy because so much of what European nations bought was made in the United States.

2. Examine the changes in focus of the U.S. foreign policy beginning after World War II. What was
the major thrust of activities immediately after World War II, in the 1960s through 1980s, in
the 1990s through 2001, and in the modern times? How did the focus and priorities of U.S.
policies shift? (Chapter 12, Learning objective 3)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

After World War II, the United States focused on rebuilding Europe and creating alliances along
with building up the U.S. military. Then the Cold War really took off in the 1960s to 1980s,
when the goal was military buildup in order to deter Communism. The Cold War ended and the
United States had a quiet period, followed by a focus on antiterrorism after 9/11.

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Notes

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Objectives

Chapter Thirteen
Politics, Analysis, and Policy Choice

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain how policy analysis can clarify the problems and

policy alternatives that citizens and policymakers face.

2. Evaluate policy proposals and actions for their effectiveness,

efficiency, and equity, among other concerns.

3. Assess the government’s capacity for problem solving and

how it might be improved.

4. Examine the dynamics of policymaking and the

opportunities that the policy process presents for citizens to
participate in decision making.

Instructions to Students
• Read pages 450-478 of your textbook
• Reference: Public Policy:
Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives
by Michael E. Kraft and Scott R. Furlong,
7th Edition

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Overview

This chapter brings together the concepts of politics, policy analysis, and policy choice.
The chapter explains how policy analysis can clarify the problems and policy alternatives that
citizens and policymakers face. The chapter addresses analyzing policy proposals and actions
for their effectiveness, efficiency, and equity, among other concerns, as well as the government’s
capacity for problem solving and how it might be improved. Finally, the chapter explores the
dynamics of policymaking and the opportunities that the policy process presents for citizens to
participate in decision making.

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Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar.
Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

Citizen capacity:

Policy capacity:

Policy engagement:

Public participation:

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Summary

Because political conflict and uncertainty are part of policymaking, almost all
policymaking requires compromise on policy goals and methods to achieve them. Thus, it is always
important to seek out other points of view and credible assessments by professional analysts
or other nonpartisan observers in policy analysis. This chapter addresses the dynamics of the
policymaking process as well as the opportunities that it affords to citizens.

Indeed, precisely because policy decisions can affect people’s lives, those who feel
aggrieved by a decision are moved to act to amend it or overturn it, sometimes through deeper
involvement in the political process, in government decision making, in judicial lawsuits, and/
or in civic or community affairs in general. The chapter discusses citizen involvement and why it
is important as well as new ways individuals can become part of the policy process. Citizens are
significant participants in the policymaking process, whether it is through the simple act of voting
or more intensive involvement in government and civic affairs at the local, state, and national
levels.

There are a variety of ways individuals can participate in the policy process, especially
through voting, writing letters or e-mail messages to policymakers, and discussing policy issues.
Technology is also raising public participation and the percentage could rise as technology
makes public involvement easier and as policymakers become more interested in raising public
participation in government.

There are ways for government agencies to initiate public participation, especially through
efforts to promote the use of their websites, offering information and public services through
“e-government,” inviting the public to engage in issues, inviting people to public meetings and
hearings, and asking the public to submit comments on proposed government actions. Asking
citizens to serve on advisory panels and assist them in making often difficult choices is a further
option.

Citizens face a veritable flood of political and public policy commentary, much of which
is biased and partisan, and sometimes blatantly manipulative and misleading. The trend is made
worse as Americans’ interest in news from all sources has declined steadily in recent years.
Without an ability to compare information from different sources and evaluate it objectively,
citizens have little protection against the onslaught.

Moreover, experience in the Bush, Obama, and Trump administrations made clear that
government is not always well prepared to deal with the problems it faces, whether they concern
global terrorism, financial market collapses, or health care reform. Policymakers do not always
fully understand the causes of the problems; they may be incapable of designing a coherent and
comprehensive approach that stands much chance of working simply because of the enormity
and complexity of the economic system today. Also, frequent and abrupt changes in public policy
occur, in part, because state legislatures and Congress are increasingly characterized by sharply
divergent party positions.

This chapter discusses how policy analysis can be useful to policy actors during the
decision-making process. Appropriately evaluating alternatives provides more information and
better policy options, thereby helping decision-makers make better choices. This chapter reviews
the common criteria of effectiveness, efficiency, and equity and argues that policy analysis will
help improve policy capacity.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Self Test

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. The policy-making approach defined as a series of small policy actions that lead to modest and
relatively slow policymaking is referred to as ______.

a. strategic policy making

b. rational-economic policy making
c. incremental policy making
d. innovative policy making

2. ______ refers to the ability of government to identify and act on public problems within a
reasonable time.

a. Policy analysis
b. Policy capacity
c. Incremental policy development
d. Decentralization

3. The public can get involved in the policy-making process by ______.

a. joining an interest group

b. voting in elections
c. staying informed
d. all of the above

4. What criterion is MOST likely to receive increased attention in contemporary policy making as
policy alternatives and existing programs are assessed?

a. effectiveness
b. efficiency
c. equity
d. liberty

5. A relatively new form of citizen participation, ______ allows citizens to access government
agencies and their policies through various Web sites.

a. policy engagement
b. WWW government
c. e-government
d. authority analysis

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Self Test

6. The presidential election of ______ clearly showed that modern Internet technologies facilitate
a much greater level of citizen involvement even in national elections and governing.

a. 2004
b. 2008
c. 2012
d. 2016

7. Voter turnout in ______ was the highest in decades.

a. 2000
b. 2004
c. 2008
d. 2012

8. Which of the following evaluative criteria are emphasized in all of the following policy debates:
income gap, urban K–12 education, cost of higher education, taxation of the wealthy, Social
Security benefits, access to health care, and climate change?

a. efficiency
b. feasibility
c. equity
d. effectiveness

9. The world’s population is expected to climb to some 9.9 billion by ______.

a. 2020
b. 2030
c. 2040
d. 2050

10. The Affordable Care Act provided insurance to ______ million that previously lacked it.

a. 10
b. 20
c. 30
d. 40

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EDU591 Public Policy
Critical Analysis

Critical Analysis / Case Study Problems

The critical analysis questions are designed to help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, develop an increased ability to apply what you have learned and integrate this knowledge into
a greater understanding and appreciation for your field of study. Completion of the following questions
will help you outline your answers and organize your thoughts within an appropriate framework. These
practice questions will not be graded but you should apply the same analytical skills and writing
proficiencies that you will need for the writing assignments. We suggest writing your answers on
another piece of paper and comparing your results to the suggested answers at the end of this chapter
to help you identify any areas you need to review.

1. Differentiate between the advantages and disadvantages of the U.S. federal government’s
incremental policy-making approach. (Chapter 13, Learning objective 1)

2. Explain the various ways the public can be involved in any stage of the policy-making process
(including new and emerging ways) and assess how your input as a citizen might improve the
process. (Chapter 13, Learning objective 3)

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

Citizen capacity: The ability of citizens to participate in policy making processes, that is, their level
of interest and knowledge, and their ability to understand issues and play an active role.

Policy capacity: The ability of government to identify and evaluate public problems, and to develop
suitable policies to deal with them.

Policy engagement: The degree to which people are aware of public policy and believe their
opinions and actions can make a difference.

Public participation: The involvement of the public in political or governmental processes. It can
refer to voting, writing letters or email messages to policymakers, talking with others about policy
issues, or assuming a direct role in governmental decisions.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Answer Keys

Answers to Self Test

1. c

2. b

3. d

4. b

5. c

6. b

7. c

8. c

9. d

10. b

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Solutions Guide

Suggested Solutions - Critical Analysis / Case Study Questions

1. Differentiate between the advantages and disadvantages of the U.S. federal government’s
incremental policy-making approach. (Chapter 13, Learning objective 1)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Advantages: closer to the problem/issue in time, politically acceptable, enables government to

test out policies on a smaller scale.

Disadvantages: time consuming, sometimes compromise is not desirable, prevents significant

action.

2. Explain the various ways the public can be involved in any stage of the policy-making process
(including new and emerging ways) and assess how your input as a citizen might improve the
process. (Chapter 13, Learning objective 3)

Answers will vary but should include an understanding of the following:

Involvement can occur in a number of ways, including joining interest groups, attending public
hearings, writing to legislators, and so on. The information needed will likely vary by policy
issue but can focus on the criteria discussed in the textbook (e.g., cost data and likelihood of
effectiveness). Input could improve the process by providing different types of ideas on how the
policies will affect most people.

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Notes

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EDU591 Public Policy
Unit Four

Additional Resources

We recognize that students learn in different ways and that learning goes beyond the textbook, exams, and
writing assignments. To help you explore your field of study, we have provided a variety of PowerPoints,
learning activities, and resources that will hopefully get you thinking about your course and major in new
ways and deepen your understanding of the subject matter.

PowerPoints
Many students are visual learners. For each course, we have provided PowerPoint presentations to help you
explore the subject through graphics, text, and videos. Some of the PowerPoints correspond to chapters in
the textbook, while others present an overview of the subject matter.

Learning Activities and Resources

Learning activities and resources provide avenues to explore both your individual courses and your major.
We have created a variety of activities and resources for you to have a more engaging learning experience.
To give you some guidelines, we suggest you:
• Spend some time exploring and engaging in the large variety of learning activities and resources
listed in the student portal.
• Choose activities and resources that are of interest to you.
• Check back as we will be adding new material on a regular basis.

Examples of some of the learning activities and resources include:

• Watching a video related to your course
• Conducting an informational interview with someone working in the field
• Exploring professional organizations related to your course
• Finding a book or journal article related to your field and read up on the subject
• Brainstorming and researching your subject using the keywords in your study guide or text
• Exploring professions related to your course
• Attending a conference related to your course
• Finding a mentor who is working in the field
• Researching professional certifications or advanced training related to your subject
• Exploring the “Questions for Consideration”
• Conducting a case study analysis

Reading List
A reading list of books and journal articles related to your major is available on the student portal
under “student resources” and listed by each school: Administration and Management, Arts and Sciences,
Behavior Science, Criminal Justice, and Education. You may also ask your Student Success Advisor for a
copy if you are unable to access it via the student portal.
We hope you will find all of these activities and resources interesting, thought-provoking, and enjoyable!

Now, it’s time to take your Unit Four Examination!

Please read the following pages before you begin.

Remember, we’re rooting for you!

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EDU591 Public Policy
Unit 4 Examination
Instructions

The Unit Examination

At the conclusion of each unit, you will have a unit examination. The
unit examination contains 25 multiple-choice questions.

If you are completing your work online, you will find the unit
exam questions by logging into the Student Portal, clicking on My
Academic Plan, and then selecting the course you are working on.

For students who receive coursework by mail, the exam questions and
answer sheets are included separately from this study guide as a part
of your coursework packet.

Each of the multiple-choice questions are based on the unit you are
completing.

For the unit examination, your grade on the examination will be

determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university
utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct 4 grade points

B = 80% – 89% correct 3 grade points
C = 70% – 79% correct 2 grade points
D = 60% – 69% correct 1 grade point
F = 59% and below correct 0 grade points

Completing The Unit Four Multiple-Choice Examination

Before beginning your examination, we recommend that you
thoroughly review the textbook chapters and other materials covered
in each unit, and follow the suggestions in the Mastering the Course
Content section of the syllabus.

We encourage you to take your time, go through the examination,

and identify questions you know the answers to. A good strategy is
to answer all of the questions you are familiar and comfortable with
first, and then go back to work on items that you find more difficult.

If you wish to challenge a particular item, please review the

Challenging a Test Item section of the syllabus.

Writing Assignments
Each course requires students to submit a total of FOUR Writing
Assignments. Please refer to the Writing Lab pages for more details.

Good luck with your multiple-choice examination!

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EDU591 Public Policy
You Can Do It

Congratulations!
You have completed Unit 4.

Now let’s get ready for the Writing Assignments.

We are confident you will do well.

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EDU591 Public Policy

Writing Lab

Welcome to the Writing Lab!

Writing Assignment Instructions

Each course requires students to complete a total of FOUR Writing Assignments. To help you successfully
complete the Writing Assignment requirements, here are some things you need to know:

Accessing and Submitting Writing Assignments Through the Student Portal

• Log into the student portal, go to My Academic Plan, and select the course you are working on.
• Choose Writing Assignment 1, 2, 3, or 4 to see the writing prompts. YOU MUST SELECT AND
ANSWER ONE PROMPT FROM EACH WRITING ASSIGNMENT SECTION.
• Begin your written response in the text box directly below the writing prompts. The text editor
will automatically include all necessary identification information (i.e., your name, student
number, course number, and Writing Assignment question) once you submit your Writing
Assignment for evaluation.
• Be sure to save a copy of your work prior to clicking the Submit button.

Accessing and Submitting Writing Assignments by Mail

• Students receiving coursework by mail will find the Writing Assignment questions included
separately from this study guide as a part of their coursework packet.
• If you are submitting your Writing Assignments by mail, you will need to include your name,
student number, course number, course title, Writing Assignment number (i.e. Writing
Assignment 1, 2, 3, or 4) and identify the question number you are answering followed by the
actual question itself (in bold type).
• YOU MUST ANSWER ONE PROMPT FROM EACH WRITING ASSIGNMENT SECTION.
• Your Writing Assignments will need to be typed double-spaced, using a standard font and 12
point type size.
• Writing Assignments can be mailed to the following address:

California Coast University

925 N. Spurgeon St.
Santa Ana, CA 92701

Submitting Writing Assignments by E-Mail

• Writing Assignments can be submitted via e-mail to [email protected]

• E-mailed essays need to be sent as a Word attachment. Please adhere to the same formatting
guidelines as mailed Writing Assignments.

All four Writing Assignments must be submitted and logged as “received” before the Final
Examination can be released.

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Writing Lab

Guidelines for Successfully Completing Your Writing Assignments

This section is designed to provide some basic information, tips, and strategies to help you successfully
complete your Writing Assignments. To meet accreditation requirements, the Writing Assignments have
been revised to enable master’s students to demonstrate higher level critical thinking skills related to the
course material.

Textbook
• Every course is based on a textbook(s) chosen by the faculty and written by professionals in the
field.
• All Writing Assignments are based on material covered in the course textbook.
• You must have the textbook to successfully complete the course requirements.

Incorporating Outside Sources

• In order to receive full credit on the Writing Assignment, you must incorporate information
from the course textbook AND a minimum of one or more additional outside sources into your
Writing Assignment.
• At the graduate level, this outside research provides you the opportunity to find out what
experts in the field are researching and writing about and will require you to think about your
subject in an informed and critical manner.
• The expectation is that you will develop an organized, comprehensive, and well-cited response
drawing on both materials you have learned in your course, your textbook, and from outside
sources. The references are used to support and/or challenge information presented in the
textbook.

Locating Outside Sources

• You may access library services through the student portal. The University provides students
with access to library services through LIRN—the Library and Information Resources Network
(LIRN).
You may also contact library services at 714-547-9625 ext. 1105 or by email at
[email protected].
• You may also find your own sources online or through libraries in your local area.

Citing Outside Sources and Formatting Your Work

• All Writing Assignments must use the American Psychological Association (APA) format. This
requires in-text citations (author, date) and the full reference for each citation at the end of
each Writing Assignment.
• Samples of the proper way to use APA formatting is available in the student portal and in the
Student Handbook.
• Using citations is important as it tells the reader where the information came from. You should
always cite any material you have used from any source.
• You should use a minimum of direct quotes and only to support the key points of your writing.
• Remember, your writing should always be your own original writing—organized and presented in
your own words.

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Writing Lab

Plagiarism—Your Work Must be Original

• There is considerable confusion about what constitutes plagiarism.

• Plagiarism is defined as intentionally presenting the work of another as your own. This is
obviously a serious academic infraction that will result in disciplinary action.
• Sometimes, students can be confused about this important subject and exactly what
constitutes plagiarism. Examples include copying and pasting answers from the Internet and/
or the textbook, and paraphrasing directly from outside sources, without providing the proper
citations.
• To avoid this, it is best to make notes as you do your reading. As you go along, write down the
source where the information came from, and then incorporate your notes into your own original
writing.
• For additional information on plagiarism, you may refer to the course syllabus or the Student
Handbook.
• Information on plagiarism is also available in the student portal > student resources > writing
lab.

Word Count

• While word count is NOT one of the criteria that is used in assigning points to a Writing
Assignment, it can give you a general goal to aim for.
• We have found that graduate students who are successful in earning the maximum number of
points tend to submit Writing Assignments that are between 750-1000 words (3 - 4 pages) per
question.

Sample Writing Assignments and Helpful Information

• You will find several sample Writing Assignments on the Student Portal, including papers for
the various majors we offer and for general education courses. The papers are provided to give
you an idea of what your finished product should look like.
• There are links to helpful articles, websites, and videos in the Student Portal to provide you
with additional information on how to successfully complete your Writing Assignments.

Helpful Tips
• Carefully read and choose the questions you feel most comfortable answering.
• Outline your answers to help organize your thoughts and to provide you a framework for your
response.
• Refer to your course syllabus, contained in the front of this Study Guide, for additional
information on developing your Writing Assignments.
• Refer to useful writing resources on the Student Portal at student portal > student resources >
writing lab or student portal > student resources > writing basics.
• Always proof your answers for content, misspellings, and grammar before submitting.
• Remember to always save a copy of your Writing Assignments. You will find these useful when it
is time to complete your final comprehensive examination at the end of your program.
• You are encouraged to submit one Writing Assignment at a time and to wait for feedback from
that Writing Assignment in order to apply it to the next. Doing so gives you the advantage of
benefitting from the feedback with the possibility of earning a higher score.
* To read your professor’s evaluation, go to My Academic Plan > course number > view exam.
Feedback/comments provided should be applied to all future submissions.

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Writing Lab

Criteria Used for Grading

Writing Assignments are graded on a Pass/Fail basis. You can earn a maximum of 25 points. You must
successfully complete the Writing Assignment portion to pass the course. If you fail a Writing Assignment,
or if it is rejected, then you must resubmit the assignment until you receive a passing score. To give you an
idea of what the faculty will be evaluating you on, here are the five criteria used for grading, with 5 points
given for each category:

Organization: Standard Essay Format

• The faculty will be evaluating your work to see that you have used the standard essay format—
introduction/body/conclusion.
• In addition, they will evaluate your work to see that the structure is a multi-paragraph essay, with
clearly developed, effective transitions and solid topic sentences.

Comprehension of the Readings

• The faculty will be evaluating your work to see that you demonstrated an in-depth understanding
of the course content, as presented in the assigned textbook/readings.
• In addition, they will be looking to see that you have critically evaluated/responded to those ideas
in an analytical, persuasive manner (i.e. graduate level).

Treatment of Key Concepts in the Assignment

• The faculty will be evaluating your work to see that you demonstrated an understanding of course
content and key concepts.
• For this, you have taken the key concepts from the writing prompt, incorporated those into your
finished Writing Assignment, and responded in an academic manner with integration of outside
sources supporting those key concepts.

Analysis and Originality

• The faculty will be evaluating your work to see that you demonstrated the use of critical thinking
while making novel connections to outside materials and experiences—i.e., your ability to
examine, assess, evaluate, and/or analyze course content and key concepts.
• You will need to demonstrate that you can look at the course material in various ways and present
your work in a graduate level Writing Assignment.

Mechanics

• The faculty will be evaluating your work to see that you have utilized proper grammar, spelling,
punctuation, citations, etc.
• Your writing consistently adheres to APA formatting.

It is our hope that you find the Writing Assignments to be a stimulating and challenging addition
to your learning. Good luck with your Writing Assignments!

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EDU591 Public Policy
Final Examination
Instructions

About the Final Examination

After you have successfully completed all of the unit examinations

and writing assignments, it will be time for you to take the final
examination.

The final examination will be provided by student services only after

you have completed all four unit examinations and submitted all four
writing assignments.

Scheduling a Final Examination

Final examination requests can be submitted online through the
Coast Connection student portal, by calling the Testing Department at
(714) 547-9625, or via U.S. mail.

A final exam scheduling form is located on the last page of this

study guide. Please fill out ALL required fields before mailing it to the
university.

If you would like to request a final exam online, log into the Coast
Connection student portal and click on My Academic Plan. Select the
course you are working on and submit the Final Exam Request form
located at the bottom of the page. ALL INFORMATION MUST BE
FILLED IN.

Final exams will only be sent if you have completed all four unit
examinations and submitted all four writing assignments.

Submitting Your Final Examination

Final Examinations can be submitted online through the Coast

Connection student portal, by mail, or by fax.

For online submissions, once you have logged into the student portal,
click on My Academic Plan and select the course you are working on
to complete the final examination. You must input the unique
password that was sent to your proctor in order to unlock your final
examination questions. Remember to keep a copy of your answers for
your own personal records.

After you have completed your exam, you or your proctor can fax it to
the Grading Department at (714) 547-1451 or mail it to the
university. When faxing exams, please do not resize your fax.

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EDU591 Public Policy
Final Exam Scheduling
Form

The university requires all final examinations to be completed under the supervision of a proctor. A proctor
can be any reputable person other than a relative, someone who resides with you or a current/former CCU
student.

It is your responsibility, as the student, to inform your proctor of the following duties:
• The proctor must assure that all final examination material is kept secure and confidential.
• Verify the student’s government issued identification.
• Assure that the student completes the examination without any outside assistance of any kind other
than the course textbook, notes and other study materials.
• Follow all online instructions for submitting the final examination, or
• Return the signed and completed answer sheet to CCU for grading and evaluation via mail or fax.

Today’s Date: ______________________________ Student I.D.: _____________________________________

Student’s Name: ______________________________________________________________________________

Student’s Email: ______________________________________________________________________________

Daytime Telephone: ____________________________ Evening Telephone: ____________________________

Course Number: __________ Course Title: ________________________________________________________

Please send the Final Examination to:

Proctor’s Name: ________________________________________________________________________________

Relationship to the Student: _____________________________________________________________________

Street Address: ________________________________________________________________________________

City: _____________________________________ State: ________________ Zip Code: __________________

Proctor’s Email: ________________________________________________________________________________

Proctor’s Telephone Number: _____________________________________________________________________

Student’s Signature ________________________________________________________________________

All information must be filled in, otherwise, your request will not be processed.

925 N. Spurgeon Street, Santa Ana, CA 92701 • 714-547-9625 • www.calcoast.edu

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