EARTHQUAKES

AND VOLCANOES
Contents
● Structure of the Earth
● Earthquakes
● Volcanic eruption
Let us remind ourselves
1. Draw the structure of earth and name the three layers
2. Crust is divided into two layers, name them
3. Core is divided into two layers name them
4. Which layer is solid and which one is liquid
Structure of Earth

It is divided into 3 main

layers
● the crust
● the mantle
● the core.
Internal structure of earth
Crust ;
● Divided into two [inner crust and outer crust]
● Inner crust made of Silica and magnesium -denser[ Sima] Oceans
● Outer crust made of lighter silica and aluminium [Sial] continents
● Extends between 10-70 km
● It is the solid part of Earth
● It determines human, plants and animal life
● Crust and upper rigid mantle form Lithosphere
● Between crust and mantle we have Moho discontinuity
Mantle
● The thickest layer of Earth -semi
molten
● Extends up to 2900 km
● Upper mantle is called
asthenosphere which is hard
● Near the core mantle starts to
melt. High temperatures 1000 dc
● Convection currents develop and
cause tectonic activities
Core
● Divided into Outer and Inner
core
● Outer core is Liquid made up of
Iron and Nickel
● Inner core is solid because of
high temperatures and
pressure
● It extends up to 6371 km from
surface
● Around 5200 degrees Celsius
 Tectonic plates
1. Crust is divided into giant
1. Africa
pieces of rock mass called 2. Eurasia
Tectonic plates 3. N. America
2. Tectonic plates float on mantle 4. S. America
3. They are always moving due to 5. Pacific plate
convection currents 6. Indo -Australia
7. Antarctica
Types of tectonic plate
1. Continental plates [ Forms continents]
2. Oceanic plates [ Forms oceans]
Differences
•Oceanic crust is younger •Continental crust is older
•Continental crust is normally
•Oceanic crust is normally thicker
thinner •Continental crust is less dense
•Oceanic crust is denser (lighter)
(heavier) •Continental crust can't be
destroyed.
•Oceanic crust can be destroyed
•Oceanic crust can be •Continental crust can't be made.
made/created
Tectonic plates
Movement of plates
A plate is either continental i.e. carries the
continents or oceanic i.e. carries the oceans.
Due to the convection currents in the mantle
the plates move in three different ways
•Away from each other
•Towards each other
•Parallel or slide past one another along
transform faults
Plate boundaries
● Plates moving away from each
other -Divergent/Extension
● Plates moving towards each
other Convergent
1.Destructive
● 2.Collision
● Plates moving parallel/past
each other -Transform or
conservative boundary
Example of Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries
● It is an area that separeates two plate

There are 3 types

● Extension /Divergent
(constructive margins)
● Convergent boundaries
(destructive margins)
● Transform faults
(conservative margins)
Divergence/constructive/Extension boundary
● Two plates move away from one
another
● Create a gap between
● Molten magma from the mantle
rises to fill the gap forming a new
oceanic crust.
● This process is known as sea-floor
spreading. E.g. the American
plates are moving away from the
African and Eurasian plates.
Destructive plate boundary

● Caused by meeting of oceanic crust and continental crust

● Dense oceanic crust goes under /sinks
● Ocean crust melts due to heat from mantle
● The plate is destroyed. Magma is forced through lines of
weaknesses to form Volcanoes
● Continental crust can move up to form fold mountains
● Subducted oceanic plate can form deep ocean trenches/valleys
● Earthquakes are common
Plate boundaries
Destructive plate boundary
Tectonic movement
Plate boundaries

● Constructive boundary
● Conservative boundary
Tectonic movement

Plate boundaries

● Destructive plates
/subduction
● Collision plate margins
Destructive collision
● Continental to continental
● Two plates moving together are both made from
continental crust. Continental crust cannot sink or be
destroyed, and as a result the land between them is
pushed upwards to form high 'fold' mountains like the
Himalayas
Collision boundary
Transform boundary
● These are places where plates slide sideways past
each other.
● At transform boundaries lithosphere is neither created
nor destroyed
● California's San Andreas fault is a transform
boundary.
● As the plates rub against each other, huge stresses
are set up
● the rock to break, resulting in earthquakes
EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES

VOLCANOES

Vulcanicity is the various ways by which

solid liquid and gaseous materials are
forced into the earth crust and onto the
surface.
Important terms
● Extrusive Volcanoes- When magma cools and solidifies above the
Earth
● It forms extrusive Volcanic features
● Intrusive Volcanoes- When magma cools and solidifies beneath the
earth.
● It forms Intrusive volcanic features
Types of Eruption
● Fissure Eruption- When magma comes out of many opening
● It can be a crack on the Earth surface
● Pressure is low
● Magma flows first before cooling and solidifying to form low lying
features. Forms low lying features
● Vent Eruption - When magma comes out of a single opening
● Pressure is high
● Thrown to great heights where it cools in the air and falls on the surface
● Forms cone shaped hill
Vent and fissure eruption
Shield and Composite Volcanoes
Mt Kilowea Eruption
Volcanoes
● Develop when there is a hole or crack on the Earth
● through which Gases, Lava/Liquids and pyroclastic (Solid)
materials come out.
● Gases; water vapour, Sulphur dioxide, Hydrogen Nitrogen, CO2
● Liquids; Molten magma,
● Pyroclastic materials; Solid sediments which include vey hot rocks
● When magma reaches earth's surface its exposed to ow
temperatures hence forms lava
● Types of volcano depends on the magma erupted [Acidic or basic]
● Also depends on amount of change exposed to
Forms of lava extruded
Acidic Lava Basic lava

● Has high silica content[ Light] ● It has a low silica content

● Thrown to great heights, [heavier]
cools in the air ● Not thrown to great heights
● Falls around the vent to form ● Fast flows on the surface
steep sided Volcanoes before it cools
● Volcanic cones ● Forms low lying features e.g.
shield volcano
Volcanoes
Stages of a Volcano
1. Active Volcano; Has erupted in the recent past e.g. 80 years e.g.
Pinatubo, Mt Kilauea
2. Dormant; Have not erupted for many centuries , but might erupt in
future e.g. Mt Soufriere had stayed for 400 yrs. then erupted
3. Extinct; Volcanoes that have not erupted in history and do not show
signs of erupting e.g. Mt Kenya, Kilimanjaro
Parts of a volcano

1. Chamber- Magma reservoir

found deep inside
2. Vent- Channel where magma
comes out
3. Crater-Depression on top of a
volcano. It can be filled with
water to form a lake
EARTHQUAKES
Meaning

● It is a sudden Violent shaking

of the Earth
● Occurs due to build up of
pressure which makes the
rock of Earth to crack and
give way
● Common in plate boundaries
 Key terms
1.Focus point; It is the point under
Earth where the Earthquake originates

● Deep focus- Originate in deep depths

-Up to 700 km
-Less destructive because much
energy is lost /absorbed by the
thickness of the overlying rock
Shallow focus- Near the earth surface
up to 70 km, Very destructive due lots
of energy
Terms

2. Epicentre-It is the earth's surface directly above focus point

Earthquake is strongest at this point
3.Seismic waves; Shock waves/Vibrations that are able to travel
through the rock of the Earth. Strongest near the epicentre
 Measurement of Earthquakes
Richter Scale;
Mercalli scale
● It measures the magnitude of the
● Measures the impact on the
Earthquake [Energy released
earth
● Measurement are done using
● Also the physical damage
Seismometer which shows the
● Based on eye witnesses
readings in a seismograph
● Describes the extent of
● It is Logarithmic-5.4 is 10 times
damage
stronger than 4.4 and 100 times
stronger than 3.4
● Ground impact is 32 times
Measurement of Earthquakes
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
● Distribution is uneven
● Majority are along Plate boundaries which are zones of crustal
instability and tectonic activities
● Most occur in Linear chains West coast of America
● Can occur on the land or under the sea
● Some are found far from plate boundaries [Hot spots]
● Many within Pacific ocean
● Majority are found within the pacific rings of fire
● Most earthquakes in subduction zones here dense oceanic plate
goes under
World distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Why some areas experience more Earthquakes than
others

● They are close to plate boundaries/ destruction/subduction

● Near transform boundary where plates slide past each other
● Friction developed between the plates/ They get locked together
and stick
● Pressure is released suddenly
● This creates Seismic waves causing Earthquakes
● Most active Volcanoes are found in the rings of fire
Additional information [cie 2019 w 13][ Impact s
● Some areas have more/bigger/stronger/higher intensity earthquakes
● Dependent on proximity to a plate boundary/only found on plate boundaries/less
deaths away from plate boundaries/no deaths away from plate boundaries
● Whether boundary is destructive/conservative/constructive (impacts numbers)/the type
of movement taking place at the plate boundary;
● Some areas are more densely populated/higher population/more live there/higher
density buildings;
● Some countries can invest in earthquake proofing/earthquake proof buildings or
examples of
● Lack of/quality of rescue services;
● Quality of health care;
● Earthquake planning/education about what to do in an earthquake/Earthquake Day or
● Monitoring/warning/evacuation planning/creating safe areas (to go to in the event of an
earthquake
● Some cause tsunamis;
 Causes of Earthquakes
1.Convection currents in Earth's Interior
Currents rise towards the earth and drag continent apart

2.Movement of molten rock from beneath the earth; Crust rest on the
semi molten magma; Plates keep moving and their collision cause
Earthquakes and formation of new landforms.

3. Build-up of pressure that result from plate movements. This is

common in plate boundaries
Human causes of Earthquakes

● Construction of large dams which increase pressure on the ground

● Underground mining- can cause subsidence of land
● Testing of nuclear weapons
● Construction of underground railway tunnels
Factors affecting Damage caused by Earthquakes
● Depth of the focus point [ Shallow or deep]
● Distance from the epicentre
● Nature of the rock
● Degree of preparedness
● Nature of Buildings/ designs
● Time of the day
● Population density
● Strength of the Earthquake
● Economic development of the country
Video on Earthquakes
Impacts of Earthquakes
● Death and injury to the people
● Destruction of property
● Displacement of people
● Disruption of transport e.g. roads, railway lines,
● Disruption of electricity lines and water
● Can cause fire outbreak
● Affects economic activities disrupting people's livelihood
● Slows economy e.g. destroys people's work places
● Causes water contamination
 Secondary Effects of Earthquakes
● They are calamities that follow the
tremor or the Earthquakes.
● They include the following;
● Mudslides
● Tsunamis
● Fires
● Diseases outbreak due to water
contamination
● Food shortages/hunger
● Htpothermia
 Management of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
● Evacuation procedures
● Buildings which are earthquake / volcano proof –
● National earthquake day
● Education about what to do during earthquake / volcano / safety drills;
● Train emergency services;
● Survival kit / emergency food supply
● Land use zoning / exclusion zone;
● Lava diversion channels;
● Spray lava with water;
● Shelters from volcanoes;
● Wearing masks to protect from dust;
● Flexible gas pipes / cut offs;
Impact of Earthquakes
Primary Hazards Secondary Hazards Impacts
● Destruction of
buildings
● Interruption of water
● Breakage of sewage
Ground shaking Ground Failure and
● Loss of publc
Liquefaction utilities eg
Surface Faulting Landslides and rockfalls gas,electricity
● Floods
Debris fall and mudflow ● Fires
● Spread of illness
Tsunamis ● Release of
Hazardous
materials
● Deaths
Management of Earthquakes

● They are natural hazards. Cannot be controlled but managed

● Do nothing and accept the hazard
● Adjust to living in an Hazardous environment
● Strengthen house
● Leave area affected
● Better forecasting and warning
● Proper Building designs and location
● Establish emergency procedures
● Create Awareness
Building designs /Safe houses

● Strong houses help reduce the

impact
● Risks on storey buildings
increase upwards
● Building too close experience
more impacts waves are
amplified
● Areas with weak rocks
experience more
● Areas near plate boundaries
Safe house
● Concrete walls reinforced with steels
● Shock absorbers at foundation to reduce impact
● Walls reinforced with strong plastic mesh so they crack instead of
collapsing
● This allows occupants to escape
● Old tires can be used as shock absorbers
● Small windows
● Shatter proof glass on windows
● Use of straw in earthquake zones instead of stones
Management of Earthquakes
● Construction of low rise houses e.g. triangular shape which is more
stable
● Use of metal frameworks in the structures
● Deep foundations for stability
● Construct houses on hard rocks
● Buildings should have automatic gas switch off in case of an
earthquake
● Organise earthquake drills in schools and workplace
● Well organised evacuation procedures
● Create awareness e.g. Japan has a national Earthquake day every
year
 Additional information [cie 2018 w 13]
● Build deep/stronger/sturdier foundations/base;
● Reinforce/use concrete/bricks for buildings/walls/roofs;
● Use metal/steel/aluminium beams;
● Use diagonal bracing; Flexible building materials
● Use dampers/shock absorbers in base of building
● Computers controlled weights/counter balances on roof/weight on roof;
● Automatic window shutters; Shatter proof/strong/reinforced glass;
● Use fire resistant materials;
● Build low building/do not build high rise
● Use automatic cut-off for gas pipes/electricity cables
Why people live in places associated with
earthquakes
● They want to live close to friends and family
● Claim they have lived there throughout their lives
● Claim they can't afford to move
● Areas are also associated with volcanic eruption so they have good
fertile soils
● Poor risk perception because they have no experience of
Earthquakes
● Risk takers
● They don't believe it will happen again
● Believe the government will take care of them in case of Earthquake
● Overconfidence on themselves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7ho6z32yyo
Why Earthquakes cause more destruction in LEDCS
● Poor quality houses building
regulations not followed
● Poor emergence procedures
● Lack of monitoring and warnings
● Poor medical facilities
● Lack of awareness ,people don't
know what to do
● Lack of trained medical
personnel
● Failure to address secondary
hazards
Why Earthquakes cause more damage in LEDCS
● Lack of building laws
● Illegally constructed houses
● High population densities in affected areas
● Lack of money for rebuilding and evacuation
● Low level of preparedness
Prediction of Earthquakes

● Recording tremors using seismometer

● Monitoring small scale uplift or subsidence of earth
● Micro- earthquakes
● Changes in rock stress
● Changes in radon gas concentration
● Studying past records/patterns
● Use tiltmeters to measure changes in slope
● Monitoring animal behaviour
Managing of volcanoes

● Cannot be controlled but can be managed

● Spraying lava flows with cold water e.g. Iceland
● Digging diversion channels to divert it from settlement areas e.g. M
Etna
● Adding cold boulders to the flowing hot lava
● Evacuate people
● Create awareness on what to do
Predicting of Volcanic eruption
● Seismometer that records tiny Earthquakes caused by rising
magma
● Chemical sensors to measures increased Sulphur levels
● Lasers to detect physical swellings of Volcanoes
● Measurement of small scale uplift or subsidence of Earth
● Changes in radon gas concentration
● Ultrasound monitor of low frequency waves in the magma beneath
Kobe 1995 Earthquake
Japan is located in East Asia and sits on a destructive plate boundary.
At the boundary the Pacific and Philippine plate are subducting under
the Eurasian plate. On the 17th January 1995 a 7.2 magnitude
earthquake hit Kobe, the earthquake lasted for 20 seconds. The focus of
the earthquake was very near the surface and the epicentre almost
under Kobe.
200,000 building collapsed as well as road and rail bridge. Kobe port was
mostly destroyed. The earthquake caused many secondary effects including
power failure, fires, homelessness and congestion. The final death toll from
the earthquake is believed to 5,500 but the cost of damage ran into billions
of dollars.

Kobe being in an MEDC recovered amazingly quickly. Rail services were

back to normal by August, a year later 80% of the port was reopened, water
and electricity were back on by July and all the damaged buildings were
rebuilt stronger.
Afghanistan 1998 Earthquake
Afghanistan is located in South Asia and sits on a collision plate
boundary. The Indian and Iranian plate are colliding with the
Eurasian plate. Although this does not cause any volcanoes, it does
cause very big earthquakes. On 4th February 1998 northern
Afghanistan was struck by a 6.1 magnitude earthquake. The
province at the epicentre was Takhar which is a remote province
with poor transport and communications.
Afganistan continued

Reports of the earthquake took three days to reach the capital Kabul.
A day later a number of international charities reached the area and
stated that over 20 villages had been destroyed and up to 4000 were
dead. It was not until 16th February that weather had cleared enough for
emergency helicopters to reach the area. When helicopters reached the
area, it was discovered a further 7 villages had been destroyed, 10,000
people were injured and a further 15,000 homeless.
Case study: Volcanic eruption Mt Soufiere [Montserrat]

Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean. There is a volcanic area located in the
south of the island on Soufriere Hills called Chances Peak. Before 1995 it had been
dormant for over 300 years. In 1995 the volcano began to give off warning signs of
an eruption (small earthquakes and eruptions of dust and ash)
Once Chances Peak had woken up it then remained active for five years. The most
intense eruptions occurred in 1997. During this time, Montserrat was devastated by
pyroclastic flows. The small population of the island (11,000 people) was evacuated
in 1995 to the north of Montserrat as well as to neighbouring islands and the UK.
Despite the evacuations, 19 people were killed by the eruptions as a small group of
people chose to stay behind to watch over their crops. Volcanic eruptions and lahars
have destroyed large areas of Montserrat. The capital, Plymouth, has been covered
in layers of ash and mud. Many homes and buildings have been destroyed, including
the only hospital, the airport and many roads. The graphic shows the progress of the
eruption and its impact on the island
 Case study: Chances Peak, Montserrat, 1995-97 – an
LEDC
Short-term responses and results
Evacuation.
● Abandonment of the capital city.
● The British government gave
money for compensation and
redevelopment.
● Unemployment due to the
collapse of the tourist industry
● Even though the earthquake to hit Afghanistan was not massive,
it still caused a lot of death and damage. This is because
Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries in the world which has
suffered conflict for decades.
● Much of Afghanistan is mountainous and transport and
communication links are poor.
● There is little money to spend on medical care and there were no
trained rescue services -
● Afghanistan had to rely on outside help. Building design in
Afghanistan is also poor and much of the adult population is
illiterate.
 Long term Effects
● An exclusion zone was set up in the
volcanic region.
● A volcanic observatory was built to
monitor the volcano.
● New roads and a new airport were built.
● Services in the north of the island were
expanded.
● Growth of Tourism Volcanic activity has
calmed down in recent years and people
have begun to return to the island