Unit 3.

Magnetic circuit and Electromagnetic induction

3.1 Magnetic flux, Magnetomotive force, magnetic field strength, permeability,Reluctance

Magnetic flux- It is defined as the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given closed surface. It provides the
measurement of the total magnetic field that passes through a given surface area. Here, the area under consideration can be of
any size and under any orientation with respect to the direction of the magnetic field.

 Magnetic flux is commonly denoted using the Greek letter Phi or Phi suffix B.
 Magnetic flux symbol: Φ or ΦB.

Magnetic flux formula is given by:

ΦB =B.A=BAcos θ

Where,

 ΦB is the magnetic flux.

 B is the magnetic field
 A is the area
 θ the angle at which the field lines pass through the given surface area

Magnetic Flux Unit

Magnetic flux is usually measured with a flux meter. The SI and CGS unit of magnetic flux is given below:

 The SI unit of magnetic flux is Weber (Wb).

 The fundamental unit is Volt-seconds.
 The CGS unit is Maxwell.
Magnetomotive force

Magnetomotive force (MMF) is a measure of the magnetic potential created by a current flowing through a coil of wire. It is
analogous to electromotive force (EMF) in electrical circuits, which drives the flow of electric current. MMF is responsible for
establishing a magnetic field in a magnetic circuit.

The formula to calculate magnetomotive force is given by:

MMF=𝑁×𝐼

Where,

o 𝑁 is the number of turns in the coil,

 o 𝐼 is the current flowing through the coil in amperes.

The unit of magnetomotive force is the ampere-turn (At).

In essence, MMF can be thought of as the "magnetic pressure" that pushes magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit. Just as
voltage (or EMF) causes electric current to flow through an electrical circuit, MMF causes magnetic flux to flow through a magnetic
circuit.

Magnetomotive Force (MMF) is defined as the force that drives magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit. It is analogous to
electromotive force (EMF) in an electrical circuit and is responsible for establishing a magnetic field in magnetic materials . MMF
is quantitatively expressed as the product of the current flowing through a coil and the number of turns of the coil, measured in
Ampere-turns (At).

Magnetic field strength

Magnetic field strength H - a physical quantity used as one of the basic measures of the intensity of magnetic field.1)2) The unit
of magnetic field strength3) is ampere per metre or A/m.

The magnetic field around any electromagnet can easily be calculated using the formula,
B=μ0I/2πrB=2πrμ0I
where,
μ0 is the Permeability of Free Space
I is the Magnitude of Electric Current
r is the Distance in Meters

Permeability

Permeability is a property of porous materials that is an indication of the ability for fluids (gas or liquid) to flow through them.
Fluids can more easily flow through a material with high permeability than one with low permeability.

The SI unit for permeability is the square metre (m2)

Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is a concept used in the analysis of magnetic circuits. It is defined as the ratio
of magnetomotive force (mmf) to magnetic flux. It represents the opposition to magnetic flux, and depends on the geometry and
composition of an object.

Magnetic reluctance in a magnetic circuit is analogous to electrical resistance in an electrical circuit in that resistance is a measure
of the opposition to the electric current. The definition of magnetic reluctance is analogous to Ohm's law in this respect.
Magnetic reluctance is a scalar extensive quantity. The unit for magnetic reluctance is inverse henry, H−1.

In both AC and DC fields, the reluctance is the ratio of the magnetomotive force (MMF) in a magnetic circuit to the magnetic
flux in this circuit.

The definition can be expressed as follows:

R=F/ Φ
where

 ("R") is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is equivalent to turns per henry). "Turns" refers to the winding
number of an electrical conductor comprising an inductor.
 ("F") is the magnetomotive force (MMF) in ampere-turns
 Φ ("Phi") is the magnetic flux in webers.

3.2 Magnetic leakage and Leakage Coefficient

The part of magnetic flux that does not follow the desired path in a magnetic circuit is known as leakage flux.

In most of practical magnetic circuits, the path of a large part of the magnetic flux is through iron part of the magnetic circuit and

the rest part of magnetic flux flows through air. The magnetic flux in the air gap is known as useful flux (φg)(φg) since it can be

used for various useful purposes.

Consider a magnetic circuit having an iron core with a coil wound on it and having a narrow air gap. The total magnetic flux

produced by the coil does not pass through the air gap i.e. some part of it leaks through the air surrounding the iron core ( see

the figure), this magnetic flux is called as leakage flux (ϕleakage).

Let, Total magnetic flux produced or flux in iron core= φi

Total magnetic flux produced or flux in iron core= φi

Useful magnetic flux in air gap = φg

Useful magnetic flux in air gap= φg

∴Leakage Flux, φleakage=φi−φg

∴Leakage Flux, φleakage = φi−φg

Also, the leakage coefficient for a magnetic circuit is given by,

Leakage Coefficient, λ=Total Magnetic Flux(φi) / Useful Magnetic Flux(φg)

The value of the leakage coefficient (λ) for electrical machines is usually ranges from 1.15 to 1.25.

Important − The magnetic leakage or leakage flux is undesirable in electrical machines because it increases the weight and cost

of the machine.

Magnetic Fringing

When the magnetic field lines pass through an air gap, they tend to bulge out (see the above figure). It is because the magnetic
field lines repel each other when passing through the air (or non-magnetic materials). This effect is known as magnetic fringing.

Due to magnetic fringing, the effective area of the air gap is increased and thus the magnetic flux density is decreased in the air
gap. The longer the air gap, the higher is the fringing and vice-versa.

3.3 Magnetic hysteresis and hysteresis loop

Magnetic hysteresis occurs when an external magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnet such as iron and the atomic dipoles align
themselves with it. Even when the field is removed, part of the alignment will be retained: the material has become magnetized.
Once magnetized, the magnet will stay magnetized indefinitely. To demagnetize it requires heat or a magnetic field in the
opposite direction. This is the effect that provides the element of memory in a hard disk drive.

The relationship between field strength H and magnetization M is not linear in such materials. If a magnet is demagnetized
(H = M = 0) and the relationship between H and M is plotted for increasing levels of field strength, M follows the initial
magnetization curve. This curve increases rapidly at first and then approaches an asymptote called magnetic saturation. If the
magnetic field is now reduced monotonically, M follows a different curve. At zero field strength, the magnetization is offset from
the origin by an amount called the remanence. If the H-M relationship is plotted for all strengths of applied magnetic field the
result is a hysteresis loop called the main loop. The width of the middle section along the H axis is twice the coercivity of the
material. A closer look at a magnetization curve generally reveals a series of small, random jumps in magnetization
called Barkhausen jumps. This effect is due to crystallographic defects such as dislocations.

Magnetic hysteresis loops are not exclusive to materials with ferromagnetic ordering. Other magnetic orderings, such as spin
glass ordering, also exhibit this phenomenon.
3.5 Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits

Electric circuit Magnetic circuit

Path traced by the current is known as electric current. Path traced by the magnetic flux is called as magnetic circuit.
EMF is the driving force in the electric circuit. The unit is Volts. MMF is the driving force in the magnetic circuit. The unit is
ampere turns.
There is a current I in the electric circuit which is measured in There is flux φ in the magnetic circuit which is measured in
amperes. the weber.
The flow of electrons decides the current in conductor. The number of magnetic lines of force decides the flux.
Resistance (R) oppose the flow of the current. The unit is Ohm Reluctance (S) is opposed by magnetic path to the flux. The
Unit is ampere turn/weber
R = ρ. l/a. Directly proportional to l. Inversely proportional to S = l/ (μ0μra). Directly proportional to l. Inversely proportional
a. Depends on nature of material. to μ = μ0μr. Inversely proportional to a
The current I = EMF/ Resistance The Flux = MMF/ Reluctance
The current density The flux density
Kirchhoff current law and voltage law is applicable to the Kirchhoff mmf law and flux law is applicable to the magnetic
electric circuit. flux.

3.6 Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is defined as the interaction of the electric field and the magnetic field of electrically charged
particles. Electromagnetism is caused by the presence of electrically charged particles. Any charged particle if it is stationary has
only an electrical field and if it is in motion exhibits magnetic fields also. The interaction of these fields results in electromagnetic
forces.

Laws and Equations used in Electromagnetism

1.Coulomb's Law:

Describes the force between two point charges.

F = ke (q1q2/r2)

 F = Force (N)
 ke= Coulomb's constant (8.99×10 9 N m2/C2)
 q1,q2 = Charges (C)
 r = Distance between charges (m)

2.Gauss's Law:

Relates the electric flux through a closed surface to the charge enclosed by the surface.

∮E.dA=Q/ϵ0

 E = Electric field (N/C)

 dA= Differential area vector (m²)
 Q = Enclosed charge (C)
 ϵ0= Permittivity of free space (8.85×10 −12 C2/N m2)

3.Ampere's Law:

Relates the magnetic field around a closed loop to the current passing through the loop.
∮B.dl=μ0I

 B= Magnetic field (T)

 dl= Differential length vector (m)
 μ0 = Permeability of free space (4π×10 −7 T m/A)
 I= Enclosed current (A)

4.Fraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

Describes how a changing magnetic field induces an electric field.

ε = −d ΦB/dt

 ε= Induced electromotive force (V)

 ΦB= Magnetic flux (Wb)
 t = Time (s)

5.Lenz's Law:

 States that the direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux.
 Incorporated in Faraday’s Law with the negative sign.

6.Maxwell's Equations:

Four fundamental equations describing electromagnetism.

 Gauss's Law for Electricity: ∇.E= ρ/ϵ0

 Gauss's Law for Magnetism: ∇.B= 0
 Faraday's Law of Induction: ∇×E=−∂B/∂t
 Ampère's Law (with Maxwell’s addition): ∇×B= μ0J + μ0ϵ0(∂E/∂t)

Applications of Electromagnetism in the Real World

1. Electric Power Generation and Transmission:

 Power plants convert mechanical energy to electrical energy using electromagnetic induction.
 Transformers and power lines use electromagnetic principles to transmit electricity efficiently over long distances.

2. Electronics and Communication:

 Devices like radios, televisions, and smartphones rely on electromagnetic waves for signal transmission.
 Semiconductors and circuit components operate based on electromagnetic principles.

3. Medical Imaging and Equipment:

 MRI machines use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the inside of the body.
 X-ray machines and CT scanners utilize electromagnetic radiation for diagnostic imaging.

4. Motors and Generators:

 Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical work using electromagnetic fields.
  Generators do the reverse, converting mechanical work into electrical energy.

5. Household Appliances:

 Induction cooktops use electromagnetic fields to directly heat pots and pans.
 Microwave ovens use electromagnetic waves to heat food.

6. In Everyday Life:

 Compasses use the Earth's magnetic field to show direction.

 Magnetic locks and card readers utilize magnetic strips for security and data access.

3.7 INDUCED EMF STATICALLY (SELF AND MUTUAL) AND DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF

Induced EMF

When a magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the conductor or coil, is

known as induced EMF. Depending upon the way of bringing the change in magnetic flux, the induced EMF is of two types −

 Statically Induced EMF

 Dynamically Induced EMF
Statically Induced EMF

When the conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is changing, the induced EMF in such a way is known as statically induced

EMF (as in a transformer). It is so called because the EMF is induced in a conductor which is stationary. The statically induced EMF

can also be classified into two categories −

 Statically Induced EMF

 Mutually Induced EMF
Self-Induced EMF
When an EMF is induced in the coil due to the change of its own magnetic flux linked with it is known as self-induced EMF.
Explanation − When a current flows in a coil, a magnetic field produced by this current through the coil. If the current in the coil

changes, then the magnetic field linking the coil also changes. Therefore, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

an EMF being induced in the coil. The induced EMF in such a way is known as self-induced EMF.

Mathematically, self-induced EMF is given by,

e=L(di/dt)...(1)

Where, L is the self-inductance of the coil.

Mutually Induced EMF

When an EMF is induced in a coil due to changing magnetic flux of neighbouring coil is known as mutually induced EMF.

Explanation − Consider two coils coil-1 and coil-2 placed adjacent to each other (see the figure). A fraction of the magnetic flux

produced by coil-1 links with the coil-2. This magnetic flux which is common to both the coils 1 and 2 is known as mutual

flux (φm)(φm). Now, if the current in coil-1 changes, the mutual flux also changes and thus EMF being induced in both the coils.

The EMF induced in coil-2 is known as mutually induced EMF, since it is induced due changing in flux which is produced by coil-1.

Mathematically, the mutually induced EMF is given by,

em=Mdi1/dt...(2)

Where, M is the mutual inductance between the coils.

Dynamically Induced EMF
When the conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field so that the magnetic flux linking with it changes in magnitude, as the
conductor is subjected to a changing magnetic, therefore an EMF will be induced in it. The EMF induced in this way is known
as dynamically induced EMF (as in a DC or AC generator). It is so called because EMF is induced in a conductor which is moving
(dynamic).

Explanation − Consider a conductor of length l meters moving with a velocity of v m/s at right angles to a uniform stationary

magnetic field of flux density B Wb/m2.Let the conductor moves through a small distance dx in time dt seconds. Then,

Area swept by conductor,a=l×dx m2

∴Magnetic flux cut by conductor, dψ=Magnetic Flux Density × Area Swept

⟹dψ=Bldx Wb

Now, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced EMF will be,

e=Ndψ/dt=Bldx/dt (∵N=1)

∵dx/dt=Velocity V

∴e=Blv Volts...(3)

Equation (3) gives the dynamically induced EMF when the conductor moves at right angle to the magnetic field.

If the conductor moves at an angle & theta to the magnetic field, then the EMF induced due to only the perpendicular component

of the velocity to the magnetic field.

e=Blv sinθ...(4)

3.8 Farady's laws of electromagnetic induction

Faraday's law of induction (or simply Faraday's law) is a law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact
with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (emf). This phenomenon, known as electromagnetic induction, is the
fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electric motors, generators and solenoids.

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction:

Due to the changing magnetic field, the electromagnetic force (EMF) is induced in a circuit, and therefore, a current is produced.
This is called electromagnetic induction.

First law: It states that whenever there is a change in magnetic flux associated with a coil, EMF is induced in that coil.

Second law: It states that the magnitude of EMF induced in the coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
associated with that coil.

Mathematically, it can be expressed as ε=-dϕ/dt, where ε is the induced EMF and dϕ/dt is the rate of change of magnetic flux.

For n number of turns in the coil, the expression is given as ε=-ndϕ/dt.

The diagram below illustrates the generation of current in a coil due to a moving magnet, and no current is generated due to a
static magnet.

3.9 Lenz's law

Lenz's law states that the direction of the electric current induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that the
magnetic field created by the induced current opposes changes in the initial magnetic field. It is named after physicist Heinrich
Lenz, who formulated it in 1834.

Lenz's law states that:

The current induced in a circuit due to a change in a magnetic field is directed to oppose the change in flux and to exert a
mechanical force which opposes the motion.

Lenz's law is contained in the rigorous treatment of Faraday's law of induction (the magnitude of EMF induced in a coil is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux), where it finds expression by the negative sign:

This means that the direction of the back EMF of an induced field opposes the changing current that is its cause. D.J.
Griffiths summarized it as follows: Nature abhors a change in flux.

If a change in the magnetic field of current i1 induces another electric current, i2, the direction of i2 is opposite that of the change
in i1. If these currents are in two coaxial circular conductors ℓ1 and ℓ2 respectively, and both are initially 0, then the
currents i1 and i2 must counter-rotate. The opposing currents will repel each other as a result.

A cheatsheet for remembering Lenz law

Fleming's Right hand Rule

The main application of Fleming’s right-hand rule is to determine the direction of induced current in the conductor placed in the
magnetic field.

In electromagnetism, Fleming's right-hand rule (for generators) shows the direction of induced current when
a conductor attached to a circuit moves in a magnetic field. It can be used to determine the direction of current in a generator's
windings.

When a conductor such as a wire attached to a circuit moves through a magnetic field, an electric current is induced in the wire
due to Faraday's law of induction. The current in the wire can have two possible directions. Fleming's right-hand rule gives which
direction the current flows.

The right hand is held with the thumb, index finger and middle finger mutually perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as
shown in the diagram.[1]

 The thumb is pointed in the direction of the motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field.
 The first finger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field. By convention, it's the direction from North to South
magnetic pole.
 Then the second finger represents the direction of the induced or generated current within the conductor (from + to −, the
terminal with lower electric potential to the terminal with higher electric potential, as in a voltage source)

Fleming's Left hand Rule

When any current-carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field, a force is exerted on the conductor. Fleming gave a
simple rule that helps us to determine the direction of force acting on a current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field. This rule
is termed as Fleming’s left-hand rule and it can be stated as follows.

Hold the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of your left hand at right angles to each other. Adjust your hand in such a
way that the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points in the direction of the current,
then the direction in which the thumb points, gives the direction of force acting on the system.
Since the conductor moves along the direction in which the force acts on it, we can also say that the direction in which the thumb
points gives the direction of the motion of the conductor.

The devices which use current-carrying conductors and magnetic fields include electric motors, microphones, loudspeakers, and
current detecting measuring instruments, such as ammeters and galvanometers, etc.

Difference between Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule and Right-Hand Rule

Some main differences are as follows.

Parameters Fleming’s Left-hand rule Fleming’s Right-hand rule

Aim To find the direction of the motion of the conductor To find the direction of the induced electric
placed in the magnetic field. current.

Representation of Middle The middle finger represents the direction of the The middle finger provides the direction of the
finger current induced electric current

Application Concept applies in electric motors Concept applies in electric generator

Ampere's law

Ampere's law states that the magnetic field created by an electric current is proportional to the size of that electric current, with
a constant of proportionality equal to the permeability of free space.