Philippine Maritime

Institute

SUBJECT COURSE TITLE:

EMAT

C/E Baconawa, Noli Blas

Mabini
BASIC METALLURGY, METALS AND PROCESSES

A huge variety of metals are available in the earth’s crust. The naturally occurring
metallic compounds mixed with sand, soil, and rocks having a definite chemical
composition are called minerals. A metallic compound having a relatively high
concentration of metal and can be used to extract particular elements in convenient and
economical manner called ore.

Metallurgy definition can be given as the branch of chemistry that deals with the
extraction of metal in their pure form from their ore.

METALLURGY

Metallurgy is a section of materials science and engineering that looks into the
physical and chemical properties of intermetallic compounds, metallic elements and
alloy mixes. Metallurgy refers to both the science and the technology of metals, i.e., how
science is applied to the manufacturing of metals and the engineering of metal
components utilised in consumer and industrial products. Metallurgy is different
compared to minecrafting as a craft. Metalworking is dependent on metallurgy in the
same way that medicine is dependent on medical science for technological growth.

Chemical metallurgy and physical metallurgy are two large divisions within the
discipline of metallurgy. Chemical metallurgy deals with oxidation and metal reduction,
and also metal chemical properties. Metal extraction, mineral processing,
electrochemistry, thermodynamics, and chemical deterioration are all subjects of
discussion in chemical metallurgy. Physical metallurgy, on the other hand, is concerned
with metals' mechanical properties, physical qualities, and physical performance.
Crystallography, material characterization, mechanical metallurgy, phase transitions,
and failure mechanisms are all researched in physical metallurgy.

Metallurgy Process

Metallurgy process involves the refining of metals and the production of alloys of
metals. The impurities present in the ore, which has to be separated in order to obtain
desired metal from its ore during the process of extraction, are called gangue. A
substance added in the furnace to remove the gangue present in the ore is called flux.
The key steps involved in the metallurgy of metals are:
 Crushing and grinding of the ore
 Concentration of the ore
 Extraction of the crude metal
 Purification of the metal
Principles of Metallurgy
The processes involved in metallurgy are as follows:

Crushing and Grinding:

 The primary process involved in the metallurgy of metals is pulverization, which
involves the crushing of ores into fine powder in a crusher.

The Concentration of Ores:

 The ores extracted from the earth's crust contains a large number of unwanted
impurities called gangue mixed with them, such as quartz, silicates, sand,
feldspar, mica, etc. The removal of these unwanted impurities from the ore is
called dressing. The dressing of ore is also called concentration of the ore
because it gradually increases the percentage of metal. In metallurgy, the
concentration of ore is achieved using the following methods.

Extraction of the crude metal:

 The discovery of metals and its various innovative uses have paved the way to
the modern civilization we are currently living in. Almost everything we use in our
daily lives is made of metal. From medical equipment to agricultural
infrastructure, clothing manufacturing to residential constructions, you will find
different types of metals used for various purposes. This is why metallurgy has
been added as a part of the chemistry syllabus in the advanced classes.
Learning how to extract metals from ores using the inorganic properties of the
constituents is very important.

Purification of the metal

 Distillation is used to purify metals with a low boiling point such as mercury and
zinc. During the process of distillation, metals are heated above their boiling point
to create vapors, which leave behind any impurities. Because impurities do not
evaporate as the metals do, they become separated.

Physical Methods:
Hand-picking is a traditional method of concentrating ore by merely picking it by
hand. In this method, the gangue or adhering rocky materials are separated from the
ore with the help of a hammer.

Hydraulic Method:
Hydraulic method or gravity separation or Levigation: This method is a gravity
separation method of metallurgy, which is based on the differences in the gravity of the
ore and gangue particles present in the ore. This method is frequently used when the
ore particles are more massive than the rocky gangue particles. It is used to
concentrate heavy oxide ores of lead, tin, iron, etc.
 In this method, the powder ore is agitated with jets of water in a hydraulic classifier
(or Wilfley table) that makes the more massive ore particle settle down at the bottom
and washes away the lighter impurities. The oxides and carbonate ores are
concentrated by using this method. This method is also called levigation and is used for
gold, chromium, iron, etc.

Magnetic separation:
This method of metallurgy is used when either the ore or the impurities are
magnetic in nature. For example, magnetic ores like pyrolusite (MnO₂) and chromite
(FeO.Cr₂O₃) have a difference in the magnetic properties of the ore and gangue
particles. In this method, the ground ore is carried on a conveyor belt rotating around
two wheels, which passes over a magnetic roller. The magnetic wheel attracts the
magnetic particles and separates them from the non-magnetic particles of the mixture.
Froth floatation:
The crushed ore is mixed with a mixture of water, pine oil, detergent in a tank to
separate sulphide ores. A current of compressed air passes through the pipe of a
rotating agitator that produces froth. The presence of differences between the gangue
particles and wetting properties of the ore helps to separate them. The pine oil wets
and coats the sulphide ore particles which makes them rise up along with the lighter
froth. The heavy water wets the gangue particles which sinks to the bottom of the tank.
The froth containing the sulphide ore gets transferred to a different container where they
are washed and dried.

Chemical Method:
Leaching is a chemical method used for treating ores, which are soluble in a
suitable solvent. In leaching, the powdered ore undergoes treatment with specific
reagents, which dissolves the ore but not the unwanted impurities. The undissolved
impurities are removed by filtration.

For example, Bauxite (Al₂O₃) is an ore of aluminum, which contains unwanted

impurities ferric oxide, titanium oxide, and silica. The finely powdered ore of bauxite
undergoes treatment with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at about 1500 –
1700C. NaOH dissolves the alumina (Al₂O₃) present in the ore to form soluble meta-
aluminate, while the other oxides (Fe₂O₃, TiO₂, and SiO₂) remain insoluble and are
removed by filtration.
Al₂O₃.2H₂O (s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H₂O (l) → 2NaAl (OH)₄(aq)

aluminate (Hydrated)
2NaAl(OH)₄(aq) + CO₂ (g) → Al₂O₃.xHO(s) + 2 NaHCO₃

The sodium silicate, which remains in the solution, is precipitated out as hydrated
alumina and separated by the filtration method. It is then dried by heating to 1470 K,
which gives pure alumina.
Al₂O₃.xH₂O (s) → Al₂O₃ (s) + xH₂O
 This process is called Baeyer's process.

The process of heating a concentrated ore strongly in the presence of excess

oxygen at a temperature below the melting point of the metal is called roasting. This
process is commonly used for sulfide ores.
2ZnS + 3O₂ → 2ZnO + 2SO₂

During Roasting:
 Sulphides are partially converted to oxides
 Volatile impurities are removed

The free elemental forms of sulphur, arsenic, and antimony are removed as SO₂,
As₂O₃, and Sb₂O₃, respectively.
Calcination: The process of heating a concentrated ore in the absence of air to melt the
ores is called calcination. This process is done for carbonate ores.
ZnCO₃ → ZnO + CO₂
CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
Al₂O₃.2H₂O → Al₂O₃ + 2H₂O

During calcination:
 Moisture is removed
 Mass becomes porous
 Volatile impurities are removed
 Carbonate ores decompose to oxides
 Water from hydrated oxide ore is removed
Roasting and calcination are carried out in different types of furnaces; the most
commonly used is the reverberatory furnace. In the roasting process, the air holes are
always kept open while in the calcination process, the air holes are entirely or partially
closed (Ritika S., 2015).
Properties and Uses of Metals

The evolution of shipbuilding is a testament to human ingenuity and

technological advancement. From the humble beginnings of wooden vessels to the
sophisticated steel and aluminum ships of today, the industry has undergone a
remarkable transformation. This paper delves into the historical shift from wood to metal
in shipbuilding, examining the factors that drove this change and its profound impact on
global trade and maritime exploration.

The Age of Wood

For millennia, wood was the primary material used in shipbuilding. Its availability,
workability, and relatively low weight made it an ideal choice for constructing vessels.
However, wooden ships had significant limitations, including susceptibility to rot, fire,
and marine borer attacks. Additionally, their structural integrity was compromised in
rough seas, limiting their size and range.

The Metal Revolution

The advent of the Industrial Revolution brought about a technological revolution in
shipbuilding. The discovery and development of iron and steel, along with
advancements in metallurgy, led to a paradigm shift in ship construction. Steel, with its
superior strength, durability, and resistance to corrosion, became the preferred material
for building large, ocean-going vessels.

Advantages of Metal Ships

 Increased Strength and Durability: Metal ships could withstand the rigors of long
voyages and harsh weather conditions.
 Enhanced Safety: Metal hulls were less susceptible to fire and water damage.
 Larger Size and Capacity: Metal ships could be built to accommodate greater
cargo and passenger loads.
 Improved Efficiency: Metal ships offered better hydrodynamic performance and
fuel efficiency.

The Decline of Wooden Ships

As metal ships became more prevalent, the demand for wooden vessels
diminished. Wooden ships were gradually phased out, except for specialized
applications such as small recreational boats and traditional fishing vessels
(ÇAĞLAYAN M.M.&MENTEŞ A., 2022).

Most Common Metal Types Used in Shipbuilding

There are many different metals that can be used in building ships, each with its
own qualities and strengths. When choosing the best metals for shipbuilding, it’s
important to pay closer attention to things like yield strength, which is the metal's ability
to resist being permanently bent or deformed, and tensile strength, which is how much
force the metal can take before breaking. Metals that meet these requirements well
include steel and aluminum alloy. Steel is very strong and durable, making it ideal for
large ships that need to carry heavy loads, while aluminum alloy is lighter and more
resistant to rust, which helps with long-term durability. These qualities make steel and
aluminum alloy the top choices in shipbuilding today.

Steel

The most common materials in shipbuilding because it has strong mechanical

properties, is sturdy, and is relatively cheap. Its strength and durability make it perfect
for building ships that can handle heavy loads and rough ocean conditions. However,
one drawback to using steel is its weight, which can make the ship heavier overall. Even
though its heavy, steel remains popular because of its reliability and cost. Shipbuilders
use different types of steel depending on the ship’s needs, but high-tensile steel and
stainless steel are two of the most commonly chosen. High-tensile steel is known for
being extra strong, which is useful for supporting big, heavy structures, while stainless
steel resists rust, making it great for parts that will be in contact with water all the time.

High Tensile Steel

High tensile steel is used in shipbuilding when a stronger and more durable metal
is needed than regular steel. It’s much tougher and can handle a lot more pressure and
stress. Because of its strength, high tensile steel is perfect for areas of the ship that
experience the most force, like the parts that hold up under heavy loads or rough
conditions. It’s commonly used in the deck and bottom regions of larger tankers, where
the ship needs to be extra strong to handle the weight of the cargo and the stress of
being on the water for long periods. High tensile steel helps make the ship more reliable
and able to withstand the wear and tear of tough ocean conditions.

Stainless Steel

Steel is an excellent material for shipbuilding because it is both strong and

durable, which makes it perfect for constructing ships that need to last a long time. One
of the best qualities of stainless steel is that it doesn’t rust or corrode. This is especially
important because ships are exposed to harsh conditions like saltwater, strong sunlight,
and constantly being in contact with the ocean. Unlike regular steel, which can rust and
weaken over time, stainless steel can stand up to these tough environmental factors,
making it an ideal choice for ship construction. Because it resists corrosion, stainless
steel helps ships stay in better condition for a longer period, reducing the need for
repairs and maintenance.

Aluminum Alloy

Aluminum alloys have several advantages that steel doesn’t offer. One of the
biggest benefits is that a ship made with aluminum alloys is around 60% lighter than
one built with steel. This makes aluminum a great choice for improving fuel efficiency
and allowing ships to move faster, which is important for both commercial and military
purposes. Another advantage is that aluminum is resistant to corrosion, meaning it
doesn’t rust like steel does. This is especially helpful for ships that spend a lot of time in
saltwater. Also, aluminum is easier and less expensive to maintain over time compared
to steel, which often needs more care to prevent rust and other damage.

However, there are some downsides to using aluminum alloys. The main
disadvantage is that they are much more expensive to buy at first. In fact, aluminum
alloys can cost around 8-10 times more than steel. This high initial cost can make it less
appealing for some shipbuilders, especially for larger ships where steel might be more
cost-effective in the beginning. Despite this, the long-term benefits of aluminum alloys,
such as their lighter weight and resistance to corrosion, can make them a good
investment for certain types of ships (Texas Iron & Metal, 2022).

Limitations

Steel

While metals like steel and aluminum are great for building ships, they do have
some limitations. For one, steel is heavy, which can make the ship harder to move and
use more fuel. Aluminum, although lighter, can be more expensive to buy at first. Metals
can also be expensive to repair if they get damaged, and while aluminum resists rust,
steel can rust over time if not properly maintained. Additionally, metals can sometimes
get damaged by extreme temperatures or harsh weather conditions. These are some of
the challenges shipbuilders faces when using metals (Texas Iron & Metal, 2022).

High tensile steel

 High tensile steel is very strong, but it also has some drawbacks. It's heavy, which
can make the ship harder to move and use more fuel. It’s also expensive, so using it for
big ships can cost a lot of money. While it’s strong, high tensile steel can still be prone to
cracking under extreme pressure or stress if it’s not properly cared for. Additionally, it
can be tough to repair if damaged, which can be costly and time-consuming (Texas Iron
& Metal, 2022).

Stainless steel

Stainless steel is strong and doesn’t rust, but it has some downsides too. It is
expensive, so using it in shipbuilding can raise the cost of building a ship. While it
resists rust, it can still get damaged by things like deep scratches or impacts, which can
make it weaker over time. Also, stainless steel is not as strong as other types of steel,
like high tensile steel, so it may not be the best choice for parts of the ship that need to
handle a lot of pressure (Texas Iron & Metal, 2022).

POLYMERS AND NON-METALLIC MATERIALS PROCESSES

Non-Metallic Materials

Non-Metallic Materials. Non-metals are organic substances that do not conduct heat or
electricity, and are structurally brittle (cannot be easily rolled, molded, extruded or
pressed). Chemically, the non-metallic elements in the periodic table are hydrogen,
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, and selenium

Polymers

Polymers are materials that consist of molecules formed by long chains of repeating
units. They may be natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering materials are
polymers, such as plastics, rubbers, fibers, adhesives, and coatings. Polymers are
classified as thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting polymers (thermosets), and
elastomers

Thermoplastic Polymers
 The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their response to heat.
If heat is applied to a thermoplastic, it will soften and melt. Once it is cooled, it will return
to solid form. Thermoplastics do not experience any chemical change through repeated
heating and cooling (unless the temperature is high enough to break the molecular
bonds). They are therefore very well suited to injection molding

Elastomers

Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with mechanical properties similar to rubber.
Elastomers are commonly used for seals, adhesives, hoses, belts, and other flexible
parts. The strength and stiffness of rubber can be increased through a process called
vulcanization, which involves adding sulfur and subjecting the material to high
temperature and pressure. This process causes cross-links to form between the
polymer chains

Ceramics

Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or nonmetallic elements.
The primary classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay products,
refractories, and abrasives.Ceramics generally have excellent corrosion and wear
resistance, high melting temperature, high stiffness, and low electrical and thermal
conductivity. Ceramics are also very brittle materials.

Cements

Cements are materials that, after mixing with water, form a paste that then hardens.
Because of this characteristic, cements can be formed into useful shapes while in paste
form before they harden into rigid structures.

Glass

Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications including windows, lenses,
and containers. Glasses are amorphous, whereas the other ceramics are mainly
crystalline. Primary advantages of glasses include transparency and ease of fabrication.
The base element of most glasses is silica, and other components can be added to
modify its properties. Common processes used to form glass include: heating until
melting, then pouring into molds to cast into useful shapes heating until soft,
Then rolling heating until soft,
Then blowing into
Desired shapes.
Refractories

Refractory ceramics can withstand high temperatures and extreme environments. They
can also provide thermal insulation. Brick is the most common refractory ceramic.

Composites

A composite material is a material in which one or more mutually insoluble materials are
mixed or bonded together. The primary classes of composites are particulate
composites, fibrous composites, and laminated composites.

Particulate Composites

Particulate composites are created by adding particles of one material to a matrix (the
filler material). The particles will typically account for less than 15% of the total material
volume. The particles are added to improve upon some shortcoming of the matrix
material.

Fibrous Composites

A fibrous composite is a material in which fibers of one material are embedded within a
matrix. The fibers carry most of the stress, and the matrix serves to hold the fibers in
place and to transmit stress between the fibers. The fibers can be short and randomly
oriented, or they can be long and continuous.

Laminated Composites

Laminated composites are created by combining layers of composite materials. The

layers will typically differ in the orientation of the fibers, or they will differ in the material
itself. Sandwich materials are common, in which a lightweight material (such as foam or
a honeycomb) will be placed in between layers of a strong, stiff material.
(Neilkaypalomares. 2023).

HEAT TREATMENT AND PROCESSES

 Heat treatment is a process that uses controlled heating and cooling to modify
the crystalline structure of metals and metal alloys. Depending on the material and
treatment process, heat treating can provide numerous benefits, including enhanced
hardness, increased temperature resistance, greater ductility, and improved material
strength. Heat treatments are a critical aspect of metal fabrication processes, as they
allow the materials to gain desirable physical and mechanical properties without altering
the shape of the product (S. M Engr et al., 2021).

The metal or alloy is heated up to a specified temperature, sometimes as hot as

2400°F, held at that temperature for a certain amount of time, and then cooled. While it’s
hot, the metal’s physical structure, also called the microstructure, changes, ultimately
resulting in its physical properties being changed. The length of time the metal is heated
is called the ‘soak time.’ The length of soak time plays an important role in the
characteristics of a metal, as metal soaked for a long amount of time will see different
microstructure changes than metal soaked for a shorter period of time.
The cooling process after the soak time also plays a part in the result of the metal.
Metal may be cooled quickly, which is called quenching, or slowly in the furnace to
make sure it achieves the desired result. The combination of the soak temperature,
soak time, cooling temperature, and cooling duration all play a role in creating the
desired properties in a metal or alloy. When the metal is heat-treated during the
manufacturing process also determines what properties are changed, and some metals
may even be treated multiple times. Knowing what temperatures to heat and cool
metals at, as well as how long each step of the process should take for a specific metal
or alloy is extremely complicated. Because of that, material scientists known as
metallurgists, study the effects of heat on metal and alloys and provide precise
information on how to perform these processes correctly. Manufacturers rely on this
information to ensure their metal pieces will have the correct properties at the end of the
process.

Some common forms of heat treatments include:

Normalizing: This process occurs comparatively cost-effectively. Unlike some

other softening processes, such as full annealing, a production facility can re-cool
metals fairly easily during normalizing. They do not need to maintain a specialized bath
or keep the furnace operating for a protracted period of time during the cooling phase.
This aspect contributes to the low-cost of normalizing compared with some
technologies. enables manufacturers to refine the grain structure of steels and ferrous
metals after casting. It may help disperse pockets of gases which form unwanted
inclusions near the surface of cast parts, for instance. While normalizing won’t achieve
uniform internal refinement, it does offer a fairly cost-effective means for accomplishing
the removal of air pockets and the refinement of steel grain structures. Currently,
normalizing has gained wide popularity (Kloeckner, 2020).

Annealing: This process is used on metals like copper, aluminium, silver, steel,
and brass. These materials are heated to a certain temperature, are held at that
temperature until transformation occurs, and then are slowly air-dried. This process
softens the metal, making it more workable and less likely to fracture or
crack( Kinematics G., 2020).

Heat treatment process that is common in manufacturing, it improves the

physical and sometimes chemical properties of metal to be both more durable and more
workable. When heated during the specific process of annealing, atoms migrate in their
crystal lattice and the number of atom dislocations goes down, leading to changes in
both ductility and hardness. As the material cools it crystallizes again. For many alloys,
including the most common in manufacturing, carbon steel, the properties of the metal
are determined by the size of the crystal grains and the phase composition. Both
change during heating and cooling. With knowledge of the crystal grain composition and
the phase diagram, annealing as a heat treatment can be used to take the metal from
hard to soft, brittle to ductile. As a result, the metal will be more formable, an obviously
favorable property in manufacturing (Kloeckner., 2020).

Hardening: When a metal is hardened, it’s heated to a point where the elements
in the material transform into a solution. Defects in the structure are then transformed by
creating a reliable solution and strengthening the metal. This increases the hardness of
the metal or alloy, making it less malleable (Kinematics G., 2020).

The intent of hardening is not just to harden the steel, but also to make it
stronger. Unfortunately, there aren’t just plusses to hardening. While hardening does
increase strength, it also decreases ductility, making the metal more brittle. After
hardening, you may need to temper the metal to remove some of the brittleness.
To harden most steels, you would use the first two stages of heat treatment
(slow temperature heat followed by soaking by a specified time to a uniform
temperature), the third stage is different. When you harden metals, you rapidly cool
them by plunging them into water, oil, or brine. Most steels require rapid cooling, called
quenching, to be hardened, but there are a few that can be successfully air-cooled.
As alloys are added to steel, the cooling rate that’s required to harden it
decreases. There is a silver lining to this: the slower cooling rate lessens the risk of
either cracking or warping. The hardness of carbon steel depends on its carbon content:
up to .80% carbon, the ability to harden increases alongside the carbon content.
Beyond .80%, you can increase wear resistance due to hard cementite forming, but you
can’t increase hardness. When you add alloys to steel to increase its hardness, you
also increase the carbon’s ability to harden and strengthen. That means that the carbon
content needed to produce the highest level of hardness is lower in alloyed steels
versus plain carbon steels. As a result, alloy steels typically offer better performance
than plain carbon steels. When carbon steel is hardened, the steel must be cooled to
under 1000°F in less than one second. But, once you add alloys to the steel and
increase the effectiveness of the carbon, you increase that time limit beyond one
second. That allows you to select a slower quenching medium to get the specified
hardness. Typically, carbon steels are quenched in brine or water, whereas alloy steels
are quenched in oil. Unfortunately, quenching is a process that produces high internal
stress and, to relieve the steel, one option is to temper it. Right before the part becomes
cold, you remove it from the quenching bath at a temperature of 200°F and let it cool.
The range of temperature from room temperature to 200°F is called the “cracking
range,” and you don’t want the steel in the quenching medium to pass through it
( Kloeckner., 2020).

Tempering - Some materials like iron-based alloys are very hard, making them
brittle. Tempering can reduce brittleness and strengthen the metal. In the tempering
process, the metal is heated to a temperature lower than the critical point to reduce
brittleness and maintain hardness.

During tempering, you:

 Heating steel to a set temperature below its hardening temperature
 Hold the steel at that temperature for a specified period
 Cool the steel, typically in still air
If this sounds familiar, you’re right! Tempering consists of the same three stages as heat
treatment. The main difference is the temperature of tempering and its effect on
hardness, strength, and, of course, ductility.
When you temper a steel part, you reduce the hardness that was caused by hardening
and you develop certain physical properties. Tempering always follows hardening and,
while it reduces brittleness, it also softens steel. Unfortunately, the softening of steel
with tempering is unavoidable. But, the amount of hardness you will lose can be
controlled based on the temperature during tempering.
While the other heat treatment processes of annealing, normalizing, and hardening
always include temperatures above the metal’s upper critical point, tempering is always
done at temperatures below it.
When reheating steel that’s been hardened, you start tempering at 212°F and continue
until you’re approaching the low-critical point. To select the hardness and strength you’d
like, you can preset the tempering temperature. The minimum for tempering should be
one hour if the part is less than one inch thick; if it is more than one inch thick, you can
add another hour for each additional inch of thickness.
The rate of cooling from tempering has no effect on most steels (Kloeckner., 2020).

Hardening - The outside of the material is hardened while the inside remains
soft. Since hardening can cause materials to become brittle, case hardening is used for
materials that require flexibility while maintaining a durable wear layer.

Heat treatments are used to enhance the hardness of the metal’s surface
through heating and rapid cooling. The material is heated in a hardening furnace to a
temperature that transforms its internal structure without melting it. The metal is then
held at this temperature for one hour per every inch of thickness, followed by rapid
cooling. The quick cooling process establishes a harder, more stable crystalline
structure ( S.M Engr, 2021)
Heat Treatment of Common Carbon Steel

Carbon steel is one of the most widely used manufacturing materials due to its
formability, weldability, strength, and ability to be heat treated to precisely modify its
mechanical properties. Apart from carbon, an extra amount of manganese is also
included in most alloys. Sulfur and phosphorus are also present however these are
typically undesired and seen as impurities (McClements D., 2022)

Common Heat Treatments for Carbon Steel

Carburizing - is a heat treatment process that produces a surface which is

resistant to wear, while maintaining toughness and strength of the core. This treatment
is applied to low carbon steel parts after machining, as well as high alloy steel bearings,
gears, and other components. Carburizing increases strength and wear resistance by
diffusing carbon into the surface of the steel creating a case while retaining a
substantially lesser hardness in the core. This treatment is applied to low carbon steels
after machining. Strong and very hard-surface parts of intricate and complex shapes
can be made of relatively lower cost materials that are readily machined or formed prior
to heat treatment (Metlab, 2014)

Nitriding - is a heat-treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a

metal to create a case-hardened surface. These processes are most commonly used on
low-alloy steels. They are also used on titanium, aluminium and molybdenum. Usually
done by heating steel objects in gaseous ammonia (NH3) at temperatures between 500
and 550 °C (950 and 1,050 °F) for periods of 5 to 100 hours, depending upon the
desired depth of diffusion of the nitrogen. An alternative or supplement to gas nitriding is
ion nitriding, or plasma nitriding, in which the steel objects are bombarded with nitrogen
ions in a vacuum under an electric charge. See surface hardening (Charles et al.,
2024).

Other Metals and Their Heat Treatment

 Aluminum: Heat treatment processes like solution heat treatment and aging
are used to improve the strength and hardness of aluminum alloys.

 Titanium: Titanium alloys are heat treated to improve their strength, ductility,
and corrosion resistance.
  Copper Alloys: Heat treatment processes like annealing and solution heat
treatment are used to improve the ductility and electrical conductivity of
copper alloys.

Properties of materials

Physical Properties:

1. Density-mass per unit volume expressed in such units as kg/cm 3 D = m/v.

• The mass of atoms, their size, and how they are arranged determine the density of a
substance.
• Objects with the same volume but different mass have different densities.

2. Melting point-temperature at which a solid to liquid.

3. Boiling point-of a substance is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the
liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapour.

4. Thermal conductivity-rate at which heat flows through a given material (W/m K).
• In other words it is the ability of the material to transfer heat through the process of
conduction.

5. Specific heat capacity--The heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one degree centigrade (J/kg K)

6. Electrical conductivity-is the ability o f electric current to flow through a material.

• Conductors, such as copper, other metals have a high electrical conductivity and
therefore can easily have electrons pass through them.

7.Colour-Light wavelength

Mechanical Properties:

1. Tensile strength-measures the force required to pull something such as rope, wire or
a structural beam to the point where it breaks.
2. Young's modulus (elasticity) -The property of a material that returns to its original
shape after removal of stress.

3.Plasticity -The property of a material that does not return to its original shape after
removal of stress.

4.Ductility-A ductile substance can be drawn into a wire.

It is a physical property of a material associated with the ability to be stretched into wire
without breaking.
Examples: Most metals are good examples of ductile materials, including gold, silver,
copper, erbium, terbium, and samarium.

5.Malleability-is a substance's ability to deform under pressure (compressive stress).

• If malleable, a material may be flattened into thin sheets by hammering or rolling.
• Examples of malleable metals are gold, iron, aluminium, copper, silver, and

6.Hardness (Mohs, Rockwell, Brinell)-the property of being rigid and resistant t o

pressure; not easily scratched.

7.Toughness-the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without

fracturing.

8. machinability - the property of a material that can be shaped by hammering, pressing,

rolling.

Thermal Properties:

Thermal expansion - as the name suggests, is the increase or expansion of

materials as a function of heat. The thermal expansion definition can be said to be the
increase in the length, area, or volume of a material when it is supplied with heat energy
that raises its temperature.

Thermal conductivity -The amount of heat conducted/transferred within a unit

temperature gradient through a unit thickness perpendicular to a unit surface area is
called thermal conductivity.

Specific heat capacity - how much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature
of a substance by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin) per unit mass.
 Latent heat of fusion - The amount of heat energy released or absorbed when a
solid changing to liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point.

Latent heat of vaporization - The amount of heat that is needed to convert a unit
mass of liquid substance into a gaseous phase at constant temperature conditions.

Thermal diffusivity - In heat transfer analysis, thermal diffusivity is the thermal

conductivity divided by density and specific heat capacity at constant press
(SLIDESHARE.NET., 2018).

Thermal emissivity - the ratio of the radiant emittance of heat of a specific object
or surface to that of a standard black body(Jean Brainard., 2021).

Chemical Properties:

Chemical reactivity-the ability of individual molecules to take part in various

chemical reactions and the study of rates of such reactions, that is equilibrium and rate
processes.

Corrosion resistance-a material's ability to protect itself from corrosion, or the

gradual destruction of materials by natural processes like oxidation.

Oxidation resistance-an alloy depends on the formation of an adherent surface

layer of stable oxide(s), forming a barrier as impermeable as possible in one direction to
the penetration of gas molecules from the environment, and in the other direction to the
diffusion of metal ions from the underlying alloy.

Solubility- is the ability of a substance, the solute, to form a solution with

another substance, the solvent.

Reactivity with other materials-is the ability of matter to combine chemically

with other substances. Some kinds of matter are extremely reactive; others are
extremely unreactive. For example, potassium is very reactive, even with water. When a
pea-sized piece of potassium is added to a small amount of water, it reacts explosively.

Catalytic properties - A catalyst is a component that changes the rate of a

reaction by guiding it down a different path that requires less energy to activate.
Adsorption and desorption-is often used in the context of liquid or gas absorption into a
solid material, such as a sponge or a filter. Absorption can also refer to the uptake of
substances by biological tissues or organs. Adsorption, on the other hand, is typically
used when a substance is adhered to the surface of a material.

Classification of Materials:

1. Metals-may conveniently be divided into ferrous and non- ferrous metals.

Important ferrous metals for the present
purpose are:
(i) cast iron
(ii) wrought iron
(iii) steel.
* Some of the important non-ferrous metals used in engineering design are:
(a)Light metal group such as aluminium and its alloys, magnesium and manganese
alloys.
(b) Copper based alloys.
(c) White metal groups such as nickel, silver, and bearing metals.
2. Ceramics-non-metallic, inorganic solids that are shaped and hardened by
heating to high temperatures.
3. Polymers-Chain of H-C molecules. Each repeat unit of H- C is a monomer e.g.
ethylene (C2H4), PolyethChain of H-C molecules. Each repeat unit of H- C is a
monomer e.g. ethylene (C2H4), Polyethylene (-CH2 CH2)n

Polymers:

 Thermo plasts - Soften when heated and harden on cooling - totally reversible.
 Thermosets - Do not soften on heating
 Plastics moldable into many shape and have sufficient structural rigidity. Are one
of the most commonly used class of materials.
 Are used in clothing, housing, automobiles, aircraft, packaging, electronics,
signs, recreation items, and medical implants.
 Natural plastics - hellac, rubber, asphalt, and cellulose xylene (-CH2 CH2)n

 Thermo plasts - Soften when heated and harden on cooling - totally reversible.
 Thermosets - Do not soften on heating
 Plastics moldable into many shape and have sufficient structural rigidity. Are one
of the most commonly used class of materials.Are used in clothing, housing,
 automobiles, aircraft, packaging, electronics, signs, recreation items, and medical
implants.
 Natural plastics - hellac, rubber, asphalt, and cellulose
 Composites-is something made up of complicated and related parts. A composite
photograph of your family might have your eyes, your sister's nose, your dad's
mouth, and your mother's chin. Composite comes from the Latin for "putting
together." It can be used as a noun or adjective.
 Biomaterials-substances that are designed to interact with biological systems for
medical purposes, such as to treat, enhance, or replace damaged tissue or
biological functions.
 Nanomaterials-They have many advantages, including their size, versatility, high
porosity, and large surface-to-volume ratio. However, they also have some
disadvantages, such as the potential for inhalation or ingestion exposure, dust
explosion hazards, and complex and expensive manufacturing processes
(SLIDESHARE., 2016).

Understanding material properties:

 Material selection-the process of choosing the most appropriate material for a

specific application.
 Product design-the process of creating new products, services, or experiences to
meet customer needs. It involves a combination of research, strategy, creative
thinking, and industry knowledge.
 Manufacturing processes-the series of steps a business uses to create a product
from raw materials
 Quality control-is a process that ensures a product or service meets a set of
quality criteria or customer requirements.
 Research and development-creative and systematic work undertaken in order to
increase the stock of knowledge and to devise new applications of available
knowledge(MEDURI F. 2021).