Food Consumer Science: Dominique Barjolle Matthew Gorton Jasna Milošević Đorđević Žaklina Stojanović

Dominique Barjolle · Matthew Gorton
Jasna Milošević Đorđević

Žaklina Stojanović Editors
Food Consumer
Science
Theories, Methods and Application to
the Western Balkans
Food Consumer Science
Dominique Barjolle • Matthew Gorton
Jasna Milošević Ðorđević • Žaklina Stojanović
Editors
Food Consumer Science

Theories, Methods and Application
to the Western Balkans
Editors
Dominique Barjolle Matthew Gorton
Institute for Environmental Decisions Newcastle University Business School
ETH Zürich, Zürich, Newcastle upon Tyne
Switzerland Nairnshire, UK
Jasna Milošević Ðorđević Žaklina Stojanović

Ipsos Strategic Marketing University of Belgrade
Belgrade, Serbia Belgrade, Serbia
ISBN 978-94-007-5945-9 ISBN 978-94-007-5946-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5946-6
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Foreword: Food Consumer Science
at Crossroads
Wim Verbeke, Ph.D.
Keywords Food consumer science • Health claims • Organic products • Traditional

foods
Abbreviations
EU European Union
EUFIC European Food Information Council
TSG Traditional Speciality Guaranteed
Food consumer science is at the crossroad of a multitude of scientific disciplines

and interests. Research methods mainly originate from social sciences such as eco-
nomics, marketing, psychology and sociology, while the most common applications
bend towards the natural sciences related to agriculture, food and nutrition. The
exploration of this crossroad presents a challenging and rewarding domain with
numerous opportunities to contribute to a better understanding of (the determinants
of) food choice and consumer decision-making and in extension also to more effective
public policy, industry competitiveness, societal welfare and human well-being. Not
only has the European Union (EU) undergone fundamental changes during the last
15 years, also food consumer science has been a field of continuous evolution. After
a major focus on food safety, risk perception and risk communication since the
mid-1990s, the attention has gradually expanded to cover also nutrition, diet and
health and further to sustainability and food authenticity most recently. The number
of peer-reviewed scientific papers on food consumer issues in Web of Science has
more than tripled during the last decade, together with a substantial increase in the
number of journals, research groups and scientists active in the field.
This book with its focus on food consumer science in the Western Balkan countries
is a welcome addition to current knowledge base. Besides providing an overview of
theoretical and economic foundations for food consumer science, it also illustrates
qualitative and quantitative food consumer research applied to sectors and product
v
vi Foreword: Food Consumer Science at Crossroads
groups with a high degree of relevance to the Western Balkan countries, a region
that stayed previously undeserved out of the picture. Yet, justifications for a stronger
focus on food consumer science in this region are numerous. Food and beverages
occupy a high share of household expenditure, up to 30–40% in some cases as docu-
mented in this book, which underscores the importance of the economic and social
dimensions of food choice. The strong gastronomic cultural heritage of the region
provides many excellent quality traditional foods, though unknown to most EU con-
sumers and therefore leaving a lot of potential unexploited. Food choice motives
and barriers display similarities as well as important dissimilarities as compared
to other regions of the EU (Milosevic et al. 2012); measurement scales and con-
structs may have to be operationalised differently, and other moderators and media-
tors may emerge in different degrees when explaining food choice. Last but not
least, local economic, social, political, technological and structural forces in the
food marketing environment shape a specific frame for food production, product
differentiation, marketing strategies and public food policy.
The case studies presented in this book cover some highly topical products and
industries from the European perspective. While functional foods have been an
interesting case for consumer research for almost two decades (Verbeke 2005),
this interest gained additional momentum following the approval of the EU regula-
tion 1924/2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods (Verbeke et al. 2009).
Organic and traditional foods in turn are two of the cornerstones of the present EU
agricultural quality policy. The establishment of the new EU organic logo and the
growing interest for quality indications, such as the Traditional Speciality Guaranteed
(TSG) label, as part of the food quality policy illustrate the topicality of this focus.
In each of these cases, consumer issues were at the basis of the recent evolutions and
shift of emphasis. European consumers have shown a growing interest in food
quality rather than quantity. European food policy advocates the overall objective to
ensure a high level of protection of European consumers (e.g. from exposure to
inferior quality food and misleading information), to provide consumers with the
necessary information to make informed (and when possible, also healthier) choices,
to guarantee reliable quality food and to foster fair competition and strengthen com-
petitiveness across the European food industry. A better understanding of consumer
awareness, attitudes and behaviour, as well as insight in stakeholder and industry
positions, and in the role and impact of market structures and macro-environmental
conditions is key for successfully reaching such objectives.
European studies in food consumer science consistently show that the classical
and readily identifiable socio-demographic characteristics like age, gender, house-
hold composition and living environment explain limited variance in food choice.
Cross-cultural differences in food choice and its determinants are substantial across
Europe. With respect to foods with nutrition and health claims, for example, fami-
liarity with the product, the ingredient and the claim, as well as the perceived per-
sonal relevance of food and health have been shown to be important determinants of
product acceptance, yet little is known about how health claims and symbols actually
influence food choice (EUFIC 2012). Meanwhile, the identification of differences
between consumers and countries in their response to foods with health claims has
Foreword: Food Consumer Science at Crossroads vii
been acknowledged as a challenge for research and policy making. It has also been
demonstrated that a European consumer-based definition of traditional foods con-
tains both commonly shared elements, such as an association with a long existence
and heritage or a high degree of familiarity and authenticity, as well as elements not
equally shared across cultures, for example, the association with special occasions,
the notion of locality or naturalness (Vanhonacker et al. 2010). In a similar vein, the
marketplace success of organic foods differs to a great extent depending on the
country or region. While the role of classical socio-demographic characteristics in
explaining cross-cultural variance is rather limited (Aertsens et al. 2009), the potential
role of other personal factors, such as attitudes, norms, values, motives and diffe-
rences, in the macro-environment deserves further attention as explanatory variables
for organic food consumption. While consumer insights from a selected number of
countries may suffice to understand some of the basic principles at stake, further
validation in specific environments and cross-cultural settings is required to complete
the picture. This underscores the need for extending food consumer science expertise,
insights and networks beyond the borders of countries or regions traditionally
involved or covered in previous studies.
The activities performed by the FOCUS BALKANS consortium, part of which
are documented in the present book, offer consumer scientists all over Europe and
beyond an excellent opportunity to become acquainted with some of the specificities
of food consumer science and food choice in Western Balkan countries, as well as
with the expertise of the research groups active in this particular science domain in
these new EU member states, acceding (or potential) candidate countries. This
volume herewith forms a valuable resource for food consumer science scholars
seeking to expand their personal expertise and scientific networks.
References
Aertsens J, Verbeke W, Mondelaers K, Van Huylenbroeck G (2009) Personal determinants of

organic food consumption: a review. Br Food J 111:1140–1167
EUFIC (2012) Can health claims and symbols lead to healthier eating habits? CLYMBOL
press release, http://www.eufic.org/jpage/en/page/PRESS/fftid/clymbol-healthclaims-symbols.
Accessed 27 Sept 2012
Milosevic J, Zezelj I, Gorton M, Barjolle D (2012) Understanding the motives for food choice in
Westerns Balkan Countries. Appetite 58:205–214
Vanhonacker F, Verbeke W, Guerrero L, Claret A, Contel M, Scalvedi L, Zakowska-Biemans S,
Gutkowska K, Sulmot-Rossé C, Raude J, Gransli BS, Hersleth M (2010) How European
consumers define the concept of traditional food: evidence from a survey in six countries.
Agribusiness 26:453–476
Verbeke W (2005) Consumer acceptance of functional foods: socio-demographic, cognitive and
attitudinal determinants. Food Qual Prefer 16:45–57
Verbeke W, Scholderer J, Lähteenmäki L (2009) Consumer appeal of nutrition and health claims
in three existing product concepts. Appetite 52:684–692
Acknowledgments
This book is the result of a 3-years European research project funded by the European
Commission and the associated countries. The FOCUS BALKANS project was
granted from 1 October 2008 until 30 September 2012 (Grant Number: 212 579),
with more than 75 researchers collaborating in 14 countries including Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia
and Slovenia. The challenge was to improve existing networks and to establish a new
network of scientists, private companies, nongovernmental organisations and public
bodies competent in the topic of food consumer science.
Thanks to the effort of the whole team, the research was conducted in an excel-
lent way, respecting the quality and the timeline. A big thank goes to all researchers
having made this possible. The preparation of the project was a very hard work and
was essentially made possible by Pascal Bernardoni, SEEDEV, Magali Estève,
AGRIDEA, and Martine Zaouche-Laniau, GEM. Without their knowledge and
networks, this project would not have been born, and we express our gratitude to
them especially.
Editing the whole book was an enormous work done by Loredana Sorg, junior
researcher at ETH, and we would like to congratulate and thank her warmly here.
We hope this book will support researchers and students, and we wish all a very
active learning-by-doing process. This was reached within the FOCUS BALKANS
project and has clearly shown that it is the most efficient way to acquire advanced
skills in the field of food consumer science.
ix
Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 1
Dominique Barjolle and Jure Pohar
2 Theories of Food Choice ........................................................................... 15
Matthew Gorton and Dominique Barjolle
3 Quantitative Surveys of Food Consumption and Motives:
The Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ) .................................................. 27
Jasna Milošević Ðorđević and Iris Žeželj
4 Segmenting Consumers Using Cluster Analysis:
An Application to Food Motivations
in the Western Balkan Countries ............................................................. 43
Matthew Gorton, Mitchell Ness, and John White
5 Exploring an Emerging Market through Focus
Groups and Expert Interviews: Health Claim Products
in the Western Balkans ............................................................................. 57
Žaklina Stojanović, Galjina Ognjanov, Igor Spiroski,
and Martine Zaouche-Laniau
6 Assessing Fruit Perception Using Focus Groups.................................... 73
Siet J. Sijtsema, Karin L. Zimmermann, Miljan Cvetković,
Cristina Mora, and Martine Zaouche-Laniau
7 Harnessing Expert Opinion: Trends and Challenges
on the Balkan Organic Market, Based on a Delphi Approach ............. 89
Natasa Renko, Ružica Butigan, Sanda Renko, Ante Vuletić,
Burkhard Schaer, and Martine Zaouche-Laniau
xi
xii Contents
8 Utilising Conjoint Analysis: Understanding

Consumer Preferences for Traditional Food .......................................... 107
Corinne Amblard, Elise Prugnard, Georges Giraud,
and Cristina Mora
9 Conclusions ................................................................................................ 127
Dominique Barjolle, Pascal Bernardoni, Jasna Milošević Ðorđević,
Goran Zivkov, Dragana Tar, and Boban Mugoša
Authors Bios .................................................................................................... 137
Editors Bios...................................................................................................... 141
Index ................................................................................................................. 143

Contributors
Corinne Amblard M.Sc. UR CALITYSS, Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup,

Clermont-Ferrand, France
Dominique Barjolle, Ph.D. Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED), ETH
Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
Pascal Bernardoni, M.Sc. SEEDEV in Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Ružica Butigan, M.B.A. Faculty of Economics & Business, University of Zagreb,
Zagreb, Croatia
Miljan Cvetković, Ph.D. Faculty of Agriculture, University of Banja Luka, Banja
Luka, Republik Srpska-Bosnia-Herzegovina
Jasna Milošević Ðorđević, Ph.D. Ipsos Strategic Marketing, Belgrade, Serbia
Georges Giraud, M.D., Ph.D. UMR CESAER INRA-AgroSup Dijon, DIJON
cedex, France
Matthew Gorton, Ph.D. Newcastle University Business School, Newcastle upon
Tyne, UK
Cristina Mora, Ph.D. Department of Food Science, University of Parma, Parma,
Italy
Boban Mugoša, Ph.D. Institute of Public Health-Montenegro, Podgorica,
Montenegro
Mitchell Ness, Ph.D. Newcastle University Business School, Newcastle upon
Tyne, UK
Galjina Ognjanov, Ph.D. Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade, Belgrade,
Serbia
Jure Pohar, Ph.D. Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, University
of Ljubljana, Domžale, Slovenia
xiii
xiv Contributors
Elise Prugnard, M.Sc. UR CALITYSS, Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup,

Clermont-Ferrand, France
Natasa Renko, Ph.D. Department of Marketing, Faculty of Economics & Business,
University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Sanda Renko, Ph.D. Department of Trade, Faculty of Economics & Business,
University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Burkhard Schaer, Ph.D. ECOZEPT, Freising, Germany
Siet J. Sijtsema, Ph.D. LEI, Part of Wageningen UR, Research Area Consumer &
Behaviour, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Igor Spiroski, M.D., M . P . H . Department of Physiology and Monitoring of
Nutrition, Institute of Public Health, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
Žaklina Stojanović, Ph.D. Department of Economic Policy and Development,
Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
Dragana Tar, M.A. SEEDEV in Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Ante Vuletić, M.A. Faculty of Economics & Business, University of Zagreb,
Zagreb, Croatia
John White, Ph.D. School of Management, Plymouth University, Plymouth,
Devon, UK
Martine Zaouche-Laniau Sté GEM (Etudes et Stratégies pour l’Agroalimentaire),
Paris, France
Iris Žeželj, Ph.D. Faculty of Philosophy, Belgrade University, Belgrade, Serbia
Karin L. Zimmermann, B.Sc., R.M. LEI, Part of Wageningen UR, Research Area
Consumer & Behaviour, The Hague, The Netherlands
Goran Zivkov SEEDEV in Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Abbreviations
AHA American Heart Association

AHC Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
BMI Body mass index
CA Cluster analysis
CFA Confirmatory factor analysis
CFI Comparative fit index
CNDC Chronic non-communicable diseases
CVD Cardiovascular diseases
€ Euro
EFA Exploratory factor analysis
EFSA European Food Safety Authority
EU European Union
EU-27 Today’s (2012) 27 member states of the European Union
EuroFIR European Food Information Resource Network of Excellence
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FCQ Food Choice Questionnaire
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FGD Focus Group Discussion
FYROM Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HNI Household Net Income
HoReCa Hotel, Restaurant and Catering
IDI In-depth interview
IPH Institute of Public Health
N&H claim Nutrition and Health claim
NGOs Non-governmental organisations
PBC Perceived behavioural control
PCFI Parsimonious comparative fit index
xv
xvi Abbreviations
PDO Protected Designation of Origin

PGI Protected Geographical Indication
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PSUs Primary sampling units
RMSEA Root mean square error of approximation
RU Random utility
SDR Standardised death rate
TPB Theory of planned behaviour
TRA Theory of reasoned action
TSG Traditional Speciality Guaranteed
UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
WBC Western Balkan Countries Organization
WHO World Health Organisation
WTO World Trade Organization
Chapter 1
Introduction
Dominique Barjolle and Jure Pohar
Abstract Food consumer science is a relatively young science, and research in this
field in the Western Balkans is rare. It aims at investigating the complex interactions
between the consumers, the marketplace and the industry. These three pillars are
explored through several different disciplines and most commonly through the
combination of qualitative and quantitative methods.
This book, which addresses scientists and students, explores the main methods,
models and approaches of food consumer science applied to six countries of the
Western Balkans. It aims at explaining these methods by illustrating each of them
with concrete case studies. In the Western Balkans, the proportion of household
expenses spent on food is higher than in other European countries, and the changes
on the domestic markets present the risk to marginalise many farmers, producers
and processors. Therefore, the FOCUS BALKANS project was initiated, and the
research conducted between 2008 and 2011 has provided an excellent database for
exploring recent changes and trends in food consumption. This opening chapter
presents the theoretical economic background for food consumer science, gives a
short overview of food consumption in the Balkans and outlines the general concep-
tion of the book.
Keywords Food consumer science • Economic theory • Food market • Motives of

consumption • Future trends • Niche market
D. Barjolle, Ph.D. (*)

Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED), ETH Zürich,
Sonneggstrasse 33, SOL C2, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Pohar, Ph.D.
Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana,
Groblje 3, 1230 Domžale, Slovenia
D. Barjolle et al. (eds.), Food Consumer Science: Theories, Methods 1

and Application to the Western Balkans, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5946-6_1,
2 D. Barjolle and J. Pohar
1.1 Preliminary Considerations
Food consumer science is relatively young. It could be considered as a synonym for

or a hybrid of two distinct sciences. On the one hand, there is a part that might
be regarded as ‘hardware’, that is, science about food or food science, while on the
other hand there is a part that might be regarded as ‘software’, namely science about
consumers or consumer science. The latter emerged in the 1960s with a growing
consideration by firms interested in improving the marketing management process
(Engel et al. 1995).
Food consumer science thus intends to combine these two sciences and pursues a
holistic approach towards hardware (referring in particular to natural sciences such
as chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, process technique, etc.) and software (i.e.
social and humanistic sciences, mostly sociology and psychology). The latter should
tell us why, when and how the consumer will consume food, while the first should
examine how food is produced and processed. In addition, it could include a study of
the impacts of food on the growth, development and health of the human being. If
food science was restricted to the mere study of the production of food, it would be
more correct to speak about food production science which – when studying the food
industry in particular – could also be called food technology science. When food is
not studied as a consumer/consumable product but rather as a factor influencing
growth, development and health, and where the consumer is considered merely one
of the living organisms (higher mammals), ignoring the psychological and focusing
only on the physiological component, both parts – that is, food science and consumer
science – meet in an interface usually designated as nutrition science.
Food consumer science aims at investigating the complex interactions between
consumers and industry in the framework of the food marketplace. This complex
system is explored through different disciplines like economics, food science, nutri-
tion, psychology, sociology, marketing and anthropology (Steenkamp 1997): the
research is based on several models and theories (Table 1.1). The scope of consumer
science goes beyond understanding the willingness of consumers to buy. Consumer
science is indeed a social science, which aims at increasing general social welfare
by taking into account the deep aspirations of the consumers for developing more
convenient products and marketing tools (Solomon et al. 2006). Of course, the
consumer is the main subject of research, but the interactions with the two other
dimensions (market and industry) are fundamental to be able to understand and
forecast consumption patterns and consumers’ behaviour. Consumer research is not
only the testing of new products or the evaluation of the prices the consumers can
pay for a product. It is also related to forecasting and investigating prospects in
research and development activities for companies and therefore closely linked to
the elaboration of products and marketing innovations. Qualitative and quantitative
methods are used, most often in combination, like in other social sciences.
This book explores the main methods, models and approaches used in food con-
sumer science with applications within the Western Balkans. Three aspects render
this publication unique: first, the systematic presentation of the most useful methods
1 Introduction 3
Table 1.1 Main disciplines, theories and models for food consumer science (not exhaustive list)
Main discipline Theory or model
Food consumer science Economics Asymmetry of information
Economy of quality
Food safety economics
Institutional economics
Economic household models
Food science/nutrition Biopsychological approach
Health belief model
Psychology Theory of reasoned action
Theory of planned behaviour
Sociology Food choice
Process model
Communication Theory of linear knowledge
transfer or demand driven
Marketing Food supply chain management
Corporate social responsibility
to explore food consumption; second, a focus on research results related to consumers

within the Western Balkans; and third, a consideration of the four relevant markets
for developing healthy food consumption (health claim, organic and traditional
products and fruits).
This book presents the results of the European research programme FOCUS
BALKANS, which was conducted between 2008 and 2011 by a large consortium of
17 partners (see Chap. 1.6).
The quality of the research findings was continuously checked by a steering commit-
tee of eight scientists, who are co-authors of this book. External supervision was carried
out by Agata Pienadz, scientific officer at the Directorate for Research and Innovation
at the European Commission. Two external reviewers, Jutta Roosen, professor at the
Technische Universität München in Germany, and Monique Raats, University of Surrey
in the United Kingdom (UK), undertook the midterm review of the project. Thanks to
their collaboration and the fruitful comments of three external reviewers this book was
possible, and we would like to acknowledge the commitment of all these experts.
The rest of this chapter introduces the book and provides, in turn, the theoretical
anchorage of food consumer science from an economic perspective, a short over-
view of food consumption in the Western Balkans and the outline of the structure of
the whole book.
1.2 Economic Foundations for Food Consumer Science
Classical and neoclassical microeconomic perspectives focus on the functioning of

markets and are based on several assumptions related to demand and, inductively, to
‘consumer choice’. These theories consider the optimal allocation of resources
under conditions of perfect information. A main assumption is that the consumer

has a free choice in terms of whether to allocate her/his resources to one product or
alternatively to another one. Further, it is assumed that markets converge to equilib-
rium usually through a ‘trial-and-error’ process.
Recent economic theory highlights the importance of considering more carefully
the consumer as a research object and how markets may fail due to information
asymmetry. Akerlof (1970) studied the link between quality and uncertainty. His
approach to uncertainty is based on the assumption that, in a certain context of trade
such as second-hand cars, uncertainty is inherent to the nature of the transaction
itself. Asymmetry of information about products is essentially linked to experience
goods (Nelson 1970), for which the consumer assesses the quality only when she/he
actually consumes the product, and trust goods (Darby and Karni 1973), sometimes
known as credence goods, for which the quality cannot be assessed directly by the
consumer either prior to or post purchase (e.g. for food: production methods or
nutrition content). Shapiro (1983) demonstrated even that ‘premium prices’ are not
in contradiction with the general welfare theory because they are necessary to cover
reputation costs (certification and control costs can also be added to it), in which any
firm has to invest in order to gain the trust of consumers.
The importance of food safety and related economic concerns should be system-
atically considered in food consumer research. Recent analyses showed that the
values of safety, nutrition, taste and price were amongst the most important for con-
sumers (Lusk and Briggeman 2009). As showed by Caswell (1998), food labelling
reduces information asymmetry. Consequently, the economics of food safety is
included into the theoretical framework of contemporary food consumer science.
Food safety issues cover how farmers produce food (what chemicals they use when
growing plants and how they feed their animals), how food is processed, how it is
sold and what sort of information is provided on product labels.
Economists often suggest an institutional perspective for research on consumer
behaviour. Food consumer science has to refer to institutional economics, and the roles
of different players in the market should be analysed in the context of understanding
contemporary food consumer behaviour. This rich institutional context includes con-
sumers’ associations, farmers and processors, retailers and other sellers, regulatory
institutions and governmental bodies in the area of public health, food regulation, trade,
innovations and technology, education and information. Derived from an institutional
economics perspective, the economics of quality (Karpik 2007) studies the social pro-
cess of the setting up of quality norms, that is, the negotiation and agreements’ reaching
process. This perspective highlights the balance between offers and demands beyond
individual instantaneous transactions and through the broader understanding of the
social and institutional context, which is evolving at any point in time. This theory is a
must to explore the development of the quality of food along the supply chain.
Finally, the economics of households provides useful insights particularly in the
context of transition and developing countries. This approach is very complete and
useful in many situations and contexts and is detailed as a systemic step-by-step
approach at the local, national or regional (in the sense of a group of countries)
levels to describe the markets and the food habits and to define the priorities of any
1 Introduction 5
food policy. Nevertheless, the objectives of the FOCUS BALKANS project were
not related to that topic, and this approach is not described further in this book.
Starting from these perspectives, food consumer science considers the consumer
as a complex object to be investigated from different perspectives. Increasing health
costs have led to a growing interest from public health agents, and the second next
user of the results are therefore public health specialists and policymakers. The grow-
ing emphasis on establishing integrated public policies between agriculture, food and
health and for involving the private sector to fulfil corporate social responsibilities is
opening a very promising future for the young field of food consumer science.
1.3 Food Consumption in the Western Balkans
During the socialist era (from 1945 to 1991), the Western Balkan countries (WBC)
covered by this research were part of Yugoslavia, which engaged in a policy of non-
alignment to the EU and USSR. The disintegration of the former Yugoslav states
continues to colour the relationships between successor states.
Consumer science is of major importance to improve the functioning of food
markets. These countries are facing the liberalisation of the domestic markets and
experiencing greater global competition. Understanding consumers’ behaviour and
expectations is pivotal for their future development.
In the context of accession to the European Union (EU), all these countries have
undertaken reforms to harmonise their legislation with EU directives and regula-
tions. The World Trade Organization (WTO) accession process also triggered
reforms. Slovenia joined the EU in 2004, and Croatia will join on 1 July 2013.
FYROM, Montenegro and Serbia are candidates for membership of the EU, while
progress in Bosnia and Herzegovina has been slower, although the country hopes to
gain candidate status by 2014.
The harmonisation with the EU framework implies a greater involvement of non-
governmental stakeholders and supranational actors in food and nutritional policy.
Food markets in WBC are strongly influenced by the legacy of the former
Yugoslavian agro-industrial sector, in which the agro-kombinats (socially owned
complex gathering primary production and processing units) mostly supplied the
formal marketing channels. The concept of social ownership prevailed in Yugoslavia
and corresponds to the one of inalienable collective ownership. With the privatisa-
tion of the kombinats, the emergence of new types of producers and the process of
EU accession, legislations and regulations have focused more and more on product
quality to the benefit of consumers. The general pattern of food consumption in the
WBCs can be compared against those for existing EU member states. The total
expenditure on food in the WBC is on average twice that of the average for the
EU-27 (Table 1.2). Yet the proportion of household expenses accounted for by food
is significantly higher in the WBC, although this is less marked in Slovenia and
Croatia than in the other countries of the region, which are not yet members of the
EU. The percentage of household expenses allocated to transport, communication,
Table 1.2 Average household expenditures in euros, 2005
Furnishings,
Alcoholic Housing, household
Food beverages, water, equipment
and non- tobacco Clothing electricity, and routine Miscellaneous
alcoholic and and gas and maintenance Recreation Restaurants goods and
2005 beverages narcotics footwear other fuels of the house Health Transport Communications and culture Education and hotels services Total
European Union 3,594 560 1,412 6,947 1,416 796 3,078 738 2,187 238 1,417 2,291 24,674
(27 countries)
European Union 3,675 577 1,483 7,310 1,493 832 3,252 768 2,313 250 1,500 2,426 25,879
(25 countries)
European Union 3,851 626 1,648 8,127 1,667 907 3,649 807 2,594 273 1,716 2,744 28,609
(15 countries)
Slovenia 3,966 575 1,678 5,483 1,389 356 3,717 950 2,234 202 1,035 2,220 23,805
Croatia 4,564 548 1,059 4,983 697 315 1,484 729 853 105 465 1,039 16,841
FYROM 5,545 453 994 1,496 622 414 870 590 479 103 543 511 12,620
In percentage
European Union 14.6 2.3 5.7 28.2 5.7 3.2 12.5 3.0 8.9 1.0 5.7 9.3 100.0
(27 countries)
European Union 14.2 2.2 5.7 28.2 5.8 3.2 12.6 3.0 8.9 1.0 5.8 9.4 100.0
(25 countries)
European Union 13.5 2.2 5.8 28.4 5.8 3.2 12.8 2.8 9.1 1.0 6.0 9.6 100.0
(15 countries)
Slovenia 16.7 2.4 7.0 23.0 5.8 1.5 15.6 4.0 9.4 0.8 4.3 9.3 100.0
Croatia 27.1 2.4 7.0 23.0 5.8 1.5 15.6 4.0 9.4 0.8 4.3 9.3 100.0
FYROM 43.9 3.3 6.3 29.6 4.1 1.9 8.8 4.3 5.1 0.6 2.8 6.2 100.0
Source: Eurostat (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu)
1 Introduction 7
Fig. 1.1 Average household expenditures for food and non-alcoholic beverages in euros, 2005.
Data of WBC available only for FYROM, Croatia and Slovenia (Source: http://epp.eurostat.ec.
europa.eu)
recreation/culture, education, restaurants/hotels and miscellaneous items is much

lower in the WBC than the EU average.
The total expenditures in euros for food and non-alcoholic beverages in Croatia,
FYROM and Slovenia are above the average of the EU (Fig. 1.1). This shows in part
the importance of food for the local economy and in the local way of life.
A significant growth in household income and expenditure was recorded in
most of the WBC until the economic crisis beginning in 2008. At the same time,
changes have occurred both in the structure of income and expenditures. Both prior
to and after the recent financial crisis, Slovenian households have been relatively
better off, and the proportion of household expenditure accounted for by food is
markedly less (17.6%) than for the other countries studied in the project. In all
other countries studied, this percentage is significantly higher (32–43% range).
The richer a country is, the higher is the living standard of its population and the
lower the percentage of household income spent on food. The highest proportion
spent on food takes place in FYRO Macedonia, then in Serbia and the smallest in
Slovenia (Table 1.3).
In order to maintain and increase market participation, the Western Balkan food
industry (farmers, processors, producers and retailers) must comply with increas-
ingly demanding global requirements, for example, sanitary regulations. Nevertheless,
these requirements and evolving market conditions may force many small economic
agents (farmers, processors and producers) burdened with unfavourable sizes or
structures of farms, the fragmentation of holdings, and the low level of specialisation
to close their businesses, unless they find the means to invest in modern technologies
8
Table 1.3 Average household expenditures (percentage)

Bosnia and
Slovenia Croatia Herzegovina Serbia Montenegro Macedonia
In percentage 2007 2010 2007 2010 2007 2007 2010 2007 2010 2007 2010
Food and non-alcoholic beverages 18 17.6 32.6 32.1 31.9 38.3 41.3 35.4 39.8 41.7 43.1
Alcoholic drinks and tobacco 2.8 2.4 3.7 3.6 3.3 4.7 4.4 3.5 3.5 4.3 4.1
Clothes and footwear 7.7 7.6 8 7.3 5.1 6.7 4.8 8.2 7.4 7.6 6.5
Housing, water, electricity and other fuels 12.8 13.9 13.7 14.4 22.1 15.2 16 12.9 15.4 10.4 12.8
Furniture, household equipment and 7.4 7.7 5.1 5.2 5.4 5 4.4 5.1 3.9 6.2 5.4
maintenance
Healthcare 1.8 2.4 2.5 2.8 4 4.3 4.1 4 3.3 3 3.8
Transport 18.1 16.5 11.4 11 11.2 11.2 9 11 8.7 8.4 6.5
Communications 5 5.1 5.1 5.1 3.3 3.3 3.9 6.1 5.1 4.5 4.1
Recreation and culture 10.3 10.6 6.2 6 3.6 4.4 4.7 3.9 3.7 4.1 2.7
Education 1.1 0.9 0.7 1 0.5 0.8 0.9 2.3 1.8 0.9 1
Restaurants and hotels 4 4 3.3 3.1 2.8 1.7 1.9 2.7 2.3 4.9 5.1
Other goods and services 11 11.3 7.7 8.4 6.4 4.4 4.6 5.1 5 4 4.9
Personal consumption – total 100%
Source: Milosevic et al. 2009
D. Barjolle and J. Pohar
1 Introduction 9
and adapt to the new environment. The changing nature of domestic markets presents
the risk of marginalising many farmers, producers and processors due to the increas-
ing market share of international and major domestic supermarkets, the introduction
of standards, new business practices and consumers’ increased demand for quality
and safe foods. Throughout the WBC, small-scale agricultural producers particularly
in marginal areas are often old and with basic education.
In this context, the FOCUS BALKANS project was initiated and the research
conducted between 2008 and 2011. It provides an excellent database for exploring
in-depth recent changes and trends of food consumption in six WBC (Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Croatia, FYRO Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia).
1.4 The FOCUS BALKANS Project
The spirit of the FOCUS BALKANS project was to interlink research, training and
networking activities regarding food consumer science so as to boost research in a
sustainable way: all six countries conducted individual research studies on niche mar-
kets and a quantitative consumer survey, participated in and/or organised trainings (6),
networking meetings (32) and open seminars (2). Even after the end of the project, the
participant researchers’ network continues to develop activities in that field.
The general objective of FOCUS BALKANS was to improve competencies and
understanding in the field of food consumer science in the WBC and especially to:
• Have a better knowledge and understanding of WBC food consumers, with a
focus on products with positive nutritional properties (food with ‘health claim’
and fruits) and sustainability claims (organic and traditional food).
• Develop competencies and understanding of public organisations, private
enterprises and NGOs regarding food consumer science in the WBC (educa-
tional trainings).
• Develop a network of universities, institutes, high schools, consumer organisa-
tions, NGOs and private enterprises active in the field of consumer science related
to food (networking meetings and open seminars).
The most important findings were that in general more promotion for food in
relation to health promotion (improvement of the diet) must be undertaken by
governments and that supply chains (from producers and processors to small retailers)
must be fostered and better structured. Voluntary food standards must be better
communicated to consumers and more clearly tagged and positioned. The food
industry, policymakers and researchers desire to be active within scientific and pro-
fessional networks in order to continue conducting actively such research.
The project activities resulted in the significant participation of WBC scientists
in projects related to food consumer science. More than 100 scientists from the
region were directly involved in research, training, networking or dissemination
activities. Furthermore, they gained competencies in presenting scientific papers at
conferences and in publishing papers in scientific journals in order to make food

consumer science in the WBC more broadly known amongst the scientific commu-
nity (see on www.focus-balkans.org).
The WBC partners have elaborated new methods, which fit the specific WBC
context. They are now able to apply them to further scientific studies and concrete
programmes. Knowledge has been disseminated through several bachelor and mas-
ter programmes for which this book constitutes an excellent teaching resource.
1.5 Objectives, Scope and Outline of the Book
This book presents major methods used in food consumer science, illustrating
each of them with concrete results obtained through the European research
programme FOCUS BALKANS. The scope of this book is essentially market
study, motives of consumption, future trends and challenges for niche food markets
and consumer preferences. The scope was defined according to the most preferred
and needed research results by the private and public sectors in the Balkans.
This was assessed at the beginning of the project by the steering committee
members based on their experience and knowledge of the state of the art for
research in the region.
This book is addressed especially to scientists and students. The data and
main conclusions are of particular interest for policymakers concerned with reg-
ulating the food supply chain, public authorities in charge of controlling agricul-
ture, food production and the food market, civil society organisations charged
with defending consumers’ rights and for private enterprises within the agricul-
tural and food sector.
The seven core chapters on methods and results provide a thorough understand-
ing of both the main theories that inform consumer food science and the methods
that can be used to gain an empirical understanding. Since it is not possible to
explore all food market segments in the scope of this book, the different chapters
illustrate methods with examples from products with health and nutritional claims
(Chap. 5), the market for fruits (Chap. 6), organic products (Chap. 7) and traditional
foods (Chap. 8). As quantitative and qualitative approaches are used in food con-
sumer science, both approaches are presented (qualitative methods in Chaps. 5 and
6; quantitative methods in Chaps. 3, 4, 7 and 8).
The application of techniques draws on a major piece of cross-national research.
Quantitative methods are illustrated from results of a quantitative survey conducted
in all six WBC included within the project. The cross-national survey covered 3,085
adult respondents. The respondents completed the Food Choice Questionnaire
(FCQ) (Steptoe et al. 1995) as well as additional questions on food choice in each
mentioned country, and the sample was stratified to match key characteristics of
the population. The survey sought to understand the motives for food choice in the
WBC and to segment and profile groups of consumers. This approach formed
the basis of consumer profiling and is presented in Chap. 3. Chapter 4 presents the
method of cluster analysis based on the results of the FCQ.
1 Introduction 11
Table 1.4 Scope, methods and illustrations presented in the book

Scope Method Illustration
Market study In-depth interviews with experts Health claim products
Motives for consumption Consumer focus groups Fruits
Future trends and challenges Delphi method Organic
in niche food markets
Consumer preferences Conjoint analysis Traditional products
Methods and results about each topic of the research (fruits, health claim products,
organic and traditional food) have been described according to the matches between
scope/methods and illustrations described in Table 1.4.
At the end of each chapter, a discussion of the method presents its benefits and
utility as well as the main difficulties that may be encountered in its application.
Altogether, the chapters cover the major issues needed for a scholar to become
familiar with food consumer science, both in terms of methods and markets.
1.6 Acknowledgement
The content of this book is based on the findings of the FOCUS BALKANS project.
We would like to thank all the researchers and institutions who contributed to the
FOCUS BALKANS project and thus made this publication possible.
The researchers and institutions involved were
Institution Researcher
ETH Zürich (coordinator Dominique Barjolle
of the project) Delphine Eynaudi
AGRIDEA Magali Estève
Sophie Réviron
Astrid Gerz
SEEDEV Pascal Bernardoni
Josip Jagust
Dragana Tar
Goran Zivkov
Ipsos Strategic Hana Baronijan
Marketing – SMMRI Jasna Milošević
Ðorđević
Dragisa Bjeloglav
Ana Delic
Sonja Stancic
Tanja Stojadinovic
Dalibor Misic
Marija Tadic
Jelena Matovic
Jelena Jakic
Srdjan Bogosavljevic
(continued)
(continued)
DLO LEI Wageningen UR Abele Kuipers
Siet Sijtsema
Karin Zimmermann
Mariet van Haaster-de
Winter
Isabelle van den Berg
Niels Tomson
Barbara van der Hout
Harriette Snoek
Xiaoyong Zhang
VetAgroSup Corinne Amblard
Georges Giraud
Julie Mardon
Elise Prugnard
University of Newcastle, Matthew Gorton
United Kingdom John White
Mitchell Ness
ECOZEPT Burkhard Schaer
Nina Berner
GEM Martine Zaouche-Laniau
Michel Timsit
University of Parma, Italy Cristina Mora
Maria Cecilia Mancini
Davide Menozzi
Giovanni Sogari
Dario Caccamisi
Carla Campana
University of Ljubljana, Marija Klopcic
Biotechnical Faculty, Jure Pohar
Slovenia
University of Zagreb, Faculty Natasa Renko
of Economics, Croatia Sanda Renko
Ruzica Butigan
Ante Vuletic
Faculty of Economics, Žaklina Stojanović
University of Belgrade, Galjina Ognjanov
Serbia Radmila Dragutinović-
Mitrović
Aleksandra Zečević
Dragan Stojković
Jelena Filipović
Svetlana Popović
Mirjana Gligorić
Faculty of Philosophy, Iris Žeželj
University of Belgrade, Nebojša Petrović
Serbia
(continued)
1 Introduction 13
(continued)
University of Banja Luka, Miljan Cvetkovic
Faculty of Agriculture, Lidija Tomić
Bosnia Aleksandar Figurek
Dimitrije Marković
Institute of Public Health, Boban Mugosa
Montenegro Ljiljana Zizic
Borko Bajic
Sanja Scepanovic
Zorica Ðorđević
Balša Radulović
Institute for Health Vladimir Kendrovski
Protection, Macedonia Igor Spiroski
University of Wageningen, Ivo van der Lans
the Netherlands Cees De Graaf
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selection of food: the food choice questionnaire. Appetite 25:267–284
Chapter 2
Theories of Food Choice
Matthew Gorton and Dominique Barjolle
Abstract This chapter introduces and evaluates the main models that seek to
understand consumer behaviour relating to food. Three of the most influential
approaches applied specifically to understand food choice are described in detail,
and their strengths and weaknesses are discussed: (a) economic (household and
random utility) models, (b) the food choice process model and (c) the theory of
reasoned action/theory of planned behaviour. The selection of these three groups
of models reflects their influence within the food choice literature and use within
policy studies. Given the large number of empirical studies that have validated the
theory of planned behaviour for the study of food choice, this model was selected
as a core theoretical framework for the Focus Balkans project. From reviewing the
models, conclusions are drawn relating to the current state of the literature on
food choice.
Keywords Food choice • Economic household model • Random utility model

• Food choice process model • Theory of planned behaviour
M. Gorton, Ph.D. (*)

Marketing Subject Group, Newcastle University Business School,
5 Barrack Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4SE, UK
D. Barjolle, Ph.D.

16 M. Gorton and D. Barjolle
2.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces and evaluates the main models that seek to understand con-
sumer behaviour relating to food. As a starting point, several authors seek to list the
factors that influence food choice. These factors can be divided into three catego-
ries: (1) product, (2) person and (3) environment (or situational context). All these
factors can, for example, be found in one of the first models of food choice, pre-
sented by Randall and Sanjur (1981). In the latter, these three sets of factors are
listed as determinants of food preferences (see Fig. 2.1). Each group of factors
includes several characteristics.
It should be noted, however, that Randall and Sanjur’s (1981) model lists variables
rather than identifies causal relationships and remains largely descriptive in nature.
Other, more complex models attempt to provide the basis for explaining, predicting
and also controlling food choice by demonstrating causal relationships. These
attempts are not confined to one branch of the social sciences. Rather economists,
marketers, psychologists, social anthropologists and sociologists have all made
significant contributions. Marketers have typically drawn on generic models of
buyer behaviour to explain food choice such as consumer decision process models
and the Howard-Sheth model of buyer behaviour (Sheth 2011). In this chapter, we
evaluate, however, three of the most influential approaches applied specifically to
understand food choice: (a) economic (household and random utility) models, (b)
the food choice process model and (c) the theory of reasoned action/theory of
Fig. 2.1 Factors influencing food preferences (Source: Randall and Sanjur 1981, p. 154)
2 Theories of Food Choice 17
planned behaviour. The selection of these three groups of models reflects their
influence on the food choice literature and use within policy studies (Grunert et al.
1996; Conner and Armitage 2008). After describing the main features of each
approach, we evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in turn.
2.2 Economic Models
2.2.1 Economic Household Model
This approach dates back to the work of Becker (1965), who developed a work–
leisure model, where the household is the unit of analysis. He reasoned that house-
holds produce utility-yielding commodities (outputs) with combinations of market
goods and time. The household can allocate its time to one of three uses: (a) labour
market time (generates income to acquire market goods), (b) household production
time (e.g. cooking) and (c) consumption time (e.g. eating). In relation to food, meals
typically require labour to be allocated to all three uses: labour market time to generate
the income to pay for ingredients, production time to cook the meal and consump-
tion time for eating. The uses of time are however competitive with each other – an
additional hour spent at work is one less hour that can be devoted to household
production or consumption.
Bonke (1992) utilises Becker’s (1965) model to analyse the effects of increases/
decreases of income and disposable time on patterns of food consumption. The
former argues that Western societies witnessed in the post-war period rising incomes
and an increase in the number of women in the labour market. The rise in women’s
working hours led to a decrease in the time available to spend on household activi-
ties. Bonke (1992) argues that households with more money but less time to spend
on household activities will substitute non-convenience foods for convenience
foods, reducing the time spent on cooking.
To test the relationships between disposable time, disposable income and food
choice, Bonke (1992) draws on cross-sectional data from Denmark. Foods were
classified into non-convenience goods (i.e. ingredients used for cooking from
scratch), semi-convenience goods (e.g. ready-made sauces) and convenience goods
(i.e. ready meals, meals eaten out of the home in bars and restaurants). Relative
expenditure on the three food categories was assessed in terms of the household’s
disposable and non-disposable income. Households that are both rich and busy were
supposed to demand a higher proportion of convenience foods, while those house-
holds that are poor with a lot of disposable time would utilise a higher proportion of
cheaper, non-convenience foods.
Figure 2.2 indicates that, in accordance with Bonke’s (1992) hypothesis, busy
and rich households allocate a greater proportion of expenditure on convenience
food and a smaller proportion on non-convenience foods. The economic household
model has been utilised to explain the rise in the number of restaurants and con-
sumption of ready meals during periods of economic growth and the sensitivity in
Fig. 2.2 Expenditure on food with different degrees of convenience according to household
resources (Source: Bonke 1992, p. 48)
the fortunes of restaurants to changes in income (Schumacher and Boland 2005). In

keeping with Bonke’s approach, the current global recession has been associated, in
many countries, with a sharp fall in out-of-home expenditure on food and rising
interest in ‘grow your own’ allotments and vegetable plots (Green 2008). In the
Western Balkan Countries (WBC), semi-subsistence farming remains relatively
important and plays a significant role in food consumption, especially in rural areas
(Lampietti et al. 2009).
The economic household approach, however, presents several limitations. For
instance while the cross-sectional data from Denmark fit well with the economic
household model, Bonke’s approach is less able to explain cross-national varia-
tions in the consumption of convenience foods. For example, average incomes
and labour market participation are higher in Sweden than Spain, but the share of
food spending accounted for by out-of-the-home meals is significantly higher in
the latter country (Swoboda and Morschett 2001). Ready-to-cook products for
consumption at home (while generally witnessing increasing sales in Western
Europe) have greater penetration in the United States of America (USA) and the
United Kingdom (UK) compared to France and Italy (Swoboda and Morschett
2001). This pattern cannot be reduced solely to differences in incomes and dispos-
able time. Culture also plays a critical role in explaining cross-national variations
in food choice. For instance, to take an extreme example, cross-national variations
in the consumption of horsemeat owe little to variations in incomes and dispos-
able time but rather whether its consumption is culturally sanctioned. Sociologists
and anthropologists seek to incorporate a wider set of factors into their explana-
tions of food choice.
2.2.2 Random Utility Models
Random utility (RU) models consider the choices made by consumers between
mutually exclusive discrete alternatives (such as selecting between brands)
(Hanemann 1984; Baltas and Doyle 2001). Consumers are considered to maximise
utility which is revealed through observed choices (i.e. consumers choose the prod-
uct with the most desired set of attributes from a set of alternatives). It is assumed
that a consumer’s utility function is deterministic to that person and thus contains
some components which are unobservable to the researcher, for example, taste
preferences (Hanemann 1984). The utility function can thus be decomposed into
two parts: (a) a deterministic component, specified as a function of measured attri-
butes of alternative products and/or individual characteristics, and (b) a stochastic
component, representing unobserved attributes affecting choice, interpersonal
variations in utilities arising from heterogeneity in tastes and measurement errors
(Baltas and Doyle 2001).
In relation to food choice, RU models have been employed, for example, to
analyse choice of organic versus conventional foods (Gracia and de Magistris
2008) and preferences for extra-virgin olive oil (Cicia et al. 2002). In applying RU
models, researchers have, however, encountered a number of practical difficulties.
First, there tends to be a trade-off between simplicity and realism in the choice
alternatives considered (Baltas and Doyle 2001). If the number of alternatives
becomes too large, it may not be manageable. A simple design, however, may lead
to poor validity. For example, if in studying the choice between different brands of
instant coffee, the researcher failed to recognise that each brand is typically avail-
able in various pack sizes and caffeinated and decaffeinated versions, estimations
are likely to be of limited value. Second, most empirical studies have focused on
the mutual exclusivity case, where consumers choose one brand or product from a
particular category. However, consumers may select a subset of brands from the
product category; for example, a consumer may purchase two types of cheese at
the same time (Hanemann 1984).
2.3 Food Choice Process Model
Furst et al. (1996) developed the food choice process model. It is one of the most
influential approaches to be based on grounded theory and derived from qualitative
research. There are three main components of the model: the life course, influences
and personal systems (Fig. 2.3).
The life course refers to past and current eating experiences. Furst et al. (1996)
argue that to understand current patterns of food consumption, it is necessary to
understand trajectories, defined as a person’s persistent thoughts, feelings, strate-
gies and action over the lifespan. Devine et al. (1998) contend that trajectories
develop in specific situational and historic contexts that become persistent and
Fig. 2.3 Food choice process

model (Source: adapted from
Sobal et al. 2006, p. 3)
exhibit their own momentum and continuity. The family unit is seen as the most
important situational and historic context, so that a person’s upbringing moulds
patterns of food consumption long after they have left the parental home. However,
the authors are careful to avoid crude historical determinism – recognising that
researchers should also capture transitions – shifts in a person’s life that ‘lead to
changes or solidify the continuation of behaviours, including food choice patterns’
(Sobal et al. 2006, p. 4). For instance, illness may act as a critical transition, dis-
turbing habits (Falk et al. 2000).
In Furst et al.’s (1996) model, influences refer to ideals, resources, social frame-
work and the food context. Ideals are the symbolic meanings people associate with
food, such as social status and whether a particular good is regarded as ‘proper food’.
The authors note that some people are more ‘food centred’, deriving pleasure, safety
and symbolic value from cooking, while others display low ‘food salience’:
I don’t make an issue out of having a sit down meal or whatever.… I don’t think that you
have to make like an all out … effort to make dinner every day. It doesn’t have to be like a
main function of your life. (Furst et al. 1996, p. 254)
Resources are classified as tangible (money, equipment and space) or intangible

(culinary knowledge, skills and time). Both sets are regarded as important determining
factors. The social framework captures the nature of interpersonal relationships,
social roles and meaning. Families are regarded by Furst et al. (1996) as the most
important set of interpersonal relationships influencing food choice, with individu-
als ‘enacting or being assigned particular household food roles’ (Furst et al. 1996,
p. 255). These roles may conflict with individual preferences, as illustrated in the
following quotation, where one interviewee indicated that she placed family needs
above her own:
if it wasn’t for them [the family] I probably wouldn’t [cook], probably just have apples or
something… . I’d probably just be eating one thing … I love doing it [preparing food], but
yeah, for them it’s … fun to do and I do it for them, but it’s not a priority for me. (Furst et al.
1996, pp. 255–256)
The third component of the model, the personal food system, relates to mental
processes whereby people translate influences on their food choices into how and
what they eat in a specific context. This consists of two main components: value
negotiations, which involve evaluating the varying merits of different factors, and
strategies. Furst et al. (1996) identify six main values pertinent to food choice: sen-
sory perceptions, monetary considerations, convenience, health/nutrition, managing
relationships and quality. Strategies capture well-established habits or rules; for
example, one woman’s rule for buying yoghurt was
… there’s [a] certain brand of yogurt that my daughter likes … I will automatically buy that
brand. Because I know if I buy the other brand [cheaper] it will just sit in the refrigerator
and rot. (Furst et al. 1996, p. 60)
Devine et al. (1998) utilise Furst et al.’s (1996) model to explain patterns of fruit
and vegetable consumption. It has also informed studies of the food choice of older
consumers (Falk et al. 1996) and newly married couples (Bove et al. 2003).
The food choice process model incorporates a far wider set of factors to explain
food choice than the economic household model, and it is designed to be compre-
hensive (Sobal et al. 2006). For instance, the prominence given to life histories is
in contrast to the economic models of Becker (1965) and Bonke (1992), where
past behaviour and personal health (illness) do not enter as explanatory variables.
However, the model is based on a narrow data set – 29 interviews with adults
drawn from New York State (USA). Each interview only lasted for 20–30 min,
which is short compared against the norms in qualitative research for in-depth
interviews and appears inadequate to capture an individual’s life course, influences
and personal food systems. While the model seeks to be universal, its validity in
a cross-national setting has not been explicitly tested. Identifying the specific role
played by each component of the model is difficult – as recognised by Sobal et al.
(2006, p. 2), ‘the components of the model … are not mutually exclusive of each
other because they overlap and interact’. Establishing causality is thus difficult.
However, despite these limitations, it is important to recognise that qualitative
research can play a useful role in understanding consumer motivations and mind-
sets in relation to food choice. For example, qualitative research has been funda-
mental to understanding the values that underpin the acceptance/rejection of
organic food (Makatouni 2002).
2.4 Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)/Theory

of Planned Behaviour (TPB)
The theory of reasoned action (TRA), developed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) is
premised on the belief that the immediate predictor of behaviour is a behavioural
intention. Behavioural intentions depend on a person’s attitude towards that
behaviour and the values of others (Fig. 2.4). Attitudes capture beliefs about
behavioural outcomes (behavioural beliefs) combined with an evaluation of the
Fig. 2.4 Theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Source: adapted from Ajzen 2005, p. 126)
outcomes of such behaviour (outcome evaluation). Subjective norms refer to

received social pressures to behave in a certain way and motivation to comply
with the wishes of others.
The TRA was not specifically designed to model food choice, but it has been
used extensively for this purpose. For instance, McCarthy et al. (2003) use the TRA
to model beef consumption in Ireland. They found that both attitudes and subjective
norms are important determinants of behavioural intentions, and that the latter were
correlated significantly with their measure of behaviour. Other studies applying the
TRA to food choice have also found significant correlations between the main com-
ponents of the model (Saunders and Rahilly 1990).
However, the TRA was developed only to model purely volitional behaviour, in
other words, cases where successful performance of the behaviour required only the
formation of an intention to perform that behaviour (Conner and Armitage 2006).
To address cases of incomplete volitional control, Ajzen (1991) developed the the-
ory of planned behaviour (TPB). The TPB extends the TRA by incorporating an
additional construct, perceived behavioural control (PBC), which is regarded as a
determinant of both behavioural intensions and behaviour (Fig. 2.5). PBC incorporates
both internal control factors (information, skills and abilities) and external control
factors (dependence on others/situational factors). Therefore, according to the TPB,
intentions are influenced by three factors: (a) whether the person is in favour of
doing the specific behaviour (attitude towards the behaviour), (b) how much the
person feels social pressure to do it (subjective norm), and (c) whether the person
feels in control of the action in question or self-efficacy in relation to the behaviour
(perceived behavioural control).
Fig. 2.5 Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) (Source: adapted from Ajzen 1991, p. 182)
It should be noted that the TPB still represents a ‘reasoned action’ approach to
consumer behaviour because it assumes that intentions and behaviour in this domain
follow reasonably from the behavioural, normative and control beliefs people hold
about the behaviour. Although the beliefs people hold may be unfounded, inaccu-
rate or even irrational, the attitudes, subjective norms and perceptions of behav-
ioural control are thought to follow spontaneously and reasonably from these beliefs,
produce a corresponding behavioural intention and ultimately result in behaviour
that is consistent with the overall tenor of the beliefs. So by this theory, as a general
rule, it is assumed that attitudes towards available options, which can be measured
directly, are determinants of consumer decisions (Ajzen 1991).
The TPB has become the most widely adopted theoretical framework for model-
ling food choice (Conner and Armitage 2006). For instance, Cox et al. (1998) and
Nguyen et al. (1996) employ the TPB to explain variations in fruit and vegetable
and fat consumption, respectively. The TPB in Cox et al.’s (1998) study of fruit and
vegetable consumption accounted for between 33 and 47% of the variation in behav-
ioural intentions. Attitudes, subjective norms and PBC were all significant, with
attitudes as the most important predictor. Nguyen et al. (1996) also found all three
components to be significant, with attitudes as the most important factor in explain-
ing intentions to eat fatty foods. Further studies (Povey et al. 2000) on fruit and
vegetable consumption have found a significant linkage between behavioural inten-
tions and actual behaviour. Given the large number of empirical studies that have
validated the model specifically for the study of food choice, the TPB was selected
as a core theoretical framework for the Focus Balkans project.
While numerous studies have demonstrated the validity of the TPB approach,
several extensions have been proposed to improve the model fit. Two additional fac-
tors commonly included are self-identity and perceived need (Conner and Armitage
2006). Self-identity refers to the relatively enduring characteristics that people ascribe
to themselves (Sparks 2000). In food choice, individuals may be more likely to eat
healthily if they perceive themselves as ‘health conscious’ or eat environmentally

friendly foods, such as organics, if they identify themselves as ‘green consumers’.
The latter notion was tested by Sparks and Shepherd (1992) who found that self-
identity did significantly contribute to explaining intentions to consume organic
vegetables, in addition to other components of the TPB model. A meta-analysis by
Conner and Armitage (1998) suggests, however, that self-identity’s contribution
to the explanation of variations in behavioural intentions may be rather limited,
certainly accounting for less than the ‘traditional’ components of the TPB.
Perceived need represents a second modification to the TPB, incorporated by
Paisley and Sparks (1998). The latter argue that while the TPB may capture atti-
tudes, it does not in itself assess whether individuals perceive a need for such behav-
iour. For example, an individual may regard a low-fat diet in general to be positive
but perceive it as unnecessary to himself/herself. Studies which have incorporated
perceived need have found that it adds significantly to the prediction of behavioural
intentions (Paisley and Sparks 1998; Povey et al. 2000).
Attitude–intention relationships are likely to be weaker where individuals possess
attitudinal ambivalence – simultaneously holding both positive and negative attitudes
towards an object. Regarding food choice, for instance, an individual may hold
both positive and negative attitudes to ‘junk food’, liking the taste but disliking the
high-fat content. Conner and Armitage (2006, p. 52) argue that attitudinal
ambivalence is likely to moderate the relationship between attitudes and intention/
behaviour ‘such that stronger (i.e. less ambivalent) attitudes are more predictive’.
Sparks et al. (2001) found some empirical support for this proposition in studies
focusing on eating meat and chocolate.
While researchers agree on the importance of attitudes in shaping behaviour, it is
important to note that the model does not explain how attitudes are created or
modified. The latter is particularly important for food agencies and commercial
practitioners that wish to change behaviour. It may be that the formation of attitudes
and their modification can only be explained in relation to the notions of the life
course, trajectories and transitions introduced by Furst et al. (1996). Incorporating
this into TPB modelling would, however, require a very different research design.
2.5 Conclusion
From reviewing the models, a number of conclusions can be drawn. First, explana-
tions of cross-national variations in food choice cannot be solely reduced to differ-
ences in incomes. Culture plays an important part in explaining cross-national
variations, but researchers have often struggled to capture this in their models.
Second, past behaviour remains a consistent predictor of current behaviour. This is
captured by Furst et al. (1996) in their notion of the life course and trajectories.
Studies by social psychologists have found ‘past behaviour predicts subsequent
behaviour, over and above the effects of TPB variables’ (Conner and Armitage
2008, p. 41). Given the strong linkage between past and current behaviour, studies
of food choice should incorporate a historical dimension. Finally, while several

studies applying the TPB indicate the significance of the main elements of the model
and its overall validity, a thorough understanding of food choice requires also a
consideration of how attitudes are generated and altered.
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Chapter 3
Quantitative Surveys of Food Consumption
and Motives: The Food Choice Questionnaire
(FCQ)
Jasna Milošević Ðorđević and Iris Žeželj
Abstract Data about the motives of consumers for buying and consuming specific
food products are needed in order to tailor media messages and public health policies
to the current nutritional challenges. Research in this field is especially important in
the Western Balkan countries, where the population suffers from several diseases
linked to unhealthy nutrition and the data on the actual eating habits are scarce.
Addressing the motives behind different nutritional choices could help improve
diets in the region. To this end, a Food Choice Questionnaire was applied to six
Western Balkan countries. This method provided a systematic cross-national com-
parison of food choice motivations in the region as well as comparison to countries
of the European Union.
Although the factor analysis resulted with eight, instead of nine, factors reported
in the normative sample, the overall structure of Western Balkan food choice motives
did not differ substantially from the initial study. The ranking of motives was proven
to be fairly consistent across all Western Balkan states with ‘sensory appeal’ and
‘purchase convenience’ rated as the most important factors. Furthermore, this ranking
is similar to the ranking obtained in other European countries with different tradi-
tions, cuisines and market conditions.
Keywords Food Choice Questionnaire • Western Balkans • Factor analysis • Food

choice motives • Consumer behaviour
J.M. Ðorđević, Ph.D. (*)

Ipsos Strategic Marketing, Gavrila Principa 8, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
I. Žeželj, Ph.D.
Faculty of Philosophy, Belgrade University, Cika Ljubina 18-20,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia

28 J.M. Ðorđević and I. Žeželj
3.1 Introduction
Imagine you see a teenage girl buying a fruit salad in a cake shop. Why is she doing
this? Maybe she likes fruits, maybe she is dieting, maybe all her friends buy healthy
snacks and maybe she is fasting and is not allowed to eat dairy products. It is hypoth-
esised that the relation between external influences and actual food choice behaviour
is mediated by food-related attitudes and beliefs (Pettinger et al. 2004; Sun 2008).
When making dietary choices, people perceive food as a means for satisfying different
needs other than solely nutrition (e.g. appearance, lifestyle, image, healthiness). Bearing
in mind that actual food consumption is affected by a multitude of influences, it is
important to measure the relative salience of potential food choice motives in different
populations. Measuring the motives behind food choice can help in tailoring media
messages and health promotional campaigns to the needs of specific market segments.
Studies prove that taste is still the single most important feature of food, which con-
sumers are usually unwilling to compromise on (Verbeke 2006). However, other
motives are growing in importance: a typical European food consumer is now looking
for healthier and ‘greener’ (locally produced, less processed) alternatives (Grunert
2005). At the same time, the pace of life is dramatically changing, so the demand for
food that is easily prepared is also on the rise. Studying the motive structure and its
changes through survey-based research, particularly the implementation of the Food
Choice Questionnaire (FCQ), is the focus of this chapter.
3.2 Method
3.2.1 Origin of Instruments Used
One of the most comprehensive instruments developed to assess both food- and
non-food-related food choice motives is the Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ).
Steptoe et al. (1995) developed a protocol, the FCQ, which has been widely used to
assess the impact of different motives on food choice. The authors initially identified
nine factors that underpin food choice motivations: health, convenience (ease of
preparation and availability), price, sensory appeal (appearance, taste and smell),
mood, natural content (e.g. no additives), weight control (low in calories and fat),
familiarity and ethical concern (politically approved country of origin, environmentally
friendly packaging). This protocol was successfully implemented as a whole or partially
in urban English-speaking populations (Glanz et al. 1998; Lockie et al. 2002;
Martins and Pliner 1998; Pollard et al. 1998) and, more recently, in urban non-
English-speaking populations (Ares and Gambaro 2007; Biloukha and Utermohlen
2000; Fotopoulos et al. 2009; Honkanen and Frewer 2009; Januszewska et al. 2011;
Lindeman and Väänänen 2000). The initial nine factorial structures, proposed by
Steptoe et al. (1995), did not prove to be invariant across Western European popula-
tions (Eertmans et al. 2005; Fotopoulos et al. 2009).
3 Quantitative Surveys of Food Consumption and Motives… 29
3.2.2 Searching for Underlying Constructs: Factor Analysis
The aim of factor analysis is to reveal latent variables that cause the covariation of
manifest variables. There are two main types of factor analysis: exploratory (EFA)
and confirmatory (CFA) that serve different roles – to explore and identify or to
confirm already existing assumptions. EFA is used to uncover the underlying struc-
ture of a relatively large set of variables, while CFA seeks to confirm expected rela-
tions on the basis of previous research or theory. While EFA is oriented towards
discovering the model, confirmatory analysis is a deductive method that tests
specific hypothesis. EFA is most suitable to explore the structure of the data describ-
ing variability among observed variables and to search for a potentially lower number
of unobserved factors. The observed variables are modelled as linear combinations
of the potential factors, thus resulting in a smaller number of underlying constructs.
Highly intercorrelated variables are grouped into a distinct set of groups by EFA,
and the researcher interprets the interrelationships between the factors.
In contrast to traditional EFA that does not focus on the structure of the model
being tested, CFA requires the researcher to specify both the number of factors and
patterns of variable loadings on underlying factors (Hair et al. 2010; Little 2000;
Matsumoto and Hee Yoo 2006; Cheung and Leung 2006). In applying the method
and meeting the objectives of factor analysis, the researcher has to specify the
research question, obtain the data and consider conceptually the structure of the
data, decide which type of factor analysis needs to be applied and, after the applica-
tion, interpret the results. Sample size should be adequate: at least 50–100 cases
(Barrett and Kline 1981; Comfrey and Lee 1992) or with a subject to item ratio of
at least 10:1 (Nunnally 1978, p. 421).
With the aim of assessing the structure of motives underpinning food choice in
Western Balkan countries (WBC), we conducted a factor analysis. Given the exis-
tence of previous research, as a first step, we estimated a fit of Steptoe et al.’s (1995)
nine independent-factor FCQ model for each country as well as the combined WBC
sample. Goodness of fit was assessed using a number of measures. These included
the chi-square test as a descriptive goodness-of-fit index for nested models, the
comparative fit index (CFI), the parsimonious comparative fit index (PCFI) and the
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). As the nine-factor model dem-
onstrated suboptimal fit, we turned to EFA, in order to reveal the factor structure of
the instrument for this specific population (Fotopoulos et al. 2009).
3.2.3 Protocol and Data Collection
Implementation of the FCQ followed three stages and covered six countries: Bosnia
and Herzegovina (BiH), Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM), Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. The first stage was translating the FCQ
from English into local languages. The questionnaire was translated first into Serbian
and back translated to English by a second translator, not familiar with the instrument
(as suggested by Brislin 1986). The original English version and the back-translated
version were then matched by two independent observers. Minor discrepancies were
corrected until the back-translated version fully matched the original English ver-
sion. Based on the Serbian questionnaire, five separate versions were developed for
the other studied countries in the respective national language. One difference from
the original FCQ is that we opted for a five-point instead of the original four-point
scale used by Steptoe et al. (1995). This was for two main reasons: (a) in order to avoid
a forced (artificial) agreement or disagreement of respondents and (b) for the scale
range to match others in the questionnaire (Cox 1980; Saris and Gallhofer 2007).
In the second stage of implementation, a pilot survey was conducted. This was in
order to assess the clarity and relevance of each item in every country. It included 60
respondents (10 per country). Feedback from the pilot survey led to the wording of two
FCQ items being modified to improve clarity. Overall, however, the pilot study confirmed
the appropriateness of the instrument and only minor changes were introduced.
The final phase of implementation focused on sampling and data collection. Data
collection for the main sample occurred via face-to-face interviews, conducted in
the respondents’ homes. In this study the sampling universe was based on census
data for each country and estimated population dynamics. In each country the
sample was nationally representative, and a stratified three-stage random sampling
approach was adopted. The three stages were as follows. Primary sampling units
were polling station territories (PSUs) in all countries except in Slovenia where
enumeration areas were used as approximate PSUs. PSUs enable the most reliable
sampling, due to the fact that these units provide the most complete data in the coun-
tries studied (register of dwelling addresses). Each polling station territory comprised
approximately 200 households and was defined by street(s) name(s). Secondary
sampling units were households: one household comprised people living in the
same dwelling. Tertiary sampling units were actual respondents. In order to optimise
the sample plan and reduce sampling error, the stratification for each country was
done by region and type of settlement. In each country the sample size was around
500, giving a total sample of 3,085 responses.
3.3 Scopes and Objectives of the FCQ Study
The 2004 and 2007 enlargements of the European Union (EU) were historic achieve-
ments: the accession of ten countries from Central and Eastern Europe with radically
different socioeconomic and administrative histories compared with established
member states. In the short to medium term, the main focus of EU accession debates
will now focus on the so-called Western Balkan countries. It is of utter importance
to obtain detailed baseline data on these countries for considering the current
national situation and the potential impact of EU accession and for crafting relevant
policy responses. Research in the field of food consumer science is particularly
important in the WBC, where the population suffers from several diseases linked
with insufficient nutrition in quantity but also in quality.
Previous research suggested that a high proportion of the population in the WBC
has an unbalanced diet, which places them at a high risk of different diseases, espe-
cially coronary (Kromhout 2001; Menotti et al. 1999). It is therefore desirable to
improve diets in the region. This, however, requires a detailed understanding of how
consumers choose between food products and motivations underlying such choices.
The objective of this research was to analyse the motives for food choice, using
the FCQ in six WBC. The research provided a systematic cross-national compari-
son of food choice motivations in the WBC, assessing the generalizability of the
FCQ factorial structure to a markedly different environment from the original United
Kingdom sample and other Western European countries (which account for the
majority of applications of the FCQ).
3.4 Results
CFA was used to measure the fit with the original model of nine underlying inde-
pendent motives for food choice as proposed by Steptoe et al. (1995). We tried to
determine whether the constructs are distinct from each other and stable across the
six countries. The analysis was performed for each country separately as well as for
the pooled sample. In all cases, the level of fit between the data for the WBC and the
original nine independent dimensions was poor (see CFA1 parameters in Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 displays the goodness-of-fit indices: chi-square (the normal theory
maximum likelihood chi-square), CFI (comparative fit index) and RMSEA (root
mean square error of approximation). A highly significant chi-square shows that a
significant amount of observed covariance between items remains unexplained by
the original model (considering the large sample size in this study, chi-square indices
must be interpreted carefully). Other measures of fit also lie outside of conventional
acceptance limits. RMSEA values were above the acceptance limit, and the CFI
scores are below the recommended level.
A RMSEA value of 0.05 indicates a close fit and values up to 0.08 represent
reasonable errors of approximation in the population (Browne and Cudeck 1993).
In our case, CFA parameters suggest that the model cannot be accepted (c2 = 18,033;
df = 599; CFI = 0.543; RMSEA = 0.097). The best fit of the model is for the Slovenian
and the total WBC sample.
The goodness-of-fit summary statistics indicate, therefore, that the original nine-
factor structure proposed by Steptoe et al. (1995) does not provide an optimal fit for
any of the WBC countries. Although the Steptoe et al. (1995) study is more than 15
years old, more recent data suggest that for some samples the nine-factor structure
still holds (Januszewska et al. 2011), so the results for the WBC cannot be attributed
solely to changes in the global market environment. They might also be due to the
specific characteristics of food consumers in the region. In order to investigate the
scope of these discrepancies, in the next stage we conducted an EFA.
The EFA for the pooled WBC sample extracted eight factors instead of the original
nine. When comparing the WBC results with the original factors identified from
Steptoe et al.’s (1995) instrument, it appears that although the factor structure is
32
Table 3.1 Confirmatory factor analysis (parameters of fit)

Total sample Serbia FRYOM Montenegro BIH Croatia Slovenia
Chi-square 18033.398 4406.289 3859.849 4185.005 4061.026 3986.913 3139.792
Degrees of freedom 599 599 599 599 599 599 599
Probability level 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
CFI 0.543 0.515 0.456 0.462 0.502 0.529 0.565
PCFI 0.516 0.489 0.434 0.440 0.477 0.503 0.537
RMSEA 0.097 0.111 0.103 0.106 0.106 0.106 0.092
Source: Reprinted from Miloševi et al. (2012, p. 208). With permission from Elsevier
J.M. Ðorđević and I. Žeželj
similar, there are some significant differences (Table 3.2). Most of the items from the
original factor structure demonstrate high (>0.70) or moderate (>0.40) loadings on
original factors and loading on other factors (<0.50). However, a few items cross-load
(>0.50) on other factors (see third column of Table 3.2). Specifically, item 2 (Contains
no additives) from the ‘natural content’ factor loads onto ‘weight control’, while
item 12 (Is good value for money) from the ‘price’ factor loads onto the ‘purchase
Table 3.2 Results from the exploratory factor analysis, factor loadings on numbered items
Item Item loading >0.50 on other
number Original factors Extracted factors factors besides original
1. Health 1 and 5 Health,
natural content
22 Contains a lot of 0.65
vitamins and
minerals
29 Keeps me healthy 0.69
10 Is nutritious 0.40
27 Is high in protein 0.45
30 Is good for my skin/ 0.62
teeth/hair/nails
9 Is high in fibre and 0.31
roughage
2. Mood 2. Mood
16 Helps me cope with 0.71
stress
34 Helps me to cope 0.58
with life
26 Helps me relax 0.70
24 Keeps me awake/ 0.38 Health 0.55
alert
13 Cheers me up 0.64
31 Makes me feel 0.47 Health 0.55
good
3. Convenience 3.1. Preparation 3.2. Purchase convenience
convenience
1 Is easy to prepare 0.81
15 Can be cooked very 0.74
simply
28 Takes no time to 0.73
prepare
35 Can be bought in 0.47
shops close to
where I live or
work
11 Is easily available 0.71
in shops and
supermarkets
4. Sensory appeal 4. Sensory appeal
(continued)
Table 3.2 (continued)

Item Item loading >0.50 on other
number Original factors Extracted factors factors besides original
14 Smells nice 0.69
25 Looks nice 0.44
18 Has a pleasant 0.62
texture
4 Tastes good 0.60
5. Natural content 1 and 5 Health,
natural content
2 Contains no 0.32 Weight control 0.51
additives
5 Contains natural 0.55
ingredients
23 Contains no 0.62
artificial
ingredients
6. Price 6. Price
6 Is not expensive 0.76
36 Is cheap 0.77
12 Is good value for 0.17 Purchase convenience 0.61
money
7. Weight control 7. Weight control
3 Is low in calories 0.75
17 Helps me control 0.51
my weight
7 Is low in fat 0.74
8. Familiarity 8 and 9
Familiarity,
ethical concern
33 Is what I usually eat 0.47
8 Is familiar 0.31
21 Is like the food I ate 0.65
when I was a
child
9. Ethical concern 8 and 9
Familiarity,
ethical concern
20 Comes from 0.71
countries I
approve of
politically
32 Has the country of 0.58
origin clearly
marked
19 Is packaged in an 0.55
environmentally
friendly way
Source: Reprinted from Milošević et al. (2012, p. 209). With permission from Elsevier
convenience’ factor. Items 24 (Keeps me awake/alert) and 31 (Makes me feel good)

from the ‘mood’ factor load onto the ‘health and natural content’ factor.
Although Steptoe et al. (1995) extracted one factor that comprised purchase and
preparation convenience, our data suggested that these are perceived as independent
factors. Convenience splits into two factors: purchase convenience (items 11, 12 and
35) and preparation convenience (items 1, 15 and 28). The FCQ items from the
‘health’ and ‘natural content’ scales, on contrast, loaded onto a single factor. The same
occurred with ‘familiarity’ and ‘ethical concern’.
Some of these discrepancies from the original normative sample are similar to
differences uncovered by others. For instance, a single ‘health factor’, containing
items relating to health benefits and natural characteristics (absence of artificial ingre-
dients or additives), was also obtained in research for Belgium and Italy (Eertmans
et al. 2006), suggesting that food consumers view both safety and the nutritious value
of the food to be essential for its healthiness. Russian food consumers (Honkanen and
Frewer 2009) also viewed preparation convenience to be different from purchase
convenience (availability), with higher importance attributed to the latter motive.
The elaborated differences, however, do not allow us to conclude that there is a
substantial change in motivational typology of food choice between the normative
sample and the WBC sample. Although EFA yielded a different factorial structure,
the basic motives proposed by Steptoe et al. (1995) still emerged.
As detailed in Table 3.3, the reliability of the overall FCQ typology in our study is
very high (Cronbach’s alphas = 0.920). None of the new subscales possessed a
Cronbach’s alpha lower than 0.60. The average importance given to the 36 FCQ items
is 3.94, on the 1–5 scale. The highest importance of individual items is given to the
following: tastes good (4.60), keeps me healthy (4.44), contains natural ingredients
Table 3.3 Descriptive statistics and reliabilities of the original FCQ (N = 3,085)
It is important to me that the food I eat
Item number on a typical day: Mean SD
1. Health and natural content
22 Contains a lot of vitamins and minerals 4.29 0.86
29 Keeps me healthy 4.44 0.77
10 Is nutritious 4.34 0.79
27 Is high in protein 3.86 1.00
30 Is good for my skin/teeth/hair/nails etc. 4.17 0.98
9 Is high in fibre and roughage 3.81 1.01
5 Contains natural ingredients 4.40 0.79
23 Contains no artificial ingredients 4.15 0.99
24 Keeps me awake/alert 4.10 0.97
31 Makes me feel good 4.21 0.89
Cronbach’s alpha: 0.85, mean: 4.18
2. Mood
16 Helps me cope with stress 3.52 1.19
34 Helps me to cope with life 3.75 1.11
(continued)

It is important to me that the food I eat
Item number on a typical day: Mean SD
26 Helps me relax 3.76 1.09
13 Cheers me up 3.87 1.07
3. Preparation convenience
1 Is easy to prepare 3.47 1.18
15 Can be cooked very simply 3.98 1.07
28 Takes no time to prepare 3.74 1.15
4. Purchase convenience
35 Can be bought in shops close to where I 4.07 0.95
live or work
11 Is easily available in shops and 4.21 0.88
supermarkets
12 Is good value for money 4.39 0.82
5. Sensory appeal
14 Smells nice 4.39 0.79
25 Looks nice 4.02 1.00
18 Has a pleasant texture 4.15 0.94
4 Tastes good 4.60 0.63
6. Price
6 Is not expensive 4.11 0.98
36 Is cheap 4.00 1.05
7. Weight control
3 Is low in calories 3.47 1.18
17 Helps me control my weight 3.64 1.18
7 Is low in fat 3.86 1.04
2 Contains no additives 3.90 1.07
8. Familiarity and ethical concern
33 Is what I usually eat 3.92 1.00
8 Is familiar 4.02 0.99
21 Is like the food I ate when I was a child 3.49 1.28
20 Comes from countries I approve of 2.53 1.36
politically
32 Has the country of origin clearly marked 3.51 1.26
19 Is packaged in an environmentally 3.35 1.24
friendly way
Note: Five-point Likert scale was used
(4.40), smells nice (4.39), is good value for money (4.39) and is nutritious (4.33). An
examination of variance reveals that the diversity of answers is highest on ‘ethical con-
cern’, followed by the ‘familiarity’ and ‘weight control’ subscales, while less disper-
sion from the mean is detected for those factors ranked in general as more important.
For the sample as a whole, the highest importance of individual subscales
measured through mean scores is recorded for ‘sensory appeal’ (4.29) and then
for ‘purchase convenience’ (4.22), ‘health and natural content’ (4.18) and ‘price’
(4.05). The lowest importance is assigned to ‘weight control’ (3.72) and ‘famil-
iarity and ethical concern’ (3.47). None of the factors in general thus appears
irrelevant in motivating food choice.
3.5 Discussion
A key research question in cross-cultural studies is whether psychological processes

are universal across countries, which could be confirmed by construct comparability
(factorial invariance) for different countries. We tried to establish as much equiva-
lence as possible in all aspects of the research process to allow cross-national and
cross-cultural comparison: from the sampling procedure, translation and data collection
to the applied analysis of the instruments. Although Steptoe et al.’s (1995) original
structure of nine independent food choice motives has not been confirmed by CFA
in this study, the structure of WBC food choice motives did not differ essentially
from the initial study, conducted 20 years ago for a different market.
The cross-national analysis revealed far more similarities than differences
between the WBC, so it can be argued that the region can be treated as a fairly
homogeneous market, when it comes to food choice motives and nutrition habits.
The ranking of motives for the WBC mainly reaffirms studies in other European
countries (Table 3.4), as the same factors are reported to be the most important in
British (Steptoe et al. 1995; Pollard et al. 1998), Belgian, Italian (Eertmans et al. 2005),
Russian (Honkanen and Frewer 2009), Finnish (Lindeman and Väänänen 2000)
and Greek samples (Fotopoulos et al. 2009). The highest rating for ‘sensory appeal’
mirrors Steptoe et al.’s (1995) results and the findings of Januszewska et al. (2011)
for Hungary and Romania. In other European studies, similarly ‘ethical concern’ and
‘familiarity’ were found to be the least important motives for dietary choice.
3.6 Conclusions
This research presents the first cross-national assessment of food choice motives in the
WBCs. Overall, the ranking of motives was proven to be fairly consistent across all
WBC states with ‘sensory appeal’, ‘purchase convenience’ and ‘health and natural
content’ rated as the most important factors and ‘familiarity and ethical concerns’ rated
as least important. Furthermore, this ranking is strikingly similar to the ranking obtained
in other European countries with different traditions, cuisine and market conditions.
Table 3.4 Mean values for food choice motives in EU countries
Lindman and
Milosevic et al. Vaananen Fotopoulos Honkanen and Steptoe et al.
Study (2012) (2000) Eertmans et al. (2006) et al. (2009) Frewer (2009) (1995) Januszewska et al. (2011)
Country WBC Finland Italy Belgium Greece Russia Great Britain Romania Hungary
Factor in 1–5 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–7 1–7 1–4 1–7 1–7
order of
importance
Most Sensory appeal Price (2.8) Natural content Sensory appeal Natural content Sensory appeal Sensory appeal Sensory Sensory
important (4.3) (3.2) (2.9) (5.9) (6.2) (3.0) appeal appeal
Second Purchase Health (2.8) Health (3.1) Price (2.8) Health (5.6) Natural content Health (2.8) Natural Natural
convenience (5.6) content content
(4.2)
Third Health and Sensory appeal Sensory appeal Health (2.6) Sensory appeal Price (5.6) Price (2.8) Health Convenience
natural (2.8) (3.1) (5.6)
content (4.2)
Fourth Price (4.0) Convenience Price (2.7) Convenience Price (5.6) Health (5.5) Convenience Price Price
(2.6) (2.5) (2.8)
Fifth Preparation Ecological Weight control Natural content Mood (5.3) Mood (5.5) Natural content Weight Health
convenience welfare (2.7) (2.2) (2.5) control
(3.8) (2.4)
Sixth Mood (3.7) Mood (2.4) Convenience Weight control Convenience Familiarity Weight control Mood Weight
(2.7) (2.1) (5.3) (5.2) (2.4) control
Seventh Weight control Weight control Mood (2.6) Mood (2.0) Weight control Convenience Mood (2.1) Convenience Mood
(3.7) (2.3) (5.2) (5.0)
Lindman and
Milosevic et al. Vaananen Fotopoulos Honkanen and Steptoe et al.
Study (2012) (2000) Eertmans et al. (2006) et al. (2009) Frewer (2009) (1995) Januszewska et al. (2011)
Eighth Familiarity and Natural content Ethical concern Familiarity Ethical concern Ecological Ethical concern Ethical Familiarity
ethical (2.2) (2.3) (1.9) (5.2) welfare (1.9) concern
concern (3.5) (4.8)
Nineth Familiarity Familiarity Ethical concern Familiarity Weight control Familiarity Familiarity Ethical
(1.8) (2.1) (1.7) (5.0) (4.2) (1.8) concern
Tenth Religion (1.7) Political values
(4.0)
Eleventh Political values Religion (3.2)
(1.7)
The FCQ demonstrated satisfactory cultural invariance with respect to (a) factor
configuration (although the match was not optimal, the differences in comparison to
a normative study were not substantial), which indicates that the FCQ measures
similar constructs across countries and (b) factor loadings (similar items were
grouped together forming one underlying factor). These results are in line with
recent cross-cultural studies (Januszewska et al. 2011; Pieniak et al. 2009) and do
not support the conclusion of Fotopoulos et al. (2009) that a more basic, revised
motivational typology of food choice is needed.
Comprehensive investigation of consumers’ food choice motives is just the first
step in understanding their actual food purchase and consumption behaviour.
Cultural norms and broader situational factors determining food choice in the WBC
were only lightly tackled in this study and could be the focus of further research.
Future research on Western Balkan consumers could also explore their awareness of
food safety issues and their perception of the importance of food safety. Detailed
knowledge on so-called food system – economic, cultural and individual factors
underpinning food choice – could help improve public communication campaigns
that seek to promote healthier diets.
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Chapter 4
Segmenting Consumers Using Cluster Analysis:
An Application to Food Motivations
in the Western Balkan Countries
Matthew Gorton, Mitchell Ness, and John White
Abstract To illustrate the use of cluster analysis as a tool for segmenting consumers,
the Focus Balkans project applied this method to the topic of food motivations. The
aim of cluster analysis is to group objects (e.g. people or products) on the basis of
numerical measures. Food motivations were captured via the Food Choice
Questionnaire. Respondents were clustered based on the eight factors identified in
the previous chapter. The profiling of clusters allowed for the identification of groups
that from a public health perspective raise concern. For the Western Balkans, five
groups of consumers were discerned with the clusters characterised by significant
differences in food consumption patterns as well as demographic and socioeconomic
characteristics. Three clusters raise concern. For each cluster, the communication
messages should be distinctive, and they are described briefly in this chapter.
Keywords Cluster analysis • Food motivations • Public health • Western Balkan

countries
4.1 Introduction
The aim of cluster analysis (CA) is to group objects (e.g. people or products) on the
basis of numerical measures. Objects are grouped (clustered) on the basis of simi-
larity to one another. Objects within a group should be as ‘similar’ to one another as
M. Gorton, Ph.D. (*) • M. Ness, Ph.D.

Marketing Subject Group, Newcastle University Business School,
5 Barrack Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4SE, UK
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
J. White, Ph.D.
School of Management, Plymouth University,
Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, UK

44 M. Gorton et al.
possible, whilst objects belonging to other groups should be as ‘dissimilar’ as possible

(Everitt et al. 2011; Romesburg 1984).
CA can be a highly useful tool for marketers as it recognises the potential
existence of segments, helps in their identification and then provides decision
makers with insights that they can use to inform and improve decision making.
As Saunders (1980, p. 442) notes, ‘the groupings of similar objects provide a
series of platforms between the two extreme views that: (a) all objects are unique
and inviolable and (b) the population is homogeneous’. This chapter outlines
the utility of cluster analysis and the main elements of the approach and details
an application of the method. It is designed as an introduction to the topic for
non-specialists, with an example indicating how it may be used by consumer
food scientists.
4.2 Method
CA has been used extensively for segmentation in the field of consumer food
science (e.g. Askegaard and Madsen 1995; Geeroms et al. 2008; Heinemann
et al. 2006; Mai and Ness 1997; Mesias et al. 2003; Murphy et al. 2000; Saba
and Messina 2003; Schnettler et al. 2009). For instance, Heinemann et al. (2006)
applied CA to ascertain attitudes towards parboiled rice. Three clusters were
identified. The group that displayed a negative attitude to parboiled rice (and
therefore needs to be convinced of the merits of it) was found to have the high-
est income and education level and the highest frequency of consumption of
milled rice. Subsequent analysis suggested that parboiled rice is negatively per-
ceived, and the challenge for increasing demand is one of changing this percep-
tion through emphasis of the convenience and health benefits of consumption of
parboiled rice.
CA can also be used as a tool for improving the targeting of marketing communica-
tions relating to public health initiatives. For example, Kennedy et al. (2005) used
principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis to group consumers
based on their understanding and practice of food safety. The resultant analysis
identified three food handler types: conscientious, cavalier and careful. Food preparers
with the poorest food practices were typically younger (under 45 years of age), urban
based, male and highly educated. Segmenting the groups in this way clearly enables
policymakers to develop more informed and targeted food safety programmes.
In applying the method, the three main elements of the analysis are deciding
the number of clusters (groups), determining membership of each group and
profiling the characteristics of each group. CA employs measures of closeness of
the objects using similarity measures for nonmetric data and distance measures
for metric data. The technique requires measurement of distances between objects
and between groups.
There are two main types of CA: hierarchical and optimisation methods. Hierar-
chical clustering begins with as many clusters as there are objects. On completion,
4 Segmenting Consumers Using Cluster Analysis… 45
there is a single cluster of all objects. The procedure employs information in a

distance matrix, and at each stage a merger takes place so that the number of clus-
ters is reduced by one. There are many specific hierarchical techniques, for instance,
single link, complete link, centroid, median, Ward’s and group average. Differences
between these methods arise in the way similarity or distance between objects or
groups is represented although the basic principle is the same.
The process is summarised by the agglomeration schedule, dendrogram and
Gower diagram. The researcher uses these summary methods to decide the appro-
priate number of clusters. This involves the researcher’s judgement in assessing the
overall fit obtained within each grouping and the improvement that is obtained in
this fit with the inclusion of an additional group.
The optimisation method groups objects into a prespecified number of clusters
relative to an objective. It involves two stages in which there is an initial grouping
of data followed by the application of a clustering criterion to reach a final solution.
Typically, the clustering criterion is based on the relationship between total variance
of the ungrouped objects and within and between group variance. Since total vari-
ance is fixed, the criterion either minimises within group variance or maximises
between group variance.
A common approach is to combine hierarchical and optimisation methods. For
instance, the hierarchical approach is used in the first stage to identify outliers,
define the number of clusters and profile the cluster centres. In the second stage, an
optimisation method is applied, using the cluster centres from the hierarchical
results used as the initial seed points, to determine final cluster membership. The
two-stage approach combines the advantages associated with hierarchical and non-
hierarchical methods, whilst at the same time minimising the drawbacks linked to
utilising each independently (Milligan and Cooper 1985).
Profiles of clusters are established based on a descriptive analysis of variables
used in the analysis as well as other variables (demographic, behavioural and attitudinal)
to establish significant differences between clusters. This is a critical part of the
validation process. In the case of nominal profile variables, a Chi-square contin-
gency test is used under the null hypothesis that cluster identity and the profile vari-
able are independent. In the case of scale profile variables, an analysis of variance
(ANOVA) test for the comparison of average cluster scores is used under the null
hypotheses that the average cluster scores are equal.
In consumer research, however, the utility of CA may be limited by a number of
factors. First, there are no ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ variables specified, so that
CA fails to provide the basis for ascertaining the determinants of outcomes. It is
thus a tool for classification or dissection rather than establishing causal relation-
ships. Second, researchers often depend on data for a single time period, making it
difficult to assess the stability of the clusters identified. This weakens the usefulness
of CA as an aid for predicting market developments and supporting decision-making.
Finally, as with other techniques, CA will be limited where it fails to incorporate
relevant or includes irrelevant variables (Punj and Stewart 1983). In this case, CA
may lead to recommendations that fail to capture important motivations. There must
be a clear rationale and theoretical basis for the inclusion of variables.
46 M. Gorton et al.
4.3 Context of the Study
To illustrate the use of cluster analysis as a tool for segmenting consumers, we

extend the analysis presented in the previous chapter. The purpose of CA within
the Focus Balkans project was to better understand food motivations, providing the
basis for more targeted and hence effective communication messages and policy
recommendations. Specifically, we segment consumers based on the factor analysis
of responses to the Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ). This recognises that factors
motivating food choice are likely to vary significantly across consumer segments in
the region. The FCQ is introduced in the previous chapter along with a discussion
of the survey and sampling methods. A more detailed discussion of methods is pre-
sented in Milošević et al. (2012).
The cluster analysis followed a two-stage design. First, hierarchical cluster anal-
ysis was employed to define the number of clusters, identify outliers and profile the
cluster centres. Second, an optimisation approach was used to determine final clus-
ter membership using the centroids from the first stage as initial seed points.
4.4 Results
Respondents were clustered based on the eight factors identified in the previous
chapter (health and natural content, mood, preparation convenience, purchase con-
venience, sensory appeal, price, weight control, familiarity and ethical concern). An
analysis of the agglomeration schedule, dendrogram and Gower diagram indicated
that a five-cluster solution was most appropriate. After outliers and records with
missing data were removed, 2,814 responses were retained in the CA. The validation
of the clusters depended on a set of additional variables relating to food consumption,
demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.
Table 4.1 presents the average factor scores for the five clusters, whilst Table 4.2
allows for a comparison of clusters based on variables not included in the initial
factor analysis. Table 4.3 details cluster membership by country. The remainder of
this section profiles the clusters.
4.4.1 Cluster 1: ‘Food Enthusiasts’
This cluster records above average mean scores for all factors. Compared to all
the other clusters, Cluster 1 places greatest emphasis on ‘sensory appeal’ (tastes
good, looks and smells nice, etc.) and ‘preparation convenience’. This group also,
compared to other clusters registers the highest mean score for the factor ‘weight
control’. This cluster has the highest proportion of females (59.7%). The mean
income of this cluster is similar to the sample average. The average self-reported
4
Table 4.1 Average factor scores by cluster

Cluster
1 2 3 4 5
Food enthusiasts Unconcerned Price/distress Purchase convenience Health oriented
n = 648 n = 626 n = 590 n = 485 n = 464
Factor 1 (health) 0.250 −0.922 0.094 0.216 0.549
Factor 2 (mood) 0.414 0.086 0.605 −0.161 −1.295
Factor 3 (preparation convenience) 0.519 −0.084 −0.290 −0.215 −0.017
Segmenting Consumers Using Cluster Analysis…
Factor 4 (purchase convenience) 0.400 −0.723 0.201 0.629 −0.496

Factor 5 (sensory appeal) 0.797 0.430 −1.017 −0.131 −0.264
Factor 6 (price) 0.366 0.039 0.489 −1.457 0.337
Factor 7 (weight control) 0.286 −0.156 −0.089 −0.142 0.072
Factor 8 (familiarity and ethical concern) 0.366 0.039 0.489 −1.457 0.337
47
48
Table 4.2 Mean scores by cluster for variables used for cluster validation and profiling
Cluster
1 2 3 4 5
Food enthusiast Unconcerned Price/distress Purchase conven. Health Mean
n = 648 n = 626 n = 590 n = 485 n = 464 n = 2,814 F-test Sig.
Consumption
Fruit consumptiona 37.9 34.3 33.3 36.4 37.3 35.8 4.6 ***
Traditional dishesa 21.5 21.4 17.1 22.2 18.0 20.1 7.4 ***
Health claim foodsa 16.1 13.0 13.0 12.8 13.6 13.8 4.0 **
Knowledge
Of organic foodb 2.99 2.73 2.69 2.69 2.86 2.80 9.2 ***
Of health claim 3.08 2.70 2.85 2.86 2.90 2.88 12.9 ***
foodsb
Demographic/economic status
Age 47.13 45.24 42.43 48.00 46.27 45.73 8.6 ***
Income bandc 8.30 8.30 7.72 9.41 8.09 8.35 8.0 ***
Education bandd 4.51 4.41 4.80 4.52 4.99 4.63 5.7 ***
No. of household 3.39 3.30 3.39 3.52 3.17 3.36 3.0 **
members
Respondent defined status
Current state 3.67 3.62 3.81 3.66 3.64 3.68 3.8 **
of healthe
Econ position 3.15 3.13 3.25 3.20 3.24 3.19 2.2 *
of householde
Categorical variables X2
% Obese (based 12.8 12.5 11.6 15.6 9.7 12.5 8.1 *
M. Gorton et al.
on BMI scores)
4
% Female 59.7 46.1 50.5 46.4 55.2 51.7 32.6 ***

% With child(−ren) 38.6 33.5 40.8 34.6 37.5 37.1 8.1 *
in household
% Pensioner 25.0 24.4 18.3 27.4 27.8 24.4 17.3 ***
***Significant at 1% level; **significant at 5% level; *significant at 10% level
a
Measured in terms of portions/consumption experiences per month. For fruit a portion is approximately 80–100 g, for example, an apple, two spoons of fruit
salad or 1 glass freshly squeezed juice
b
Measured on a scale ranking from 1 = I am not informed at all to 5 = I am fully informed
c
Measured in bands where a higher number equals a higher income band
d
Measured in bands where a higher number equals a higher level of educational achievement
e
Measured on a scale ranking from 1 = very bad to 5 = very good
Segmenting Consumers Using Cluster Analysis…
49
50 M. Gorton et al.
Table 4.3 Cluster membership by country (%)

Cluster membership
1 2 3 4 5
Food Purchase Health
enthusiasts Unconcerned Price/distress convenience oriented
n = 648 n = 626 n = 590 n = 485 n = 464
Country membership within clusters (%)
BiH 30.2 18.8 14.1 18.2 18.6
Croatia 28.4 16.9 19.6 22.2 12.9
FRYOM 23.4 29.0 16.3 19.6 11.6
Montenegro 16.6 26.2 21.5 19.0 16.6
Serbia 25.7 20.0 29.4 15.5 9.4
Slovenia 13.5 22.7 24.8 9.8 29.1
Cluster total: 23.1 22.2 21.0 17.2 16.5
current health status and economic position of the household are also closely in
line with the respective means for the overall sample. This cluster reports highest
level of fruit consumption and products with health claims. In this cluster,
Slovenian and Montenegrin consumers are underrepresented.
4.4.2 Cluster 2: ‘Unconcerned Food Consumers’
Compared to other groups, Cluster 2 places least emphasis on ‘health and natural
content’. The group also records below average mean scores for ‘weight control’,
‘purchase convenience’ and ‘preparation convenience’. Overall their interest in
food is weak. This group has the lowest proportion of females and percentage of
households with children. The group has below average knowledge of organic
foods and foods with health claims. Their economic status (income band) is close
to the sample average. The group records below average consumption of fruit and
products with health claims. Respondents from the Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia (FRYOM) and Montenegro are overrepresented in Cluster 2 whilst
Croatia is underrepresented.
4.4.3 Cluster 3: ‘Price-Oriented and Distressed Consumers’
Cluster 3, relative to the other groups, places greatest emphasis on ‘price’. It

records below average mean scores for ‘weight control’ and the lowest rating for
‘sensory appeal’. This cluster places the highest relative emphasis on ‘mood’ (i.e.
importance of food to cope with stress, life, cheer me up and makes me feel good,
etc.). This cluster has the lowest average incomes. Average household size and
composition are close to the means for the sample overall. Given their economic
status, distressed consumers may turn to food for such comfort. Purchase conve-
nience is perceived as relatively important, suggesting individuals that work long
hours for little pay. This cluster reports the lowest average level of consumption of
fruit and below average consumption of products with health claims. Their knowl-
edge of organic and health claim foods is below the sample’s average. Cluster 3 has
above average membership of Serbian households.
4.4.4 Cluster 4: ‘Purchase Convenience’
Compared to other groups, Cluster 4 places the greatest emphasis on ‘purchase conve-
nience’ ( food that is easily available and can be bought in shops close to where I live
or work). This cluster records the lowest mean score for ‘price’ and registers the highest
mean incomes. The cluster records below average scores for ‘weight control’ and
‘familiarity and ethical concerns’. This cluster registers the highest level of consump-
tion of traditional dishes, but the lowest consumption of products with health claims.
Fruit consumption is in line with the overall sample average. This cluster exhibits the
highest incidence of obesity (15.6%, measured by the body mass index (BMI)).
Croatian consumers are most numerous in Cluster 4 (purchase convenience).
4.4.5 Cluster 5: ‘Health-Oriented Consumers’
Compared to other groups, Cluster 5 gives greater relative importance to ‘health and
natural content’. The cluster records below average importance given to ‘mood’ and
‘sensory appeal’. The low relative importance of ‘mood’ is striking. ‘Price’ is rela-
tively important, and it appears this cluster will trade off hedonic pleasure for value
and health benefits. This group has above average consumption of fruit. Their
knowledge of organic food and health claim foods is, overall, above the mean for
the sample as a whole. Self-reported health status is close to the average for the
sample as a whole. Females are disproportionally represented in this cluster, and it
has the highest percentage of pensioners. This cluster reports the lowest incidence
of obesity (9.7%). Cluster 5 has a strong bias to Slovenia (29.1% of all members of
the cluster), with comparatively few Serbs (comparable figure of 9.4%).
The profiling of clusters allows for the identification of groups that from a public
health perspective raise concern. For the Western Balkans, three clusters raise con-
cern. For each cluster, the communication messages should be distinctive, and these
are described briefly below.
Cluster 2 (unconcerned consumers) displays relatively little interest in food and
is biased to males. Food knowledge and fruit consumption are below average. Whilst
there is a need to promote more balanced diets, this group may be fairly unrespon-
sive to public health campaigns.
52 M. Gorton et al.
The group which presents the most concern is Cluster 3 (price-oriented and
distressed consumers). This cluster places relatively more importance on the role of
food for lifting their mood in the context of relative low average incomes. For these
consumers, food may act as a comfort and stress reliever. Their level of fruit con-
sumption is low. For these consumers, public health campaigns should stress the
financial and health benefits from reducing fatty food intake.
Cluster 4 (purchase convenience) records the highest mean incomes and places
the highest relative weight on availability and speed of shopping. This cluster dis-
plays the highest incidence of obesity. Rising incomes in the region may, as in other
regions of the world, trigger an increase in demand for convenience foods and the
prevalence of obesity. For the ‘purchase-convenience’-oriented consumers, who
report higher incomes but with the greatest incidence of obesity, the promotion of
ready-to-eat light meals (e.g. fresh fruit or salads) would be appropriate (Buckley
and Cowan 2007).
Having presented a broad overview of consumer segments, further work on
improving the behaviour of at risk groups is warranted. This would look more
closely at the efficacy of intervention strategies in the region, focusing on those
clusters identified in this research that pose most concern.
4.5 Discussion of the Method: Utility

and Encountered Difficulties
Whilst widely applied, cluster analysis presents a number of operational challenges.

A critical issue is deciding on the number of clusters, for which there is no definitive
rule. This means that the analysis depends heavily on the researcher’s judgement.
Second, formal procedures for assessing the validity and reliability of clustering
solutions are complex and lack universal acceptance (Malhotra and Birks 2007).
Malhotra and Birks (2007) recommend several procedures to check the adequacy of
a clustering solution:
(a) Repeat the analysis with different distance measures, comparing the results to
assess the stability of solutions.
(b) Repeat the analysis with different clustering methods, again comparing the
results to assess the stability of outcomes.
(c) Split the data into two halves, undertaking the analysis separately on each half,
then compare cluster centroids across the two subsamples.
(d) The order of cases may affect outcomes for nonhierarchical clustering.
Repeat the analysis with cases entering in different orders until the solution
stabilises.
These procedures were followed for the Focus Balkans dataset. The same
number of clusters, with similar profiles and seed points, were apparent from the
split-half approach.
4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives
CA is a useful technique to establish data groups and can underpin market segmen-
tation studies. It involves a selection of method (hierarchical versus nonhierarchical
or combination of both), interpretation to understand the character of each cluster
and validation and profiling to check the stability of each cluster.
This chapter presents an illustration of the approach, namely, food motivations in
the Western Balkans. Clusters are identified on the basis of responses to the FCQ,
which provided a clear theoretical basis for the selection of variables. Five groups of
consumers are discerned with the clusters characterised by significant differences in
food consumption patterns as well as demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.
Each cluster (food enthusiasts, unconcerned, price/distress, purchase convenience,
health oriented) has a distinguishing set of motivations which are reflected in significant
variations in food choice. Some of these clusters share characteristics identified in stud-
ies for other regions; for instance, Honkanen and Frewer (2009) identified a cluster of
Russian consumers, with little interest in food, biased toward young males with low
levels of educational attainment and income, which has much in common with Cluster
2 (unconcerned) for the Western Balkan Countries (WBC).
The analysis thus provides the basis for identifying distinctive groups of food
consumers in the WBCs. Those groups with concerning patterns of food choice can
be identified and appropriate public health messages and campaigns implemented.
This recognises that the effectiveness of public health campaigns depends on tailor-
ing the message to distinctive groups of consumers (Crossley 2001).
Recognising the weaknesses of CA, suggestions for further research can be
identified. Repeating the study would allow for an assessment of the stability of
clusters over time and gauging the degree to which particular groups are growing or
reducing in size. For example, with economic development one may find that the
size of the ‘purchase convenience’ cluster increases, whilst the ‘price/distress’ group
shrinks. Further work could focus also on developing appropriate public health
communications. This could involve focus group research, concentrating on relevant
clusters and looking at reactions to different message appeals, exploring the reasons
for such responses. This would be a logical next step in formulating communication
messages and selecting media for tailored public health campaigns.
Lessons Learnt and Utility for Marketing Management

CA is a tool that can help managers segment a market and more accurately
profile consumer needs and behaviour. The analysis for the WBC identifies
five distinct groups of food consumers. These clusters transcend national
boundaries and rather than thinking about, for example, the ‘average’
Montenegrin or Serbian consumer, it is preferable to consider the characteristics
(continued)
54 M. Gorton et al.
(continued)
of specific clusters and plan strategies that meet their needs. For instance,
what are the needs and behaviour of ‘purchase convenience’ consumers? The
CA reveals the diversity of food market segments in the WBC, so that strate-
gies aimed at the ‘average’ or ‘typical’ WBC are flawed, as they are unlikely
to meet the needs of any specific groups. CA helps marketing managers better
understand the needs of specific segments, a vital step before deciding which
segments to target and then how firms should position themselves in relation
to chosen segments.
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Chapter 5
Exploring an Emerging Market through Focus
Groups and Expert Interviews: Health Claim
Products in the Western Balkans
Žaklina Stojanović, Galjina Ognjanov, Igor Spiroski,

Abstract The market of products with health claims is rapidly growing in the
Western Balkan countries. This study has explored how the consumers value health
claim products and what image they have of this product category. The following
research questions were addressed: (1) Do consumers in Western Balkan countries
associate health claim products with specific health benefits? (2) How do consum-
ers perceive health claim products? Does the form of communication influence
their choice of food? (3) What is the actual contribution of companies to this mar-
ket’s development? (4) How is a health claim product consumer perceived by
different stakeholders? The purchase motives identified in this study are ranging
from the belief in innovation and science over the favouring of specific ingredi-
ents such as probiotic bacteria to the appealing effect of, for instance, fat-burning
characteristics.
Ž. Stojanović, Ph.D. (*)

Department of Economic Policy and Development, Faculty of Economics,
University of Belgrade, Kamenička 6, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
G. Ognjanov, Ph.D.
Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade,
Kamenička 6, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
I. Spiroski, M.D., MPH
Department of Physiology and Monitoring of Nutrition, Institute of Public Health,
50. Divizija 6, 1000 Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
M. Zaouche-Laniau
Sté GEM (Etudes et Stratégies pour l’Agroalimentaire),
58 A rue du Dessous des Berges, 75013 Paris, France

58 Ž. Stojanović et al.
Different scenarios are presented based on the results obtained through focus
group discussions and expert interviews. This chapter explains in detail how these
participative market research methods can be applied to a certain product category
in the specific context of the emerging markets in the Western Balkans.
Keywords Focus groups • Health claim products • Western Balkans • In-depth

interview • Qualitative methods • Healthy lifestyle
5.1 Introduction
The Western Balkan countries’ (WBC) health claim products market is rapidly
growing. Milk products with health claims were introduced in WBC more than 10
years ago. Development is based on the lessons learnt from the Western European
economies. From the economic point of view, health claim products are often used
as a differentiation tool in the development of food value chains. However, more
responsive food systems are rather consumer than producer driven. Therefore,
understanding the factors that affect health claim products choice (both of buying/
consuming and producing/selling) is of crucial importance. The overall goal of this
research is to identify the image and values that are given to the health food products
in the Western Balkans. The analysis essentially refers to the market’s current state
and perspectives. Based on results obtained, different scenarios are presented. As
the scope of possible future outcomes is observable, the scenario analysis gives
more insights into alternative future developments.
Nutrition, as a lifestyle factor, has large impacts on human health. However, the
significant increase in the cost of health care and social welfare is affected by rising
rates of diet-related diseases. Consequently, government policies put more focus on
health promotion and preventive measures against illnesses (Burrows et al. 1995;
Petersen and Lupton 1996; Strauss and Dunkan 1998). Even now, most of the studies
about foods with health claims in WBC can be found in the medicine and life
sciences (Koch and Pokorn 1999; Šobajić 2002; Miletić et al. 2008). These studies
cover the relation between nutrition and health as the core aspect of the research.
However, health claim products have a huge potential to influence health outcomes,
thus having important policy ramifications not only for public health policy and
healthy lifestyle promotion but also for the food sector development. The studies of
food consumers as well as of the food chain stakeholders’ behaviour therefore seem
to be particularly relevant for the emerging WBC health claim products market.
Finally, the countries included in this analysis (Bosnia and Herzegovina – BiH,
Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia – FYROM, Montenegro, Serbia,
and Slovenia) significantly differ in the level of health claim product market develop-
ment. The European Union (EU) Regulation of nutrition and health claims was
adopted only in Slovenia and Croatia. However, national regulation in other coun-
tries is still not fully brought into agreement with EU legislation. The harmonisa-
tion will certainly change the situation.
5 Exploring an Emerging Market through Focus Groups and Expert Interviews… 59
PROCESSORS IDI
WBC Producers
EU Exporters
RETAILERS IDI CONSUMERS FGD
International retail chains Consumers’ attitudes toward N&H claim

products
Regional retail chains
2 groups:
Key domestic retail chains «50+»
«Mothers with children under 15»
Key specialized retail chains
PUBLIC POLICY EXPERTS IDI
Public policy makers

Consumer organizations
Fig. 5.1 Applied qualitative methods analysing the market stakeholders of health claim products in
WBC. IDI in-depth interviews, FGD focus group discussions, N&H claim nutrition and health
claim, EU European Union, WBC Western Balkan countries (Source: The Focus-Balkans research)
5.2 Method
The study of health claim products in the WBC is exploratory and consequently
qualitative methods were used. These methods are designed to be the primary choice
in the case of insufficient knowledge about the research topic (Hudson 2007). The
specific methods were applied after having been adapted to each group of stake-
holders (Fig. 5.1).
Focus group discussion (FGD) is the appropriate method whenever the group
norms are observed, and the primary goal of the research is the discovery of richness
of varieties in the population (Mack et al. 2005). It is the reason why FGD is the most
appropriate method to capture consumers’ perception of health claim products.
In contrast, in-depth interview (IDI) focuses on individual experiences usually
addressed to highly sensitive topics. The studied market still remains a niche market
with a small number of processors (although generally leaders of their market)
involved in this domain in each country. Generally, health claim products have a
small market share compared to the whole family of products (e.g. probiotic yoghurt
compared to total yoghurt category). It was thus necessary to deepen the different
topics with processors, retailers, and experts in the field.
The research study using qualitative techniques and methods presented in this
chapter exclusively aims to explore both the consumers’ and the economic sector
stakeholders’ experiences regarding the development of the WBC health claim
products market.
5.2.1 Origin and Purpose1
IDI is a method based on the application of the psychoanalytical theory in marketing.

Ernest Dichter pioneered this form of research (Solomon et al. 2010), promoting the
idea that consumer behaviour is shaped by unconscious motives. Interviews have to
be used to deepen insights into each person’s motivations and have to be interpreted
according to Freudian psychoanalytic concepts.
Understanding the context of the stakeholders’ behaviour is the main goal in
interviewing. In a business environment, in-depth interviewing is mainly lead by the
interest in a deeper understanding of experiences of interviewed stakeholders.
Researchers usually observe behaviours under the following basic assumption: the
meaning interviewees make on their business experiences affects the ways that carry
out that experience (Seidman 1991).
Widely used in many sciences, among which psychology and sociology, IDI
became a qualitative research technique aiming at deeply exploring people’s
thoughts, feelings, and perspectives on particular economic issues in the business
area. In marketing research, IDI may be used for two main purposes: (1) to analyse
deeply consumers’ attitudes and behaviour and (2) to analyse experts’ knowledge
on a specific market. Usually carried out on small samples, these interviews primarily
address issues of creative nature and motivational factors that are drivers of behav-
iour (Lai Ngun et al. 2009; Bruggen et al. 2011).
In the case of IDI in the industrial environment (e.g. in market research), the
sampling is different from a quantitative survey based on a quota method. IDI refers
to stratified sampling (Mack et al. 2005). The population is divided into few
subgroups or strata (e.g. large companies, medium ones, and small ones). Then a
sampling rate is decided on for each stratum. Practically, strong efforts should be
put into gathering all the leaders of the studied market, while a specific proportion
can be carried out with smaller or less present companies/stakeholders in the market
segment. In our case, IDI with the food chain stakeholders appears to be an essential
tool both to analyse the processors’/retailers’/policymakers’ experiences and to
evaluate the main market tendencies.
5.2.2 Material and Data Processing
FGD served as a tool for acquiring information regarding consumers’ images and
values related to health food products in the Western Balkans. The specific topics
selected for FGD were (1) concepts of healthy lifestyle, healthy diet, and their rela-
tion; (2) food purchase and food consumption; (3) purchase process: information
that makes a difference for buyers; (4) perception and understanding of nutrition
and health claims; (5) motives and barriers for purchase and consumption of products
1
An extensive presentation of the FGD method is provided in Chap. 6. Therefore this chapter refers
only to IDI.
with health claims; (6) perception of a typical consumer of products with health
claims; and (7) future expectations regarding products with health claims.
Based on the literature review, two groups of people were chosen for FGD:
elderly (50+) and mothers who have children younger than 15 years old. The elderly
usually have health problems that can be prevented or mitigated by a specific diet
and healthy nutritional habits (Moorman and Matulich 1993; Bech-Larsen and
Grunert 2003). However, young children are an especially vulnerable group, and
studies conducted recently show that mothers usually pay more attention to ques-
tion what their children eat (so-called role of a gate keeper) than other population
segments (Wansink 2005). Therefore, groups that seemed particularly product
related or health concerned were selected. A total of 98 participants took part in
FGD from December 2009 to January 2010 in all six observed countries. Discussions
were conducted in six WBC capital cities.
The WBC health claim products market survey was based on the experts’ IDI
(processors, retailers, public authorities, and consumer organisations). The specific
questionnaires were adapted to each type of stakeholders. Processors, retailers, and
experts were asked about (1) overall attitude towards consumers’ demand, (2) main
criteria and restraints for consumers’ choice, (3) perceived consumers’ characteristics,
and (4) insights into studied categories (general presentation and estimation). Public
policy experts’ point of view was concentrated on (1) nutritional concerns and consumer
awareness, (2) variety and nutritional quality of the offered product, (3) regulations
and compatibility with EU legislation, (4) public programmes of communication to
promote better food habits, and (5) priorities and the main governmental objectives in
the area of research. All stakeholders were asked about the trends and perspectives of
the health claim products market. IDI were conducted with the top managers (brand
or sale/marketing directors of companies) as well as with the policymakers from
ministries of agriculture/health and consumer organisations in the region.
The list of the companies was obtained through shop survey conducted in
September 2009. The list consisted of 41 identified firms. Totally 29 WBC compa-
nies took part in interviewing during November 2009 to January 2010, and 7 inter-
views were conducted with the most important exporters of EU health claim
products. Additionally, 26 food-retailing companies, both the leaders and followers,
were interviewed. The public policy stakeholders’ experiences were obtained
through 18 interviews (three per country in the region). These sums up to a total of
80 interviews with food sector stakeholders. The diversified structure of respon-
dents enables the high reliability of the study.
5.2.3 Utility and Encountered Difficulties
Our study exclusively looks for results that explain the recent evolution of the WBC
health claim products market both from the consumers’ and food sector stakeholders’
perspective. The market structure, consumer demand, and trends are observed.
However, the implementation of IDI in an industrial environment encountered
some problems. First, the competition among the agro-food industries and the large
retailers hinders the disclosure of data and figures. It was important to guarantee
that all individual data from companies would be kept strictly confidential and
would be published with great caution in order to prevent the recognition of companies’
data and respondents. Second, appointment with adequate respondents was very
difficult. It is important to stick to adequate respondents because the method is
based on the high level of knowledge of the interviewees, although these important
individuals are neither easily accessible nor always willing to answer any survey.
Third, when implementing the IDI, there is a must to take into account that the
companies’ representatives usually tend to overestimate their sales, market share,
and more generally the performance of their company. Therefore, it is necessary to
double-check the data. To achieve this verification, several methods can be combined:
previous data gathering (surveys or studies), cross-checking of data gathered from
different stakeholders during interviewing, etc. Finally, a generalisation based on
the IDI results is usually not allowed due to small samples and non-random
sampling. However, when several companies in a given sector including leaders of
the market have been met, it is reasonable to assume that a good perception of the
market and its tendencies has been captured.
5.3 Context of the Study and Research Questions
Epidemiological transition in terms of shifting the public health attention from

communicable to chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCD) is characteristic for
the second half of the twentieth and the beginning of the twenty-first century. The
prevalence of CNCD is rapidly increasing which makes them one of the top public
health priorities. Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the world’s number one reason
for death. It is estimated that 18 million people died from CVD in 2008, represent-
ing 40% of the total deaths in the world (World Health Organisation – WHO 2008).
CVD, along with cancer, which is the second main cause for death globally, is closely
related to nutrition (WHO 2011). Moreover, four of the ten leading causes of death in
the United States are directly related to nutrition (Sizer and Whitney 2011). As for the
situation in the WBC, the age-standardised death rate (SDR) from circulatory diseases
for all ages per 100,000 inhabitants ranges from 231.77 in Slovenia to 531.80 in
Macedonia. The values for other studied WBC are 386.08 for Croatia, 461.63 for
Montenegro, and 506.61 for Serbia. The average of this rate among EU member
states (member states before May 2004) is 180.84 (WHO 2011; Institute of Public
Health – IPH 2010). Risk factors that may lead to CNCD are divided into two groups:
the ones we cannot modify, control, and treat and the other ones that are modifiable.
Preventable risk factors include smoking, high blood cholesterol, high blood pres-
sure, physical inactivity, overweight, obesity, and diabetes mellitus. Other factors,
which may also contribute to high CNCD prevalence, are individual responses to
stress and excessive alcohol drinking (American Heart Association – AHA 2011).
Keeping in mind the epidemiological situation explained above, this study addresses
the following research questions: (1) Do consumers in WBC associate health claim
products with specific health benefits? (2) How do consumers perceive health claim
products? Does the form of communication influence consumers’ choice of food?

(3) What is the actual contribution of companies (both processors and retailers) to the
development of the health claim products market? (4) How is a health claim product
consumer perceived by different stakeholders? The final output of this research illus-
trates the motives and behaviours towards health claim products in the Western
Balkans from consumers’, producers’, retailers’, and policymakers’ points of view.
5.4 Results of FGD and IDI
The results presented hereafter are related to diet and health issues, motivations and
barriers for the consumption and production of health claim products, perception
and understanding of claims, and to the identification of the typical health claim
product consumer as well as of expectations regarding the market development.
5.4.1 Healthy Diet and Healthy Lifestyle: How Important

Is the Health Motive in WBC Food Consumption?
FGD shows that healthy food is among the first concepts associated with healthy
lifestyle for both elderly people and mothers with children up to 15 years old in all
WBC. Healthy food is generally connected to the intake of fruits and veggies as
well as to cooked (i.e. warm meals) and home-prepared food and diet diversity.
However, in Slovenia, ‘physical activity’ is especially important to elderly participants
(primary association, before healthy food) who added mental activity as another
important concept.
Elderly man, 63, Slovenia:
After retiring, people could freeze on sofa.
‘Cleanness’ is mostly related to the environment and environmental issues (clean

water, clean and fresh air, etc.) contributing to the production of healthy food
(Montenegro, Macedonia, and Serbia).
Typical associations to the concept of a healthy lifestyle are2:

Healthy food: fruit, vegetables, cooked – homemade (warm meals), food
diversity
Sport activities: walking, running, biking, hiking, swimming, dancing
(continued)
2
Source: Consumer statement from FGD, the FOCUS-BALKANS research.
(continued)
Environment: clean air and earth, ecology, naturally grown food
Healthy life routines: regular sleeping, frugality, and moderation in all
activities
Economic and social security: employment, financial safety
Interpersonal networks: friends, neighbours, communication, hobbies
Positive atmosphere: warmth, love, family, loyalty, support
Dissipation: absence of cigarettes, alcohol, drugs, any kind of distress
Economic and social security are frequent associations with healthy life in being the
primary prerequisites for a life without stress. For all FGD participants, healthy lifestyle
stands for harmony in family life, interpersonal networks with people who can support
a person when he or she needs it, and economic and social security. Economic and social
security are particularly stressed as an important precondition for a life without stress.
Elderly woman, 58, Macedonia:
It is essential to have economic well-being in order to be healthy.
Parent, 36, Slovenia:

It is important that you receive a check each month in order to have a healthy life.
In BiH, economic and social security was also related to political stability as
yet another important contributor to a life without stress, i.e. a healthy life. Finally,
in some countries the respondents related healthy lifestyles to certain more
psychological or even spiritual values, such as optimism, voluntary work for others,
unselfishness and giving rather than receiving in general (Serbia), religion, mean-
ingful life, meditation, yoga (Slovenia), and positive atmosphere without political
misunderstandings (Montenegro, BiH).
The study tries to find out consumers’ perceptions on the link between food and
health. Their associations covering different kinds of food, food quality and food
safety issues, sports and sportsmen, nature, beautiful women, happy families and
babies may be viewed as typical (Fig. 5.2).
The experts – producers, retailers, policymakers, and consumer groups’ represen-
tatives – mainly agree that price is the main problem that consumers actually face. This
problem is most pronounced in the least developed WBC – Macedonia and BiH.
Producer, BiH:
Health benefit is very important to the consumers. More important than we usually think,
but they are restricted with the price and cannot always afford these products.
Producer, Macedonia:
Consumers are interested in healthy products only if their price is equal with the regular ones.
Fig 5.2 The collage technique (examples) (Source: The FGD conducted in the Focus-Balkans
research)
Additionally, experts from Croatia and Serbia pointed out that price might be an
important obstacle for the lower income households from less-developed rural areas.
High prices were one of the problems accentuated in Slovenia, but this has particularly
been obvious since the outbreak of the economic crisis. Besides price, processors
and retailers pointed out taste as the second most important criteria for consumers’
choice of food.
Producer, Serbia:
Consumers are traditionally looking for good taste even if it is not good for their health.
Consumer perception that food which contributes to a good health is not tasty
was especially emphasised by the public health policy officials. This is often the
reason why consumers refrain from buying healthy products.
The facts mentioned above confirm that health benefit might not be a dominant
criterion for consumers’ choice of food in WBC. However, the health officials
emphasised that healthy diet became the leading factor for consumers’ choice of
food in specific situations – e.g. in the case of children (newborns) or family members
who have got some health problems.
Public Health Policy Official, Croatia:
All parents want to feed their children with the highest quality food as much as it is possi-
ble. But when adult people buy food for themselves high quality is not so important, price
is more important.
Nevertheless, health benefit was perceived as a factor of growing importance.

Retailer, Macedonia:
Consumers are quite aware of the health benefits of some food. They are buying products
with health and nutrition claims even they don’t have any health problems.
Retailer, Croatia:
Consumer’s demand for products with nutrition and health claims will grow due to health
issues – such as increasing cardiovascular diseases.
5.4.2 The Basic Market Drivers: Motivations

and Barriers for Consumption
According to FGD, consumers’ motives for choosing products with health claims
can be divided into several categories: (1) innovation, scientific background; (2)
containing specific ingredient (familiar health claim, e.g. ‘probiotics improve diges-
tion’); (3) prior personal experience with the product; (4) word of mouth on product
effects; and (5) appealing effect (e.g. ‘burns fat’).
On the other hand, there are strong barriers to adopt them: (1) doubt in added
ingredients: vitamins, minerals, Q10, and other enzymes that are untraceable;
(2) some additives are unnatural and unnecessary (e.g. vitamins in yoghurt, cal-
cium in fruit juice); (3) health claim is not well communicated to consumers (too
long, too technical, too complicated); and (4) products are perceived as targeting
certain consumers, and consequently, some consumers do not view themselves as
potential consumers. There are two main causes to these barriers: first, the major-
ity of WBC consumers is still uneducated when it comes to this type of products
and expresses resistance towards interpreting complicated scientific claims;
second, there is doubt and refusal to accept a novelty (health claims that are
longer present on the market are more taken to be trustworthy, while the new
ones are more often rejected).
Furthermore, the consumers’ likelihood analysis refers to food choice. Different
groups evoke different motives for consumption: dairy products are consumed on an
everyday basis, and, therefore, consumers are more aware of their features (e.g. low
fat, probiotics). Elderly respondents in all WBC claim to be making their choices
based on their health and diet benefits implying that they are paying more attention
to nutrition and health claims. However, the respondents mostly prefer the products
they are familiar with (well-established ‘traditional’ brands) and/or which taste better.
Traditional brands are the first choice particularly in the group of mothers who
claim not to be ready to experiment with what they give to their children. Thus, a
specific role of the branded products of well-known companies in novelty accep-
tance in WBC is confirmed.
The companies considered products with health claims to be important for the
creation of their image. Improving a company’s image by selling healthy food and
answering to the consumers’ needs were the motives most often evoked spontaneously
both by processors and retailers.
Retailer, Serbia:
We are selling safety products with health claims. It has influence on our consumers, their
trust in our retail chain.
Producer, Serbia:
Expanding the target group of consumers, sale increase as well as improving the image of
company, indirectly influence the consumption of other product categories.
The companies use health claim products as a marketing positioning tool and do
not expect immediate high profitability in the WBC market. Some categories of health
claim products still generate modest sales volumes compared to the conventional
market share. As far as the economic sector stakeholders’ point of view is con-
cerned, main barriers for the development of the health claim products market are
consumer related. According to producers and retailers, unhealthy eating habits
followed by low perceived awareness result in a low demand. Simply said, consum-
ers include these products insufficiently in their diets as they are neither aware of
them nor of their role in an overall healthy diet.
From a public policy perspective, the health policymakers confirm these findings
as well. According to their assessment of the current situation, the consumers are
not sufficiently educated about nutritional food contents and a healthy diet. They are
not able to understand food declarations and therefore are not able to choose high-
quality products according to labelling information.
The general assessment of the interviewed experts is that nutrition and health
claims are attracting the consumers to buy a product by highlighting its benefits.
However, they might mislead, mostly non-educated, consumers if they are
insufficiently precise and not verified scientifically. This is most likely to be the case
in the Western Balkans, where the health claims market is still not fully regulated in
all regions. However, due to a harmonisation with the EU regulation, consumers
trust the scientifically substantiated claims increasingly.
5.4.3 The Perception of a Typical WBC Health Claim Product

Consumer: The Reality or a Vision?
From the consumers’ point of view, a typical consumer of health claim products is seen
as a young woman, usually working and with a higher income. She is well educated,
friendly, and an extrovert. As for physical appearance, she is in a good shape, fit, and
cares a lot about her appearance. She is usually described as married with children, but
she has also been seen as a single. She buys products in large supermarkets on a weekly
basis. She follows trends and seeks for novelty in every domain (Fig. 5.3).
The processors’ and retailers’ perception of WBC health claim product con-
sumers is quite identical. Consumers are generally female, belonging to the age
group of 15–40 years old, with higher or middle income, secondary or higher
education, with or without health problems, and are living in urban areas
(Fig. 5.4). Consumers of health claim products are health oriented – their everyday
practice is connected to healthy lifestyles, following modern trends and fashion
in food consumption (they want to stay fit) and active life (sportsmen, businessmen),
or they are seen as mothers who are expected to provide healthy food to their
families.
A typical health claim product consumer image in WBC seems to be heavily
influenced by television commercial stereotype. Additionally, elderly people usually
see a typical health claim product consumer as a young, active female in her 20s.
Mothers sometimes see an elderly woman with health issues but trying to stay fit
A TYPICAL WBC HEALTH CLAIM PRODUCT CONSUMER
Major opinion of older examinees Joint characteristics Major opinion of mothers with children <15
Female
In a good shape
High educated
Average to higher income
4 member family
With two children
20-30 years old,
Friendly
Trendy
Extroverted 60 years old
Attractive
Buy in supermarkets Health concerned
Wants to try new products,
On the weekly basis
to look good, to loose weight.
Eat health claim products
on every day basis.
Fig. 5.3 FGD results: a typical WBC health claim product consumer seen from the point of view
of a consumer (Source: The FOCUS-BALKANS research)
A TYPICAL WBC HEALTH CLAIM PRODUCT CONSUMER
Major opinion of producers and retailers Joint characteristics Major opinion of public policy experts
30-55 years old.

Main food shoppers.
Younger depend on their parents
don’t go shopping and
don’t influence the choice.
Younger are ready to change their
nutrition habits.
Female Elderly are usually not sufficiently educated,
High educated do not pay attention to products they buy,
Average to higher income buy the same products out of habit.
Urban Personality traits are important -curiosity,
With and without health problems. inclination towards discovering,
wish for obtaining new information etc.
Under greater risk of having health problems.
Fig. 5.4 A typical WBC health claim product consumer seen from the point of view of producers,
retailers, and policymakers (Source: The Focus-Balkans research)
and taking care of herself as a typical consumer. It is important to note that each age
group perceives functional food to be typical for the other, which might also indicate
a lack of actual identification with these products.
Furthermore, important differences are identified between the business sector
and policymakers’ perceptions (Fig. 5.4). The policymakers insist more strongly on
consumers with health problems and under a greater risk of having health problems
as a typical health claim product consumer than the business sector stakeholders
who allocate them in a much broader context.
5.5 Conclusions
In Montenegro, Macedonia, BiH, and Serbia, food with health claims is perceived
to be an upcoming trend in the food market, while it is an actual trend in Croatia
and Slovenia. Consumers do not have spontaneous expectations regarding the
future development of health claim products. When asked, they say they expect
(1) more consumer awareness (health impact of different ingredients to be more
commonly known), (2) greater availability (in regular supermarkets, not specia-
lised stores), and (3) a more diversified offer. However, Kapsak et al. (2011)
found that even those consumers who are more and more informed and knowl-
edgeable about health claim products are still more likely mentioning products
that may have health benefits rather than the specific components of these
products.
The highly regulated health claims product market could be an efficient dissemi-
nation tool for the health and risk-diseases information to the general public.
Additionally, the impact of health professionals has been identified as critical to
consumers’ success in healthy eating. The food industry typically produces health
claim products by incorporating functional elements into processed foods or supple-
ments. However, strong scepticism is expressed by our experts because they think
that those elements are present in amounts too low to result in appreciable health
benefits. For that reason, e.g. for the purpose of CVD prevention, diets rich in anti-
oxidants and phytochemicals rather than high-dose supplementation are still recom-
mended. Moreover, the benefits of health protective, whole grain foods are assessed
to be greater than those of functional food products.
It is important to stress that consumers and health professionals need to inform
and educate themselves in order to keep pace with the ongoing scientific advance-
ments in this area and to be able to assist the consumers when they include these
products in their diets. Health professionals might have a significant influence on
specific population segments such as mothers of newborns, children, elderly, and
those who experience diet-related health problems. Active public policy in the
field of research can promote the concept of healthy lifestyle and healthy eating
in the region. Last but not least, investigations whether the promotion of health
claim products could contribute to a change in the overall diet towards healthier
food choices should lead to a general improvement of the food chain competi-
tiveness. Thus, further research should address quantitative analyses of both
heavy and light consumers’ profiles in the WBC. Explanation of attitudes,
believes, and motives for health claim products consumption is equally important.
Identification of the main predictors of healthier food choices can reshape diet
patterns in the WBC and promote health claim products as an efficient tool for
improving public health. Research based on qualitative methods contributed to
the Food Consumer Science development by identifying the main driving forces
on the market of the study area.
Lessons for Food Marketers: Main Insights into the Market

Development of Products with Health Claims in WBC
Some studied categories of products with health claims were introduced in the
WBC more than 10 years ago. However, the number of products with health
claims has been constantly increasing since the year 2000. Consumer demand,
and thus the global market, for health claim products is expected to grow in
the future for several reasons. Consumers’ awareness regarding the impor-
tance of food will increase as the stakeholders (producers, retailers, consumer
organisations, and public policymakers) have great interest to improve the
nutritional education of the population. Due to the harmonisation with the EU
regulation and the control that European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and
WBC Food Safety Agencies will carry out on the market, the faith of consumers
in the scientifically substantiated claims is going to increase. New products
are also expected to enter the markets: risk disease reduction claims will be
authorised in all WBC, and this will strongly influence the markets (e.g. autho-
rised cholesterol lowerers in margarines).
Based on the qualitative data obtained by FGD and IDI, two scenarios for the
market development of WBC products with health claims can be identified.
According to the first scenario, which is pessimistic, the health claim products
market pass through a fashion life cycle. The target population consists of young,
educated, high income, and urban women as the main consumers. However, in
more developed markets (Slovenian and Croatian) the target population is now
extended to mothers who are seen as the households’ gatekeepers. In the second,
more optimistic, scenario, elderly population with higher and middle income
along with innovators and early adopters (young active women and mothers)
also become interesting consumer groups for products with health claims. The
athletes and businessmen are seen as potential consumers in the future.
The market is obviously going through a multidimensional transition –
from the younger to the elderly population, from the higher income class to
the middle class layers, from women to men. The food sector stakeholders
play a crucial role in adopting and implementing new technologies which
may contribute to an increasing availability of these products both in terms of
diversity and price. Simultaneously, consumer associations and policy makers
take leading-strings in defining the institutional framework that is going to
facilitate further developments of the WBC market.
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Chapter 6
Assessing Fruit Perception Using Focus Groups
Siet J. Sijtsema, Karin L. Zimmermann, Miljan Cvetković, Cristina Mora,

Abstract Today, only a minority of the world’s population consumes the recommended
daily amount of fruits and vegetables. Even though fruit growing has a long tradi-
tion in the Western Balkan countries, fruit consumption should be encouraged as it
is a basic element of a healthy diet. During the FOCUS Balkans project, fruit per-
ception and consumption was studied with a qualitative and quantitative approach.
This chapter describes the application of focus group discussions as a widely
employable method in food consumer science.
Required preparation measures and guidelines for focus group discussions are
explained in detail. Furthermore, practical aspects about the implementation of this
method as well as advice on the selection of participants are presented on behalf of
a concrete example. For instance, it seems that participants from the Western
S.J. Sijtsema, Ph.D. (*)

Consumer and Behaviour Group, LEI, Part of Wageningen UR,
P.O. Box 35, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
K.L. Zimmermann, B.Sc., R.M.
Consumer and Behaviour Group, LEI, Part of Wageningen UR,
P.O. Box 29703, 2502 LS The Hague, The Netherlands
M. Cvetković, Ph.D.
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Banja Luka,
Bulevar vojvode Petra Bojovića 1A, 78000 Banja Luka, Republika Srpska-BiH
C. Mora, Ph.D.
Department of Food Science, University of Parma,
Via Kennedy 6, 43039 Parma, Italy
M. Zaouche-Laniau

74 S.J. Sijtsema et al.
Balkans generally prefer home-grown fruits or fruits bought on green markets, and
fruit safety was an issue frequently raised. Focus group discussions hence are a
valuable tool in exploring the consumption of a specific product, especially if com-
bined with a quantitative survey for investigating differences between countries or
between people of different age groups.
Keywords Application of focus groups • Fruit perception • Western Balkan

consumers • Home-grown • Home-made • Safety
6.1 Introduction
As basic elements of the daily human diet, fruits and vegetables enable a healthy
life and prevention from diseases. Only a minority of the world’s population
consumes the recommended average amount of fruits and vegetables of 400–
500 g/day (World Health Organization (WHO) 2003). The consumption of fruits
in Europe has been declining over the last years. Only a few Mediterranean
countries, where availability of fruit is high, are currently meeting the public
health recommendations.
To elaborate public health policies, more insight into the preferences of
European consumers regarding fruits and derivative products is necessary.
Especially the position of fruit consumption in transition countries such as the
Western Balkan countries (WBC) is of interest, in order to develop well-planned
interventions to encourage fruit consumption. There is a particular need to explore
consumers’ motivations and barriers as well as the background of consumption
and purchase of fruits. To this end, exploration of as well as deeper insights into
the perceptions of consumers is needed. During the FOCUS Balkans project, fruit
perception and consumption was studied in a qualitative and quantitative approach.
This chapter is about the application of focus group as a method used in the food
consumer science, applied to two specific topics related to fruits: perception of
motives for and barriers to different channels for getting or buying fruits and con-
sumers’ associations with national fruits. The aim was to better understand con-
sumers’ perceptions and expectations about fruits, to promote fruits and produce
fruit innovations.
6.2 Method
6.2.1 Theoretical Background
In consumers’ daily life, there are several variables influencing the choice for food,
of which some are described in Chap. 1.
6 Assessing Fruit Perception Using Focus Groups 75
In a number of consumption models, the determinants of product choice are

structured according to the three determinants: the individual, the situation and the
product (e.g. Belk 1975; Bloch and Richins 1983; Dickson 1982; Zaichkowsky
1985). Similarly, these same determinants are used to structure variables related to
food behaviour and perception (e.g. Gains 1996; Kahn 1981; Randall and Sanjur
1981; Rozin 2007; Sijtsema 2003).
Individual determinants of food perception could be divided into demographic
variables, physiological factors, psychological factors and attitudes. Food-related
determinants of food perception are decomposed into product characteristics (e.g.
the colour of the food) and the production system (e.g. whether the food is organic
or not). In addition, while most studies refer in the situational component to both
physical surroundings and social surroundings (Belk 1975), Sijtsema (2003) made
a further distinction between environment and context. Whereas the environment
consists of the social and cultural environment (family and society characteristics),
the context contains the consumption moment and place of consumption (Sijtsema
2003). According to Köster and Mojet (2007), situations are defined by the meaning
attributed to the surroundings and the resulting expectations of the individual with
regard to this situation. For example, hunger means that we want to eat something,
but hunger when sitting alone in front of the TV reminds of other types of food than
when at a dinner with friends at home or with a group of business relations at a
restaurant. It is clear that people do not just eat products, but they eat what they like
in different meaningful situations (Köster and Mojet 2007). In Sijtsema’s (2003)
model, no distinction is made between the objective aspects (the package is blue and
it contains 200 g of rice) and the perceived aspects (the product is tasty). Rozin
(2007) notes that ultimately the food product and environment are filtered through
the person: that is, it is the perceived product and environment that influence choice.
6.2.2 Choice of Method
From a food consumer research perspective, the focus of this chapter is on the
exploration of consumers’ perception as the background of consumption and pur-
chase of fruits. The perception of consumers is based on a stimulus, which is differently
perceived according to the consumer characteristics, time and situation. Focus
groups are a method often used to explore consumer perceptions in which it is pos-
sible to take those characteristics of consumers and contexts into consideration.
6.3 Origin and Purpose
Focus groups can be defined as ‘a research technique that collects data through
group interaction on a topic determined by the researcher’ (Morgan 1997, p. 6).
Historically, the focus group method emerged at the Bureau of the Applied Social
Research of Columbia University. Merton and Kendall (1946) pioneered the

approach with their work about the effectiveness of propaganda efforts during
the Second World War. They discovered that group discussions allow a broader
range of response and elicitation of important and informative details that would not
be mentioned with individual interviews.
The method has been developed since the 1990s, with a systematic description
and ways of implementation such as how to conduct focus groups and analyse data
(Krueger 1988; Morgan and Krueger 1998; Stewart and Shamdasani 1990;
Templeton 1994; Vaughn et al. 1996).
6.4 Material and Data Processing
Focus groups can be implemented at many points of a research programme. Often,

they are applied to prepare quantitative research. Focus groups are helpful to gen-
erate a hypothesis that can be validated with further quantitative approaches
(Stewart and Shamdasani 1990). Besides focus groups’ facilitation of quantitative
research tools, they are also helpful to broaden and deepen insights of, for example,
in-depth interviews. Focus groups are originally a specific tool for qualitative data
collection, based on the dynamics of the group. Although the group process is one
of its advantages, it might also result in an undesirable bias in the group. To avoid
biases, one should be keen on the following issues. First, the moderator has an
influence on the group. Second, as in all human groups, the phenomenon of domi-
nance may occur and some participants may strongly influence the discussion. The
following actions should be taken to avoid this bias: (a) development of a very
precise guideline, (b) trained moderator, who is aware of and knows how to deal
with group interactions and dominant participants, and (c) balance between indi-
vidual and group tasks.
Focus groups bring rich and sensitive information about a topic of interest, which
led to an increasingly more abundant use of them as a research method on its own.
The risk of ‘misuse’, especially in the case of market research, is pointed out by
Merton (1987, p. 557) ‘as quick and easy claims for the validity of the research are
not subjected to further quantitative test’. Results of focus groups are not meant to
be representative and no generalisation of findings can be made on a specific popu-
lation. Implementing multiple focus groups does not allow the generalisation of
findings but could allow the researcher to gain additional information and also to
reach a kind of saturation of information (information occurring repeatedly). Thus,
one should be careful when applying focus groups as a method on its own since one
could not reach representativeness.
One of the advantages of focus groups is their flexibility. Researchers adapt the
procedure according to their own needs. Those needs should be carefully considered and
translated to questions or tasks. The guideline of the focus group discussion needs careful
preparation, strictly adapted to the research objectives. In order to allow the emergence
of all ideas and opinions, different tasks and questions as well as different tools will be
applied to stimulate the group in this process. Pictures, products and videos can be use-
fully presented to give a support to the group’s representations and reactions. Also,
indirect methods or projective techniques such as games or specific exercises can be
used. Consumers generally appreciate such exercises and the discussion is more vivid
and creative while researchers may explore more underlying representations.
6.5 Practical Aspects
6.5.1 Protocol for Focus Groups
There is not a single recipe to build the protocol of focus groups.

The guide of the discussion is generally designed in such a way that we can move
from general points of view to very precise ones. Broadly outlined, the discussion
can be divided into four or five parts:
The first part is a ‘warming up’ phase. It is important to create an open atmosphere
at the beginning of the session. Therefore, it should be explained that there are no right
and wrong answers. A round table with short presentations of participants and research-
ers is an opportunity to support consumers to feel confident. In this phase, exercises or
questions on the general topic are important for starting to understand the subject.
A second phase may be devoted to the exploration and mapping of the issues
related to the general topic of the following phases aiming at answering precise
questions. In the area of food consumption, they can be oriented towards purchase
habits, frequency of consumption, distribution channels for the studied product or
towards families of products.
The last phase aims at deepening specific research questions. Participants are
now very familiar with the topic. At this stage, it could be asked to clearly elicit their
opinions, preferences and decisions regarding precise questions. At last, synthesis
exercises may be proposed for example on the possible marketing arguments,
opportunities or recommendations.
6.5.2 Preparation and Moderation
Focus groups need careful preparation long before the meeting itself (development
of guidelines, recruitment of participants and renting a room). This also has conse-
quences for the budget to be planned: hiring of the room, office equipment, catering
and consumers’ compensations (gift or money).
If possible, the moderator, not necessarily the same person as the researcher,
should have a small pilot group of 3–4 participants, so he might test the question-
naire and estimate the time needed for the task realisation. The session cannot rea-
sonably exceed 2 h. If more time is needed, a break might be necessary to foster the
active involvement of the participants.
The moderator of the discussion plays an important role during the meeting.
He or she has to be familiar with the guideline and must respect the timing for each
question and exercise. The moderator should make participants feel free and com-
fortable and avoid any dominance phenomenon among them. The whole discussion
is audio or video recorded. If needed, transcriptions have to be prepared in order to
do the analyses and reporting. A complete synthesis of the ‘raw material’ given by
the group has to be done. Analysis and interpretation are rather time-consuming, as
it is crucial to take into consideration all ideas and opinions produced by the group.
Conclusions are drawn question by question in order to reflect the diversity and
heterogeneity of the data.
It is often useful to conduct at least two focus groups; in theory, one should do as
many focus groups until no more new issues emerge. It is possible to conduct focus
groups for two different age classes or locations (rural/urban) or any other different
characteristics. Moreover, it is recommended to conduct in each case at least two
similar focus groups to gain a ‘saturation’ of information. When cross-country dif-
ferences are explored, the groups should be conducted with the same protocol in
each country.
6.5.3 Participants of Focus Groups
Consumers may be recruited from the general population aiming at a well-balanced

group regarding gender, age or education level. Focus groups can also be consti-
tuted with a specific population segment having generally no more than one charac-
teristic that distinguishes them from others (not only socio-demographics) depending
on the research project (e.g. heavy users of organic food).
The ideal number of participants in a group ranges from around six to ten per-
sons. Organisers need to over-recruit (12 persons) in order to replace people who
will cancel the appointment at the last minute. It should be avoided that participants
know each other.
6.6 Research Approach and Objectives
Perception and consumption of fruits in everyday life have been studied by

focus groups in the Focus Balkans project. Fruit was defined as fresh fruit (e.g.
apple, banana, tangerine) and fresh pressed juice. Dried fruits (grape, apricots,
figs, plums) and other processed fruits such as juice, jam and frozen fruits are
considered as a category by itself. However, processed food that contains low
contents of fruits, such as fruit yoghurts, biscuits with fruits or fruit ice creams,
is not considered in this study. Also non-eatable fruits, nuts and pastes are not
considered as fruit.
Fig. 6.1 The qualitative research approach and the position of focus groups
Central in this part of the study are consumers and their motivations and behaviours
relating to fruits and fruit products in the Balkans. To this end, several activities
were carried out to gain a qualitative understanding of fruit consumption in the
WBC. At first, in-depth interviews with consumers as well as in-depth interviews
with experts from companies and government were scheduled. Besides, focus
groups were carried out to further explore some specific topics arisen in the in-depth
interviews, of which some results will be presented in this chapter for being an
illustration of a tangible application of focus groups (Fig. 6.1).
The objective of the focus groups was to explore the outcomes of the interviews
with regard to (1) motives and barriers for fruit consumption and its availability at
different channels, for example, home-grown fruit, fruit from the supermarket or
from green markets, and (2) the perception of national fruits and fruits from other
countries. A selection will be presented in this chapter.
Each WBC (Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic
of Macedonia (FYROM), Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia) took care of the data
gathering in the respective country. For urban as well as for rural participants,
two separate focus groups with all together 96 participants were conducted. The
sample was balanced for gender and region, with an overrepresented group of
students. A transcript was written in the local language of each group discussion.
Based on this, the results were presented in an elaborated format and translated
to English.
6.7 Results
Home-grown fruits have a tradition in the Balkan countries (Delic and Zimmermann
2010). This tradition might influence the perception of fruits (Sijtsema and Snoek
2010). In times of transition and urbanisation, it is interesting to find out how it
influences the perception and purchase of fruits in Western Balkan countries.
Therefore, this study explored in-depth consumer perception of different distribu-
tion channels of regional, national and international fruits.
6.7.1 Perception of Home-Grown Fruits, Green

Markets and Supermarkets
Generally, participants prefer the green market for buying fruits. Fruit safety is a
frequent issue raised by the participants: buying fruits on green markets is a way to
be sure about the safety of the fruits (which means in consumers’ opinion no treat-
ment with pesticides), and that the fruits are locally produced, sold by a person they
know. After the green markets, the second most liked place of procurement is the
own home in the rural area, while supermarket shopping is preponderant in urban
areas. Table 6.1 shows the broad variety of all kinds of motives and barriers men-
tioned during the focus groups in the different countries. The motives and barriers
of buying fruits at different channels are grouped for home-grown fruits, green mar-
kets and supermarket in order to show the diversity of issues mentioned. The home-
grown fruits and green markets have been grouped for representing consumers’
habits in buying fruits.
The discussion shows that participants from rural areas prefer home-grown fruits,
and that their most preferred place to buy fruits is the green market. This seems also
to be preferred by urban participants but they also buy fruits in the supermarket
since the distance to the supermarket is shorter and availability of fruits is better.
Some participants never will go only for fruits to the supermarket. It seems that
urban participants are more familiar with supermarkets than rural participants. This
seems to be connected with the small number of supermarkets in rural areas in some
WBC. Some people have a habit with regard to a specific sales channel while others
buy at different channels. It seems that elderly people prefer green markets more
often. Younger people think supermarkets are more convenient. For some partici-
pants, price is an issue.
It seems that participants trust individual sellers more than big supermarket
chains. There is a general scepticism of fruit safety. Fruits are believed to be over-
treated with pesticides. In the rural area, they prefer their own production, which is
by their experience not sprayed. Generally, consumers have problems with credibil-
ity attributes.
This description shows that participants mention several issues related to where
they buy their fruits, for example, supermarket or green market. If one should know
the importance of issues compared to others, either as differences between countries
or target groups, additional quantitative research is needed.
6.7.2 National and International Fruits and Their Perception
The perception of national and international fruits is studied in order to better under-
stand the general perception of fruits, the position of fruits as a part of traditions and
the buying characteristics of fruits.
Many different fruits are perceived to be ‘national’ fruits in Western Balkan
countries. Apple is often mentioned as a national fruit for all WBC. Tangerines are
6
Table 6.1 Motives and barriers of buying fruits at different channels, for example, green markets or supermarkets
Motives home-grown/green Barriers home-grown/green
market market Motives supermarket Barriers supermarket
Montenegro rural Less treated Fruit is not treated and gets Lack of time Worse appearance
Affordable price spoiled quickly Easier access Forced growing, not tasty fruit
Local – to support production Not sufficient amounts sold Availability whole year Price, expensive
and purchase conditions quickly Compensates for fruits which Less quality
Better quality Not many producers of are not available in the Lack of confidence in quality and
Healthier (we know how home-grown products season or fruit which is origin
it is grown) Availability not grown in own country Treatment changed taste
Cleaner Not well-organised purchase Longer storability
Fresher
I know the people who sell it
Montenegro urban Fresh fruit in the morning/ Far away from house, only Convenient supply Fruit not fresh enough
season on weekend More fruits available Fruit seems unnatural
Know people, confidence No time to go Longer opening hours than Less tasty
Assessing Fruit Perception Using Focus Groups
More tasty and fresh Not enough fruits green markets Artificial
Not well stocked Supermarkets are everywhere Price
Working hours at green Lack of time
market overlap with own Working hours
working hours Nearest shop
Various fruits
Cheaper than green market
Macedonia rural More natural atmosphere No big offer Specific types of fruits Not a big choice
Bigger choice Time More expensive
Always same seller
Macedonia urban No pesticides used I do not want a crowded In neighbourhood Less fresh
Fruit at green market is closer place where someone is More freedom, no suggestions Not sure where fruit comes from
to home-grown convincing others that he from sellers and if it is fresh or not
has the best products Tropical fruits available Doesn’t like to shop in supermarket
Bosnia rural Petrol costs
81
(continued)
82

Motives home-grown/green Barriers home-grown/green
market market Motives supermarket Barriers supermarket
Bosnia urban Good assortment High temperature in summer, Availability
When you buy more you get fruits get rotten Get fruit along with regular
discount You cannot choose the fruit weekly purchases
yourself You can choose the fruit
Not many green markets in yourself
the city Facilities to store the fruit are
Awkward when it rains better
No frozen fruit Visual arrangement of fruits
in shop
Serbia rural Direct contact with fruit and Weather conditions Everything in one place Bananas are not kept in a proper
grower Storage conditions Even in winter exotic fruit way
Modern markets in Belgrade Market too crowded More attractive Unknown country of origin,
offer same fruit products Unpleasant smells Pay with credit card transportation time conditions
Not chemically treated everywhere. of storage unknown
Try the taste of fruit before Our farmers are still not well
buying educated; I am still not
100% sure about quality
Serbia urban When I buy green market I Sanitary inspection should do
help some villager a better job in green
market
Croatia urban Great offer in supermarket Less healthy because you do not
Buys fruit here in winter know where it is from
much more often while Fruit is not fresh it is in a freezer
many fruit markets do not Do not like that other people
work touch fruit
Poor quality Imported fruit does not have a
Unripe fruit good taste and looks artificial
Croatia rural Long in stock before it is sold
S.J. Sijtsema et al.
mentioned as the most popular national fruit for Croatia and plums for Serbia
(cf. Table 6.2). Participants choose their national fruit for diverse reasons like grow-
ing the fruit in their own garden or seeing it a lot on the green market. Also traditions
influence the perception, for example, processing of plums into brandy in this
region. Besides, participants mention frequently that national fruits are of higher
quality than imported ones and contain fewer pesticides. Domestic fruit production
is considered to be healthier, to taste better and the domestic fruits easier to preserve
than other fruits. When discussing this, participants mention that they think that the
Balkan region has good conditions for fruit growing, which is related to traditional
recipes and traditional varieties of fruits.
Although this exploration shows differences among the countries, confirmation
is needed through a quantitative approach: in fact, the focus groups allow identify-
ing extensively all issues, which consumers associate with national fruits.
6.8 Discussion
6.8.1 Application of Focus Groups
When interpreting the results, we have to be aware that a qualitative research

approach was followed. This means that consumers’ perceptions, ideas and experi-
ences of and attitudes towards the research topic, in this case fruits, are discussed in
the focus groups. This is of value when there are nearly no studies available. After
exploring the topic qualitatively, a quantitative research is needed to test the findings
for reasons of representativeness. Thus, each of the six countries organised two
focus groups with altogether 96 Western Balkan people, balanced for gender and
region. Comparison of the countries seems interesting but only should be done by
means of a quantitative study to reach a valid comparison. Nevertheless, interesting
differences were explored and need to be investigated further in a quantitative study
in order to test the expectations.
Especially in a project like Focus Balkans where six countries each with their
own language had to be coordinated in English, some extra barriers had to be taken.
For example, the translation of the guide to local languages and of the transcript to
English had to be tackled on time.
The application of focus groups was not a common method for some partners of
the WBC. Nevertheless, there were good reasons for its use. Therefore, additional
trainings about moderating focus groups were organised.
6.8.2 Richness of Data
For each topic discussed, a lot of issues were mentioned by participants. Although
not all are similarly relevant, each should be taken seriously as representing the
Table 6.2 National fruits per country

Issues participants mentioned and discussed about
Country ‘National’ fruit national and international fruits
Montenegro Apples Many types of fruits can be grown in Montenegro
Grapes Tradition of making processed fruit products and
Plums alcoholic beverages
Less often: pears, figs
Macedonia Apples Good conditions (a lot of sun) for growing fruits in
Grapes Macedonia
Less often: peaches, If possible, people would prefer to buy only
plums Macedonian fruits
Macedonian fruits are the best because they are less
treated with chemicals
‘Fruits are something we should be proud of’.
Bosnia Apples Traditional species as well as new species
Plums Contradictions about quality: one respondent says
Pears ‘soil is poisoned’ while another says ‘far less
Less often: peaches, pesticides in Bosnian fruits than in imported ones’
strawberries, cherries Traditional fruits are produced in a safe and
controlled manner, therefore it is a better quality
than fruit produced on big farms or imported fruit
‘Musmula’ is a national fruit
‘Plum was the national fruit, but now it isn’t
anymore’
Slovenia Apples Slovenian fruits are associated with tasty, healthy,
Pears juicy, fresh, good appearance, and grown in a soil,
Cherries which is not as polluted as in other countries
Plums Some traditional fruits are not known anymore, for
Less often: grapes example, ‘nesplje’
Domestically grown fruits are preferred because of
freshness, better quality, less time spent in storage
There is also some influence of national feelings
Serbia Plums Respondents had the opinion that Serbian fruits are
Apples unsurpassed. Climate is extremely appropriate for
Pears fruit production; it is proven by high yields of fruits
Less often: cherries, National fruits are healthy and they are easily
raspberries available and cheap and delicious products can be
made of it
It could be preserved all over the winter time
Croatia Tangerines Although participants do not pay attention to the
Apples origin of the fruits they buy, they announce
Plums preferring to buy Croatian rather than imported
Less often: strawberries, fruits
grapes, figs
voice of a consumer. Even though most of the issues might be in line with prior
expectations, additional insight into the background of the issues and into experi-
ences of participants in their daily life as well as into their motives and barriers
for consuming fruits were valuable to better understand consumer food choice
behaviour.
6.8.3 Reflection on Results
The insights from these focus groups are valuable for formulating hypotheses,
which can be tested in quantitative research. Several interesting topics emerged, for
example, whether there are differences between rural and urban consumers as far as
their buying behaviour with regard to fruits is concerned and whether there are dif-
ferences in the perception of safety of the products.
Fruits seem to be part of the traditions in the Western Balkans which is shown
by the high diversity of varieties and species and by abundant recipes. Participants
prefer the fruits from their own country or region, but it is not known whether they
really take this into consideration when they buy fruits. Due to the transition in the
Western Balkan region, there are several developments going on which might
influence the perception of consumers. The position of domestic production of
fruits and of fruit purchases on green markets is changing since supermarkets
have appeared. Before, fruits were bought primarily on the green markets where
sellers were at the same time producers with rather small family farms. At that
time, existing markets did not or only rarely organise the sale of fruits. Those
small producers were not ready for the change of selling to supermarkets since
they could neither offer the required quantity of goods nor fulfil the norms of
supermarkets demand. Nowadays, big supermarkets in WBC offer mainly fruits
from export (European Union, EU) or from domestic plantations that are able to
produce enough goods according to the requested standards. These fruits cannot
be considered as ‘home-grown’. The basic reasons for the connection between
home-grown fruits and green markets mainly lay in the tradition of fruit buying
but also in the role of supermarkets.
Agro-food industry in WBC is more and more oriented to a production that
satisfies the requests of big supermarkets and to some additional requests for the
export of goods to the EU countries and Russia. In WBC, consumers’ habits regard-
ing fruit purchases will change and be more oriented towards supermarkets. There
are several reasons for this: less and less people are living in rural areas but are mov-
ing to urban areas; buying in supermarkets is becoming a dominant way of fruit
buying; and agro-industry is investing in fruit production for supermarkets and has
reliable partners for selling its products.
The entrance of foreign retailers might thus influence the perception of fruits and
possibly also fruit consumption in a society with changing lifestyles and ongoing
urbanisation. Public policy might be needed to avoid a further decrease in fruit
consumption in WBC.
6.9 Concluding Remarks
Focus groups are a promising way to explore the perception of fruits, although
complementing quantitative studies are needed to investigate differences between
countries or between people of different age groups.
Focus groups open many options for further research within the field of consumer
perception since they proved to be a suitable approach for the exploration of issues
and new phenomena related to the process of perceiving fruits.
Focus groups are a valuable tool in exploring fruit consumption, especially if
they are combined with other methods such as a quantitative survey for better under-
standing the consumers in order to create innovations for fruits and the fruit sector
as well as to tailor interventions from public authorities.
The future of the agriculture and the food industry in the Balkans depends on the
producers’ ability to understand global and regional market trends. It would be
important to take consumers’ needs and perceptions into consideration because
these are not in line with the developments going on in the market at the moment.
To avoid a further decrease of fruit consumption, authorities might be needed to
accompany people in this process.
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Chapter 7
Harnessing Expert Opinion: Trends
and Challenges on the Balkan Organic
Market, Based on a Delphi Approach
Natasa Renko, Ružica Butigan, Sanda Renko, Ante Vuletić,

Burkhard Schaer, and Martine Zaouche-Laniau
Abstract The market for organic products in Western Balkan countries has only
recently started to develop. Today, it is still a small niche market. This chapter pres-
ents an analysis of the organic food market in the mentioned countries based on the
knowledge and opinions of experts. The main objectives of this study were to iden-
tify and aggregate the opinions of experts regarding the current state of the Western
Balkans organic food market and to forecast the future trends and challenges as well
as to suggest improvements for this market.
Data were gathered using the Delphi method. This approach allows a group of
experts to deal with a complex problem. Basically, the Delphi method is a series of
N. Renko, Ph.D. (*)

Department of Marketing, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb,
Trg J. F. Kennedyja 6, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
R. Butigan, M.B.A. • A. Vuletić, M.A.
Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb,
S. Renko, Ph.D.
Department of Trade, Faculty of Economics andj Business, University of Zagreb,
B. Schaer, Ph.D.
ECOZEPT, Oberer Graben 22, 85354 Freising, Germany
M. Zaouche-Laniau

90 N. Renko et al.
structured questionnaires, commonly referred to as rounds. Answers of one round

are used as feedbacks in subsequent rounds. The approach taken in this study is
described in detail with a special emphasis on the selection of experts and items for
the questionnaires.
The three Delphi rounds showed that the organic market in the Western
Balkan countries is expected to increase in the future and that education and
information of consumers hereby are key success factors. While most experts
agreed on these main findings, their opinions varied on other issues raised in the
questionnaires.
Keywords Organic food sector • Western Balkan countries • Delphi method

• Expert panel • Consumers’ motivation
7.1 Introduction
During the last decade, from the year 2000 onwards, the organic movement around
the world experienced new dynamics (Žakovska-Biemans 2011). The global market
for organic products has increased by 235% since 1999, with Europe and North
America holding the leading position in that growth. Countries with the largest mar-
ket of organic products are the USA, Germany, the United Kingdom and France
(Sahota 2010). The mentioned trend has been spread to different extents in Western
Balkan countries (WBC). This chapter presents an analysis of the organic food mar-
ket in the mentioned countries based on expert opinion gathered according to the
Delphi approach.
Delphi has been proven to be a useful method for eliciting expert opinions
within the food domain (Soon et al. 2012; Wentholt et al. 2009, 2010). The method
allows a group of individuals, as a whole, to deal with a complex problem (Linstone
and Turoff 2002). It could also be used to seek out information which may gener-
ate a consensus from the respondent group or to explore underlying assumptions
or information leading to different judgements (Hsu and Sandford 2007; Linstone
and Turoff 2002). The Delphi technique is essentially a series of structured ques-
tionnaires, commonly referred to as rounds (Henson 1997), where answers are
used as feedback in subsequent sessions or rounds. By providing feedbacks,
Delphi creates interactivity and a dialogue without the pressure of conforming to
the group’s decisions or to influential respondents (i.e. the group’s position being
overly swayed by dogmatic or high-powered individuals). Nonprobability sam-
pling (i.e. purposive sampling or criterion sampling) is generally accepted as
appropriate in Delphi studies as the opinion of experts is sought (Powell 2003).
From a practical perspective, Delphi reduces costs and allows access to many
individuals across diverse locations and a wide distribution of panellists (Soon
et al. 2012; Wentholt et al. 2010). The aim of applying the Delphi technique in this
study was twofold. The first aim was to identify and aggregate the opinions of
7 Harnessing Expert Opinion: Trends and Challenges… 91
experts regarding the current state of the organic food market in Western Balkan
countries. Second, the experts also serve to forecast the future trends and chal-
lenges as well as to suggest improvements.
7.2 Organic Food Sector in WBC
In the last decade, the interest in organic agriculture has grown both within the
scientific community and among the general public. Organic agriculture is an agri-
cultural production system that tries to fully utilise farming potential to satisfy all
the social and economic needs while preserving the natural ecosystem and ensuring
environmental protection (Colom-Gorgues 2009). The most important characteris-
tics of organic products are the control system of organic farming and certification
and the labelling of the products. Literature review shows that an increased con-
sumer awareness of food safety issues and environmental concerns have contributed
to the growth in organic farming over the last decades and years (Colom-Gorgues
2009). According to the latest data (Cerjak et al. 2010), consumers in certain WBC
consider health effects of organic food and care for the environment among the most
important motives for buying organic food products. Moreover, the organic produc-
tion is related to sustainable rural development. Sustainable development must
encompass food production alongside the conservation of limited resources and
protection of the natural environment so that the needs of people living today can be
met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
(Colom-Gorgues 2009).
The production of organic products in the WBC has started to develop recently.
The market for organic products is still a small niche market. The degree of market
penetration of organic products is still limited and at a very low level but with expec-
tations of growth. Table 7.1 presents the main differences between the developed
European countries and the WBC.
The main difference between the selected countries lies in purchasing power.
Average gross domestic product (GDP) per capita (purchasing power parity, PPP)
of WBC is below US $15,000, except for Slovenia and Croatia. This directly affects
the consumption of organic food. While in developed European countries, for
example, Denmark, consumers are spending more than Euro (€)140 annually on
organic food, the average amount spent in the WBC is around €6 with Slovenia
being the leader. Significant differences can be observed in organic production as
well. While the share of organic land in developed European countries exceeds 3%
(Denmark 5.4%), the WBC average is around 1% with Slovenia being an excep-
tion. Its share of 5.9% corresponds with European trends in organic production
(Willer and Kilcher 2011).
Bearing in mind all differences, the objectives of this study are twofold—to better
understand (a) the current situation and (b) the future and potential evolution of
organic in WBC through an experts’ survey.
92 N. Renko et al.
Table 7.1 Main differences in the organic sector between developed EU countries and WBC
Statistical indicators Developed European countries WBC
GDP per capita-PPP 30,388 14,000
(average in USD)
Share of organic land 3% From <1 to 6% (Slovenia)
Around 1% in averagea
Consumption (annual amount From 15 to 150 From 1,2 (Bosnia) to 20
spent on organic food Around 80 in averagea (Slovenia)b
per capita in USD)
Sources:
a
Specialised organic retail report Europe 2008. ORA, Ecozept, Biovista (projections 2010) et
Agence Bio (2011)
b
Schaer (2012)
7.3 Method
7.3.1 Delphi-Based Approach
7.3.1.1 Origin and Purpose
We used a forecasting methodology in order to achieve our goals. For our purposes,
we selected the Delphi method that is based on a series of written questionnaires
with feedback and re-voting. The method structures and facilitates group communi-
cation that focuses on a complex problem with the purpose of achieving group
consensus about the future direction over a series of iterations. The sample used in
the Delphi method is based on a panel of carefully selected experts that represent a
wide spectrum of opinions on the topic being examined. The statements are usually
anonymous (Loo 2002).
Since its development by the Rand Corporation to improve (military) technology
forecasting in the 1960s, Delphi studies have been applied extensively. The approach
involves successive questionnaires to an expert panel, using feedbacks to refine an
informed perspective on complex or uncertain issues. Epistemologically, Delphi
studies are not merely deductive but also disclosive (Jones 1989) and allow frag-
mentary perspectives to coalesce into a larger collective understanding. The best
definition of the approach is found in the seminal work of Linstone and Turoff
(1975, p. 3):
Delphi may be characterised as a method for structuring a group communication process in
such a way that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to
deal with a complex problem.
A review of this methodology and critiques on Delphi studies are provided by

Mullen (2000). A small number of studies have been carried out to forecast food
market development, but as Critcher and Gladstone (1998) note, its use in applied
social science is not widespread. The objective of most Delphi applications is the
reliable and creative exploration of ideas or the production of suitable information

for decision making. The Delphi method is based on a structured process for col-
lecting and distilling knowledge from a group of experts by means of a series of
questionnaires interspersed with controlled opinion feedback (Adler and Ziglio
1996). It is an exercise in group communication among a panel of geographically
dispersed experts. The technique allows experts to deal systematically with a com-
plex problem or task. The essence of the technique is fairly straightforward: it com-
prises a series of questionnaires sent either by mail or via computerised systems to
a preselected group of experts. It can be applied in other ways as well: by telephone,
by face-to-face interviews or by mixtures of different survey methods. The number
of rounds and the size of the group can vary. The main intention of the Delphi
method is to overcome the disadvantages of conventional committee action.
According to Fowles (1978), anonymity, controlled feedback and statistical response
characterise Delphi studies. A statistical response is not always necessary, qualita-
tive results are possible as well. The group interaction in Delphi is anonymous in the
sense that the originator of comments, forecasts and the like is not identified.
In the original Delphi process, the key elements were (1) structuring of informa-
tion flow, (2) feedback to the participants and (3) anonymity for the participants.
These characteristics may obviously offer distinct advantages over the conventional
face-to-face conference as a communication tool. The interactions among panel
members are controlled by a panel director or monitor who filters out material not
related to the purpose of the group (Martino 1983). The common problems of group
dynamics are thus completely bypassed.
The method is also criticised, for instance, that Delphi studies are unscientific
(Sackman 1975) or that accuracy is not given (Armstrong 1978). Furthermore, it
is useful for answering one, specific single-dimension question. There is less
support for its use to determine complex forecasts concerning multiple factors.
Such complex model building is more appropriate for quantitative models with
Delphi results serving as inputs (Gatewood and Gatewood 1983). This point is
supported by Gordon and Hayward (1968) who claim that the Delphi method,
based on the collation of expert judgement, suffers from the possibility that reactions
between forecasted items may not be fully considered. The need for integrating
the cross impact matrix method of forecasting into the Delphi method is pointed
out by many researchers (Gordon and Hayward 1968; Gatewood and Gatewood
1983; Adler and Ziglio 1996). An improvement in forecasting reliability over the
Delphi method was thought to be attainable by taking into consideration the pos-
sibility that the occurrence of one event may cause an increase or decrease in the
probability of occurrence of other events included in the survey (Helmer 1977).
Therefore, cross impact analysis has been developed as an extension of Delphi
techniques.
We adapted the Delphi method to our specific case. There are three participant
roles: the design group that creates the questionnaires for the expert group; the
expert group that answers the questionnaires; and the analysis group that makes the
consensus of the expert group (Rodriguez-Diaz 2000). The Delphi method procedure
envisages conducting more than two rounds of written tests about selected items in
94 N. Renko et al.
the organic food industry (Rodriguez-Diaz 2000). Having done so, we generated
and rated options and projections by our expert group that was composed of 6–10
people per country. We then retained consensus results in confidence.
7.3.1.2 Sampling and Selection of Experts
Sampling and selection was done in accordance with the recommendations and
experience found in the literature (e.g. Soon et al. 2012). Expert panels were invited
to take part in the Delphi study for identifying and selecting the most relevant prob-
lems and challenges in the organic food sector in WBC. Here, the panellists were
not selected randomly, so representativeness is not assured. The selection of experts
for the Delphi study was made through the following:
– Personal contacts of the authors and the research supervisory committee
– Participants of international organic food conferences
– Experts co-nominated by other experts (Scapolo and Miles 2006)
7.3.2 Data Collection and Processing
A total of 45 experts from the organic food sector were contacted and invited to par-
ticipate in the Delphi survey. Experts were defined according to two criteria: (1) cur-
rently teaching a university-level food science, agriculture or aquaculture programme
or working in the agriculture or organic sector, and (2) experienced in the organic food
sector. The invitation contained a cover letter with a short description of the study and
the questionnaire. Even though it is more advantageous to conduct a face-to-face
interview in the first round to increase the response rates, it could not be done for all
countries in this study due to the limited financial resources and time. Three rounds of
questions and answers were deemed to be optimal (compare Soon et al. 2012).
Table 7.2 shows the number of participants who took part in the three rounds of
the Delphi study and the respective gender balance. The response rates were high as
Table 7.2 Sample characteristics of Delphi rounds I, II and III

No. of experts Gender
Country Round I Round II Round III F M
Bosnia and Herzegovina 6 6 6 3 3
Croatia 8 8 8 6 2
Macedonia 4 3 3 2 1
Montenegro 3 5 5 2 3
Serbia 8 8 8 5 3
Slovenia 10 14 14 6 8
Total 39 44 44 24 20
it is typical for Delphi studies (Soon et al. 2012; Grundy and Ghazi 2009; Stärk
et al. 2002; Wentholt et al. 2010).
7.3.3 Round 1
The first round of the Delphi study consisted of a highly structured open question-
naire based upon extensive review of the literature (Hsu and Sandford 2007). In a
classical Delphi, round I begins with an open-ended set of questions that allow panellists
to generate ideas (Soon et al. 2012). There is a potential for bias due to the limited
available responses (Keeney et al. 2001), but participants were given the option to
list additional problems and challenges of the organic food sector in WBC. Round
I’s questions were divided into six main sections: (1) influences in the organic food
market in the last 10 years, (2) the current state of the organic market, (3) expecta-
tion for the next 10 years, (4) motives in consumer behaviour, (5) impact of organic
food initiatives and (6) organic food distribution channels.
The survey for the first round started at the end of April 2010 and was finished by
the beginning of May 2010. Afterwards, the report was prepared and sent to the same
group of experts in order to get first feedbacks. Once completed, experts were required
to return the questionnaire to the author for statistical aggregation and review.
7.3.4 Round II
The feedback from round I was aggregated and the central tendency and dispersion
of scores were indicated to the participants in the subsequent round (Soon et al.
2012). It was also indicated to participants where their scores stood in relation to the
overall picture. This enabled them to revise previous scores. In round II, experts were
required to review the feedbacks of round I and revise their scores if necessary.
At this stage a second questionnaire was applied. It consisted of 229 questions and
was split into 6 different parts of common thematic contents titled as: (1) Government
and Policy Impact, (2) Production, (3) Market, (4) Trends, (5) Supply Chain and
(6) Consumer Behaviour. All the answers from the first round were compiled to
identify core topics for the second round. The survey for the second round started
at the end of February 2011 and was finished by the beginning of March 2011.
7.3.5 Round III
The feedback and revised scoring from round II was aggregated and reviewed. In
round III, the experts were required to answer an additional set of questions from
the second round that had met a low level of consensus. Round III questions were
sent to the experts who had responded in round II.
96 N. Renko et al.
There is a need to emphasise that the basic criterion for drawing conclusions in
this part of the research study was the level of consensus on offered items in the
questionnaires. The main task was to identify questions with a predominant support
(or reached a level of consensus above 50%) from the experts. Experts were asked
to rank whether they agreed (1 = “strongly disagree”; 5 = “strongly agree”) with the
items and to suggest improvements. Hereby it was assumed that a minimal level of
consensus is 50% (McKenna 1994).
7.4 Results and Discussion
7.4.1 Results of the First Round
Based on the opinions of the experts, the organic market of WBC is still in the initial
phase of its development, although some countries have more advanced organic
markets than the others. However, in comparison to the developed European coun-
tries, there is a vast difference in production and consumption of organic products.
At the international level, the WBC organic market started to develop during the
1990s. In WBC, there were several companies exporting such products at that time.
However, back then, there was no systematic approach in most countries.
Expert 1
There was no insight into what was happening: where, by which principles, no ideas on how
to develop, promote and expand the business. So, we missed all those things because we
were isolated during the 1990s. But trends from developed countries influenced the Serbian
organic market to start developing 10 years ago. We started to get involved in the global
trends in 2000. The first Law on organic production came into force in 2000. However, the
federal law from that year was not functional; it made things too formal and slow. Initiatives
mostly come from the local non-governmental organizations and associations of
producers.
Expert 2
Almost 14 years ago, the largest pharmaceutical company in Macedonia initiated an organic
tea programme which is still running and even expanding today. That provoked smaller
entrepreneurs to invest in processing facilities and now these people are running a full scale
of activities in order to satisfy their own needs for quality, quantity and marketing. Thus, it
could be concluded that in the past the big ‘player’ was a single group leader, but now there
are several companies that successfully run the business by establishing cooperative rela-
tionships with the local population. Regardless of the level of achievement, the situation is
far from being satisfactory and yet more needs to be done in the area of promotion and
farmers’ education on market demands and needs.
According to first round results, there are good preconditions for organic produc-
tion in all the WBC due to the low intensity of agriculture in the past. There is a
limited variety of organic products offered in terms of diversity and quantity, and
producers have neither the awareness nor enough knowledge about how to produce
them. The biggest problem at the moment is the fact that the organic food market is
not sufficiently organised, and that the sector lacks support from the state. Experts
Table 7.3 Characteristics of Characteristics Consumer of organic food in the WBC

the organic consumer in the
WBC Age 25–40 years of age
Gender Mainly female
Level of education Higher level of formal education
Revenues Higher revenues (“well off”)
state that there is a lack of efficient distribution channels in WBC. In order to develop
a distribution channel of organic food, it is necessary to intensify the contacts
between farmers and consumers through supermarkets and exporters of agricultural
products. Consumers’ motives for buying organic food are health, trend, prestige
and environmental awareness. Organic consumption in WBC is becoming a part of
today’s lifestyle which corresponds to global trends. In addition, due to higher prices
of organic food, which is often 30% more expensive than conventional food, a lot of
consumers consider organic consumption to be a sign of prestige. However, with a
decrease in price supplements for organic food that is expected in the future, con-
sumption of organic food will become an even stronger part of a new lifestyle.
According to first round results, the main consumer group in WBC consists of
people, mainly female, with higher revenues, higher education and of 25–40 years
of age (Table 7.3). Over the next 10 years, the importance of the organic market will
grow. Export of the raw organic material, import of processed organic food, the
growth in number of organic farms and an increase in consumption will influence
the development of the organic market in all the countries. There is a need for better
promoting organic food and for informing the consumers about the organic produc-
tion. Experts state tourism, agro ecotourism and public procurement (organic food
in schools, hospitals, etc.) as an opportunity for further market development.
7.4.2 Results of the Second Round
The second Delphi round brought a deeper insight into the organic food market
through six previously mentioned thematic sections. The results of the second round
are summarised in Table 7.4 according to thematic sectors for the present as well as
for the future situation with comments regarding specific country issues.
Experts stated that the National Development Strategy for organic farming is
very important for the market development and will be even more important in the
future. State and local governments can significantly improve the market condi-
tions through public procurement. Governments should put special emphasis on
the control system and certification. Besides motivation of the producers, teaching
and training for organic farming is also important for the development of the
organic sector. Practically none of the investigated countries considers meat as a
market for organic products. A better situation than for meat has been identified for
milk, fruits, vegetables and baby food with significant differences among coun-
tries. In the future, strong positive changes are expected. There is no market for
98
Table 7.4 Summary of the results of the second Delphi round

Thematic sections Today’s situation Future predictions Specific country issues
Government and Importance of National Development Increase in importance of National Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia
policy impact Strategy and public procurement Development Strategy and public experience lack of political support and
procurement adequate incentives. Future predictions
are pessimistic
Production Motivation of producers important for Motivation of producers to convert into The requirement of horizontal cooperation
further development. Financial organic will remain a key factor for between organic farmers and pooling of
consolidation of organic farms is future growth of the organic sector. organic production has only been
necessary Financial consolidation remains a mentioned in Macedonia
necessity
Market Market is increasing. Meat is not Market will continue to increase. Positive Organic market of Bosnia and Herzegovina
considered as a market for organic changes are expected for meat and is not increasing. Opinion that offer and
products. Clear labelling is other products. Clear labelling is demand of the organic market are well
necessary for further enhancement crucial for further development. balanced found approval only in Croatia
of the market. Distributors have Bargaining power of distributors over
higher bargaining power than producers will diminish
producers
Trends Marketing of organic products is Professional marketing for organic In Macedonia it is considered that organic
inadequate. Organic market products is getting more important. sector does not support economy in rural
development depends on general Development of the organic sector will areas. Future expectations are more
level of wealth. Organic sector still depend on general level of wealth. optimistic
brings new possibilities for income Ecotourism will be even more
and labour. Ecotourism is important significant for further development
N. Renko et al.
for development
Supply chain Quality management and traceability Increase in importance of quality Supermarkets as distribution channels are
are important for a better organisa- management and traceability. Increase considered unimportant only in
tion of the organic supply chain. and diversity of distribution channels is Macedonia. Quality management is not
Distribution channels are scarce and expected important in Montenegro for a better
generally underdeveloped organisation of the supply chain. In both
cases future predictions are contradictory
Consumer Main characteristic of organic consumer In the future, organic consumers will no Local agriculture, traditional agriculture,
behaviour is high level of formal education. longer be characterised by higher small-scale agriculture and traditional
Health is the most important factor levels of formal education. Health will processing do not present motivation for
for buying organic food. Key remain the most important factor with buying organic food in Croatia and
promotional activities are education increase in importance of environmen- Macedonia. It is expected that this
and information of consumers tal consciousness and animal welfare. motivations increase significantly in the
Communication towards consumers future
will be even more important
7 Harnessing Expert Opinion: Trends and Challenges…
99
100 N. Renko et al.
organic products in urban touristic towns, rural touristic areas, rural remote areas
and rural close to urban centres. Future developments regarding these areas are
supposed to lead to stronger markets. When considering trends, vertical coopera-
tion and definition of strategy are important for the development of the organic
sector. This is expected to intensify in the future. Organic farming is not a strong
factor of success for the agricultural sector in all WBC. In the future, its impor-
tance for success is expected to be slightly higher. Practically none of the investi-
gated countries agrees that distribution channels for organic products are numerous
and diversified. Expectations for the future go in a strongly opposite direction. The
mentioned issue will be even more important in the future. Organic consumption
will become a part of a future lifestyle.
The third Delphi round was based on data derived from the second round, after
repeating certain questions. We chose ten questions from the second round that
met a low level of consensus. The third round questionnaire was based on the
decision of the methodological group and of the leader of this project with the
following aims:
(a) To reiterate important questions to get more clear answers from the experts.
(b) To test some of the questions from the second round in order to see if a higher
level of consensus is possible.
(c) To get a final feedback from the WBC experts regarding future expectations. It
is to be noted that some questions were reversed because of a high level of com-
mon disagreement of experts on that questions in the second round.
Table 7.5 contains a summary of key findings in the third Delphi round.
The influence of the EU Agricultural Policy will push the organic farming in WBC.
The most important market variables are adequate marketing activities and a clear
labelling of organic products. Concerning certain categories of organic products, the
experts rank them as follows: fruits, vegetables and imported organic products, which
will dominate the markets in the future. The lowest support is visible for meat. The
importance of channels of distribution reached the highest level of consensus in all the
examined countries because of their role in the development of the organic sector.
Experts state the importance of a better organisation of the supply chain by imple-
menting transparency, traceability and quality management. Health concerns are
considered to be the most important motives for buying organic food. Experts emphasise
the importance of promotional activities in education and information of consumers.
With expectations of lower prices of organic foods and increased health awareness of
consumers, organic consumption will become a part of the future lifestyle.
7.5 Conclusions
Organic production is now fully regulated and harmonised with the EU regulation
in the WBC. These regulations will generate a better recognition of the organic food
products, and this will facilitate exchanges between countries. The control of the
Table 7.5 Summary of results of the third Delphi round

Thematic sections Future perspective Specific country issues
Government and Influence of EU Agricultural Experts in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
policy impact Policy will push the organic Croatia and Montenegro do not
farming in WBC expect that state incentives and
political support for organic
sector will be adequate in the
future, while in Macedonia,
Serbia and Slovenia, the opposite
is expected
Production Horizontal integration between Importance of horizontal integration
organic farmers is needed between organic farmers in the
in the future future is highest in Croatia and
Serbia
Market The market for organic In Montenegro it is expected that
products will be in urban imported organic products will
areas and somewhat less dominate the organic market to a
in tourist areas certain degree in the future
Trends Organic farming is a success Experts in Serbia do not consider
factor for agricultural sector organic farming as a success
in the future factor for agricultural sector in
the future
Supply chain Better organisation of the Discounters are not an important
supply chain is necessary distribution channel of organic
food in most countries except
Montenegro and Serbia
Consumer Organic consumption will Consumers in Macedonia and
behaviour become a part of a lifestyle. Croatia will not be confused by
Consumers will be different indications for food.
somewhat confused by Slovenian experts expect the
different indications most in comparison to others that
for food (organic, untreated, prices of organic products will be
traditional, etc.) too high, while none of the
Macedonian experts think that
certification system, on which governments in all countries should put special

emphasis, is a key success factor recognised by all experts.
The organic sector is expected to grow in the Balkan countries. However, even in
Slovenia and Croatia, which are the most advanced countries in the area, the devel-
opment is still slow and has to face a lot of challenges, both from the supply and
demand side.
7.5.1 Government and Policy Impact
With a high level of consensus, experts consider that financial consolidation of

organic farms will be necessary to enhance organic farming. As organic farms are
becoming larger and larger in the Western European countries, we can suggest that
102 N. Renko et al.
a lot of investments into small organic farms of the Balkan countries will be necessary
to be more competitive. However, experts’ opinions vary on the important issue
regarding subsidies, with strong differences between countries. More than two
thirds of the respondents think that incentives will not be adequate in the future in
Bosnia or Montenegro, while about half of the respondents in Croatia, Slovenia or
Serbia think the same.
The stability and continuity of the national policy in the frame of a global strat-
egy is very important for farmers as it was strongly emphasised by all the experts: a
long-term engagement from governments is needed.
7.5.2 Production
It seems, according to the experts’ responses, that it would be easier to produce

organically in Bosnia, Macedonia and Serbia than in Slovenia or Croatia (as the
former have had difficulties in the last decades to get chemical inputs in some
areas the conversion would be easier). The main question is how to motivate farm-
ers to convert. According to the experts, higher subsidies, higher product prices
and the current market situation are the main motivations for farmers to convert
into organic farming. To convert “industrial agriculture” into organic farming is a
long-term investment and concerns the whole life of the farmer. Probably, higher
skills than in conventional agriculture are needed to reach sufficient crop yields
and to have profitable farms. This would have an impact on organic food price
reduction, emphasised as an important restriction for the current consumption of
organic food in WBC.
It is also important to mention the last decades’ strong modernisation of agri-
culture in WBC. Farmers have been pushed to increase their yields and to turn to
a modern and intensive agriculture. While huge changes in productivity are
required, switching back to organic farming is difficult for farmers. Additionally,
it might be important for farmers to change their attitudes and to value quality
over quantity. The stakeholders have to take into account this specific psycho-
logical barrier. This will help farmers to quickly adapt to the specificities of the
organic market.
Farmers’ education in organic farming is crucial, and this will be probably easier
to reach with younger and dynamic farmers than with older ones. They should be
supported by specialised agronomists. Moreover, horizontal integration among
organic farmers will be needed in the future. In addition, it is possible to suggest that
cooperation with Western European producers, connecting them at a horizontal
level with WBC farmers, could be very attractive and a good incentive to help the
latter to convert their production.
Finally, the majority of experts consider that the interest of producers to convert
into organic production in WBC will increase and that organic farming will expand,
despite of the economic crisis (except in Bosnia and Herzegovina). The trend will
finally be the same as in Western European countries.
7.5.3 Markets and Distribution Channels
The marketing channels have to be developed in the domestic market. Export

opportunities exist and are considered as a key development factor particularly in
Croatia and Serbia. Data collected during the study show that exports today are
rather constituted by raw products than by processed food.
It remains important to develop the organic production and to respond to the
demand in the domestic market. A majority of experts foresee that imported prod-
ucts will dominate the market (mainly in Slovenia and Croatia). It is also important
to underline that for all experts, the main organic markets will be in urban and tour-
istic areas.
A good marketing strategy is a pressing need because there is a risk for farmers
to be forced to sell at “conventional” prices. As emphasised by all the experts, struc-
turing of the supply chain and cooperation within marketing channels are key suc-
cess factors at all stages: cooperation between producers and consumers as well as
between producers and processors.
Having national products on supermarket shelves will be the result of a global
project between all the stakeholders. The challenges will be the following:
(a) The quantities: producers have to be organised in order to offer the required
quantities.
(b) The quality: producers have to improve their overall techniques to achieve a
high level of quality for their products including value-added production (pro-
duction technology, packaging, etc.).
(c) The consistency of the organic production: producers have to constantly supply
markets with the requested quantity and quality.
Finally, to push supply and pull demand will be the main strategies needed in the
whole area of WBC. It is important to help producers to convert their farms into
organic ones and to be present in the different marketing channels. It is interesting
to mention that some leader companies (e.g. in Croatia) convince farmers to convert
to organic production and at the same time organise sales on the market. This sup-
poses, as emphasised by all experts with a high level of consensus, that vertical
cooperation, transparency, traceability and quality management are improved. All
these measures contribute to both a better organisation of the supply chain and to
guaranties regarding organic production.
In parallel, producers and all stakeholders of the sector have to communicate and
to promote organic food together. Interestingly, all kinds of distribution channels
(and not only supermarkets or specialised stores) are expected to distribute organic
food in the Balkans. Direct selling on farms and green markets or modern ways of
selling—such as via Internet or box schemes (a system of direct selling where cli-
ents subscribe to a regular delivery of farm products)—are also widely considered
to be used in the future. HoReCa (Hotel, Restaurant and Catering) is not forgotten,
in connection with the expected sales in touristic areas. For each channel, producers
should implement a specific communication strategy, in order to get a higher added
104 N. Renko et al.
value of their production. However, experts are generally sceptic concerning the
future level of promotion in the Balkans: the majority thinks that promotion will
remain at a low level.
7.5.4 Consumer Demand
In the WBC, consumer awareness of healthier lifestyles and of a higher quality of

food intake is expected to grow. Health has been described as the main motivation
to buy organic food by all experts in all WBC. This finding is fully in line with
motivation studies in Western European countries (Magnusson et al. 2003).
Traditional processing as well as local and traditional agriculture are also consid-
ered as important motivations for buying organic food. This suggests that consum-
ers in the Balkans are “natural products oriented”. They are convinced that past
agricultural practices used less chemical inputs. Organic consumption appears to
meet both traditional values still anchored in the culture of that region and Western
influences such as environmental protection and health concerns.
The majority of respondents agreed with the statement describing organic food
consumers as urban, female and with a high level of education. Interestingly, elderly
people are not considered to be the target group for consuming organic food. Also,
in some countries, to be well off is not considered as a mandatory condition for
consuming organic food. Only a minority of experts consider that organic prices
will be too high in the future. Organic consumption could become a valuable choice
in all social classes as it is more and more the case in Western European countries.
From the experts’ point of view, education and information of consumers are key
success factors. Therefore, it seems very important that organisations such as con-
sumer organisations or public health institutes provide nutritional messages and
keep explaining to consumers (starting by educated ones) what is good for their
health and how they can protect the environment of their country.
7.5.5 Trends
The most important influences that have shaped the development of the organic
market in the WBC are the following:
(a) Implementation of national and EU policies and regulations concerning organic
production and processing.
(b) Government initiatives for the certification of organic food and incentives for
producing organically have been crucial for the further development of the
sector.
(c) Organic products were recognised by consumers as healthier than conventional
food, and consumers assume that the organic way of production is preserving
the environment.
Currently, the WBC’s organic sector meets with important restrictions. However, all
experts forecast that organic farming will spread in all WBCs despite difficulties.
The organic farming is expected to support the economy in rural areas, preserving
jobs and income. Organic production could also be connected with different types
of tourism—agro-, eco- and health tourism—which is also a developing sector in
the whole region.
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Chapter 8
Utilising Conjoint Analysis: Understanding
Consumer Preferences for Traditional Food
Corinne Amblard, Elise Prugnard, Georges Giraud, and Cristina Mora
Abstract The Western Balkan countries have a strong heritage of culinary tradition.
In the Focus Balkans project, the conjoint analysis method has been used in order to
measure the consumers’ trade-offs between preferred levels of several attributes of
traditional food products. By applying a conjoint analysis, researchers could gain a
better understanding of the real value consumers attach to certain attributes when
making purchasing decisions. The goals of the study described in this chapter there-
fore were to:
(a) Measure the attitudes towards traditional food products expressed by Balkan
consumers.
(b) Assess the purchasing behaviour of traditional food product consumers.
(c) Identify specific segments of consumers sensitive to traditional food products.
In the scope of the study implementation, focus group discussions were held in
the exploratory stage and the core activity – a conjoint analysis – was followed by
an analysis of different clusters of consumers. Thereby, four specific segments of
consumers who represent a different sensitivity to traditional food were identified.
The information obtained can be useful for product design, strategic advertising,
market segmentation and further market research questions.
C. Amblard, M.Sc. (*) • E. Prugnard, M.Sc.

Department of Food Quality and Economy, UR CALITYSS, Clermont Université,
VetAgro Sup, BP 10448, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
G. Giraud, M.D., Ph.D.
Department of Social Sciences and Humanities, UMR CESAER INRA-AgroSup Dijon,
26 Bd Dr Petitjean, BP 87999, 21079 DIJON cedex, France
C. Mora, Ph.D.
Department of Food Science, University of Parma,
Via Kennedy 6, 43039 Parma, Italy

108 C. Amblard et al.
Keywords Consumer preferences • Post hoc segmentation • Ranking-based

conjoint analysis • Traditional food • Western Balkan consumers
8.1 Introduction
In the Focus Balkans project, the conjoint analysis methodology has been used in
order to measure the consumers’ trade-offs between preferred levels of several
attributes of traditional food products. This permitted to provide a detailed under-
standing of the importance of traditional food according to consumers in Western
Balkan countries (WBC). According to Guerrero et al. (2009, p. 348), European
consumers perceived a traditional food product as ‘a product frequently consumed
or associated with specific celebrations and/or seasons, normally transmitted
from one generation to another, made accurately in a specific way according to
the gastronomic heritage, with little or no processing/manipulation, distinguished
and known because of its sensory properties and associated with a certain local
area, region or country’. As underlined by the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) (Bernardoni et al. 2008), the preservation of traditional products could be
a response to the modernisation process in transition economies. Despite the hete-
rogeneity in terms of geography, culture, food and history, WBC might show
some congruency with respect to preferences towards traditional food. By using
conjoint analysis, researchers could gain a better understanding of the real value
consumers attach to certain attributes when making purchasing decisions in a
retail situation. This method is indeed often called upon to study the factors that
influence consumers’ purchasing decisions. These factors may be product attri-
butes such as price, colour, ingredients, guarantee, environmental impact, point
of sale, geographical origin and others more. Consumers typically do not have
the option of buying the product that is best in every attribute, particularly when
one of those attributes is price. Consumers are then forced to make trade-offs as
they decide which products to purchase. This method allows consumer prefer-
ences for a product or service to be broken down into trade-offs among its indi-
vidual attributes, without separating those attributes from the context in which
overall consumer judgements are made.
8.2 Method
8.2.1 Origin and Purpose
Conjoint analysis has been used in research for many years (Green and Srinivasan
1978). The concept of conjoint analysis is described by Hair et al. (1998, p. 392)
as follows: ‘Conjoint analysis is a multivariate technique used specifically to
8 Utilising Conjoint Analysis: Understanding Consumer Preferences… 109
understand how respondents develop preferences for products or services. It is

based on the simple premise that consumers evaluate the value of a product or
service by combining the separate amounts of value provided by each attribute’.
Conjoint analysis aims at deciphering ‘the composition rules used by decision
makers to combine information into overall judgments’ (see p. 3 in Raghavarao
et al. 2011). Sudman and Blair (1998) warn that it is not a data analysis proce-
dure. It must be regarded as a type of ‘thought experiment’ designed to show how
various elements of products or services (price, brand, style) predict customer
preferences for a product or service. Kotler (2000, p. 339) defines conjoint analy-
sis as ‘…a method for deriving the utility values that consumers attach to varying
levels of a product’s attributes’. Churchill and Iacobucci (2002, p. 748) refer to
conjoint analysis as ‘…conjoint measurement, which relies on the ability of
respondents to make judgments about stimuli’.
This method is a popular marketing research technique. It is used in designing
new products, changing or repositioning existing products, evaluating the weight of
labels or brands, evaluating the effects of price on purchase intent and simulating
market share. It is used for optimising product configurations, studying price elas-
ticity of demand, simulating market response to new or modified offerings and diag-
nosing competitive strengths and weaknesses.
The value of conjoint analysis lies in the fact that it estimates how much each of
these attributes is valued, and as Churchill and Iacobucci (2002, p. 748) state, ‘…the
word conjoint (“CONsider JOINTly”) has to do with the notion that the relative
values of things considered jointly can be measured when they might not be mea-
surable if taken one at a time’.
8.2.2 Data Collection and Processing
A ranking-based conjoint analysis has been carried out in 2010/2011 in the six
WBC. In the scope of the study implementation, different activities have been
planned which are the following:
• Focus group discussion
This stage could be considered as an exploratory stage in order to provide the
following conjoint analysis protocol.
• Conjoint analysis
This activity was the core activity. Conjoint analysis measured consumers’ trade-off
between attributes of traditional food. This provided a detailed understanding of
the importance of traditional food according to consumers in WBC.
• Analysis with a special focus on clusters
Based on the results of the conjoint analysis, a classification method has been used
in order to identify specific segments of consumers sensitive to traditional food.
The classification method applied to the data (individual utilities for each level) is
an Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) using Ward algorithm.
The sample was constituted of 1,200 respondents (200 respondents in each

country to allow segmentation of the sample). In each country, the sample was split
in two: 100 respondents in a rural area and 100 respondents in an urban area were
interviewed. Interviewees were recruited via a filter question (‘Do you consume
fresh cow cheese?’) in order to select only fresh cow cheese consumers in the
study.
It was decided to put respondents in a purchase situation for cards ranking in
order to measure purchase preferences and not the perception of traditional food.
It was also agreed to work on a common product for the six WBC so that there were
enough consumers in the sample and so that results could be compared between all
countries. Concretely, during focus groups, different kinds of cheese were quoted as
traditional products in each country. The protocol has been validated after several
discussions with fresh cow cheese (Mladi Sir) as a common final choice. In order to
strengthen this choice, we asked in the additional questionnaire if it was really
perceived as traditional or not.
The choice of four independent attributes qualifying the fresh cow cheese was
accepted: geographical origin, mean of production, price and packaging. These four
attributes and their respective levels are described hereafter:
• The geographical origin
3 levels: localised in the region, localised in the country and no origin specified
• The mean of production
3 levels: on-farm production, small dairy production, industrial production
• The price (adapted to each country)
3 levels equally spaced: lowest price, medium price, highest price of the market
• The packaging
2 levels: sold loose (on desired weight) and prepacked (sealed in a plastic bag/
box)
Between 54 possible profiles (3 × 3 × 3 × 2), an orthogonal design of experiments
was obtained and generated 9 profiles. In order to assess the predictive quality of the
model, 2 holdouts were added to the orthogonal design. These ‘holdout’ cards were
presented to the respondent in the same way and at the same time as the other cards.
Their rank was recorded in the results but not used to calculate utilities. The charac-
teristics of the 11 profiles are described in Table 8.1.
To make the exercise more realistic, it was required to have a picture of fresh
cow cheese on each card, the same one in each country. Respondents were asked
to rank the 11 cards from the most preferred one to the least preferred. During
implementation, all respondents had at their disposal the same information pre-
sented in the same way to avoid any bias. After this ranking stage, respondents
were invited to answer an additional questionnaire. The aim of this questionnaire
was to provide explanations and complementary information on the results of the
conjoint analysis task.
Table 8.1 Description of the eleven profiles kept for the cards’ design
Card Geographical origin Packaging Price Production
1 A Localised in the country Sold loose High Industrial production
2 B Localised in the country Prepacked Medium Small dairy production
3 C No geographical origin specified Prepacked Low Industrial production
4 D Local Sold loose Low Small dairy production
5 E Localised in the country Sold loose Low On-farm production
6 F No geographical origin specified Sold loose Medium On-farm production
7 G Local Prepacked High On-farm production
8 H Local Sold loose Medium Industrial production
9 I No geographical origin specified Sold loose High Small dairy production
10a J No geographical origin specified Prepacked High On-farm production
11a K Local Sold loose Low Industrial production
Source: Authors (Output SPSS V19.0)
a
Holdouts
8.2.3 Needed Resources
Several interviewers were recruited and trained in each WBC. Concerning the
practical implementation of the survey, feedbacks from the WBC were quite posi-
tive with generally not much trouble encountered with recruitment of willing
respondents thanks to the budget allocated to reward the participation of consumers
by vouchers or gifts.
The data processing was done by means of SPSS 19.0 and SPAD V7.0.
8.2.4 Benefits of the Method
Conjoint analysis has several advantages. For example, the first concern in conduct-
ing a quantitative study about traditional food was that it would not be possible to
obtain concrete answers about traditional food. This difficulty comes from the fact
that there is not an official definition of traditional food. Of course traditional food
may be protected, for instance, food with geographical indication, but this definition
is too restrictive. According to consumers, the definition of traditional food is wider,
from natural products grown in the garden to cooked meals that have been cooked
in the households for many decades. It may also be a typical meal of the region sold
at a restaurant or even a local prepacked cheese sold in supermarkets. Using con-
joint analysis permits therefore to obtain more realistic results.
Another advantage of conjoint analysis is that consumers are placed in a purchase
context. It is easier for them to express their preferences in a more concrete situation
instead of answering a declarative questionnaire. So rather than asking successive
questions about one feature at a time, conjoint analysis measures trade-offs between
several features.
8.3 Context of the Study and Objectives
WBC have a strong heritage of culinary tradition; the consumption of traditional

food is strongly connected with their cultural habits. In some WBC, many prod-
ucts are already registered and protected in a legal frame. However, the field of
traditional food is certainly larger than the products registered under a legal
framework. Furthermore, it is interesting to have an overview of Western Balkan
consumers’ perception towards traditional food because WBC are very heteroge-
neous in terms of geography, culture, food and history. These different items may
influence the nature of traditional food in each country. In the scope of the proj-
ect Focus Balkans, the objective of this task was to better understand consumers’
attitudes, expectations and behaviour towards traditional food in six WBC. The
goals were to:
(d) Measure the attitudes towards traditional food products expressed by Balkan
consumers
(e) Assess the purchasing behaviour of WBC consumers for traditional food
products
(f) Identify specific segments of consumers sensitive to traditional food products
8.4 Results
8.4.1 Sample Description
The additional questionnaire administered at the end of the conjoint analysis task
permitted to gather socio-demographic data from the 1,200 respondents interviewed.
The sample is equally divided between the six countries. The sample of respondents
is described according to socio-demographic information in Table 8.2.
8.4.2 Perception of Fresh Cow Cheese
Regarding Table 8.3 about answers given to the question ‘In your opinion, is fresh
cow cheese a traditional product?’, it seems that fresh cow cheese has been a really
good choice as a relevant example of traditional food in all WBC studied. The main
reason for the minority of consumers who do not find fresh cow cheese traditional
is that fresh cow cheese can be found everywhere. It means that for these consumers,
traditional food is strongly linked to a locality and should not be exported or pro-
duced in other countries or maybe regions.
Table 8.2 Part1: sample description (%)
BiHa (%) Croatia (%) Maced. (%) Monte. (%) Serbia (%) Sloven. (%) Rural (%) Urban (%) Total (%)
Grew up in a rural area Yes 49.0 65.5 60.5 43.0 38.5 86.5 68.8 45.5 57.2
No 51.0 34.5 39.5 57.0 61.5 13.5 31.2 54.5 42.8
Gender Male 25.0 33.0 51.5 47.5 44.5 45.5 40.3 42.0 41.2
Female 75.0 67.0 48.5 52.0 55.5 54.5 59.7 57.8 58.8
Age cluster 25 and − 15.0 28.0 20.5 17.0 25.5 26.5 18.7 25.5 22.1
26–35 31.0 20.5 13.5 36.0 20.5 21.5 24.7 23.0 23.8
36–45 20.5 13.5 15.5 25.5 16.5 21.5 17.3 20.3 18.8
46–55 23.5 24.0 30.0 14.0 21.5 13.5 22.7 19.5 21.1
56 and + 10.0 14.0 20.5 7.5 16.0 17.0 16.7 11.7 14.2
Education level Unfinished elementary 0.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.6
school
Finished elementary 1.5 5.0 16.0 4.5 7.0 14.0 8.2 7.8 8.0
school
Finished secondary 64.5 62.0 58.5 53.5 60.0 54.5 56.2 61.5 58.8
school
Finished college 14.5 14.0 9.5 20.0 12.5 10.0 16.0 10.8 13.4
Finished faculty 19.5 18.0 15.5 21.0 19.5 21.0 18.8 19.3 19.1
Current occupation Unemployed (currently) 9.5 10.5 15.0 13.5 19.0 4.0 14.7 9.2 11.9
Student/trainee 4.5 22.0 17.0 2.0 22.0 20.5 10.3 19.0 14.7
Pensioner 6.5 10.5 17.0 4.0 13.0 15.0 10.8 11.2 11.0
Unskilled and skilled 44.0 8.0 8.0 0.5 5.5 2.0 12.2 10.5 11.3
worker
Farmer/fisherman 1.0 1.0 7.5 0.0 1.0 3.5 3.3 1.3 2.3
Storekeeper/trader/ 5.0 3.5 15.5 1.0 5.5 9.0 6.3 6.8 6.6
craftsman
(continued)
BiHa (%) Croatia (%) Maced. (%) Monte. (%) Serbia (%) Sloven. (%) Rural (%) Urban (%) Total (%)
Employee, intermediate 7.0 30.0 16.5 68.0 18.0 29.0 31.3 24.8 28.1
profession
Manager/executive 3.5 7.5 2.5 5.5 6.5 6.0 4.3 6.2 5.3
Other 19.0 7.0 1.0 5.5 9.5 11.0 6.7 11.0 8.8
Household net income No income 1.0 3.0 1.0 0.5 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.9
(HNI) in the last £ Minimum HNI 51.5 29.0 44.5 55.0 27.0 29.5 46.8 32.0 39.4
monthb > Min. HNI and £ 28.5 28.0 39.5 31.0 37.5 29.0 30.3 34.2 32.3
average HNI
> Average HNI 7.0 22.5 14.0 7.0 21.5 15.0 8.8 20.2 14.5
Not disclosed 12.0 17.5 1.0 6.5 10.0 24.5 12.0 11.8 11.9
Number of household 1 1.5 4.5 3.0 1.5 3.5 1.0 3.3 1.7 2.5
members 2 18.0 9.0 12.5 16.5 12.5 14.5 16.2 11.5 13.8
3, 4 54.0 57.0 55.5 53.0 66.5 44.5 53.0 57.2 55.1
5 and + 26.5 29.5 29.0 29.0 17.5 40.0 27.5 29.7 28.6
a
BiH Bosnia and Herzegovina
b
Adapted per country
Table 8.3 Proportion of respondents according to the categorisation of fresh cow cheese as a
traditional product or not
‘In your opinion, is fresh cow cheese a traditional product?’
BiH Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Slovenia Total
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Yes 94.5 82.0 86.0 92.5 78.0 66.5 83.3
No 2.0 2.5 8.5 2.0 6.0 17.0 6.3
Do not know 3.5 15.5 5.5 5.5 16.0 16.5 10.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
8.4.3 Purchasing Behaviour
• Frequency of purchase
A quarter of Western Balkan respondents purchase fresh cow cheese more than
once a week and nearly 50% purchase it one to four times a month. It is a tradi-
tional product with a regular consumption pattern in WBC.
• Place of purchase
The most quoted place of purchase for fresh cow cheese is the supermarket
followed by open markets, friends or family, farm and at other places. Restaurants
are not a place of purchase for this product. Rural respondents more often buy
fresh cow cheese from friends or family and less at markets and supermarkets
than average, and the tendency is reversed for urban consumers.
• Own production or friends/family production of fresh cow cheese
Less than a quarter of the respondents sometimes make their own fresh cow cheese.
About half of the consumers received home-made fresh cow cheese from friends
or family. There is a significant expected difference between rural and urban areas,
with more own production in rural areas (32.2% sometimes or frequently) and less
in urban areas (16.7%) and with donation of fresh cow cheese from friends or
family also more common in rural areas (60.0%) than in urban (42.7%).
• Type of packaging
The most quoted packaging for usual fresh cow cheese purchases is on desired
weight (sold loose). Second, it is bought already sealed in a plastic box and even-
tually already sealed in a plastic bag. Nevertheless, as a single response was
requested, summing the last two categories show that the prepacked product is
more often chosen than the one sold loose.
8.4.4 Consumption Behaviour
8.4.4.1 Consumption Frequency
As can be seen in Fig. 8.1, more than half of the sample consumes fresh cow cheese
more than once a week and more than 80% consume it once a month or more often.
Fig. 8.1 Distribution of respondents according to consumption frequency of fresh cow cheese
(Source: Authors)
The main barriers to its consumption quoted are in the first place high prices. This
is followed by the difficulty to find it and finally its high fat content or the preference
for other cheese.
8.4.5 Consumer Preferences
8.4.5.1 Cards Ranking
A first summary of data gathered during the conjoint analysis ranking task is
obtained by calculating frequencies for each card according to the rank considered.
Mean ranks permit to identify most preferred and least preferred cards. We can also
calculate cumulative frequencies for ranks 1st + 2nd and 10th + 11th to better
summarise information. It gives a first general but still interesting glimpse on data,
deciphering which card had been most/least preferred. These results can be seen in
Table 8.4. The cards to which they referred are presented in Fig. 8.2.
Referring to cumulative frequencies (rank 1st + 2nd and 10th + 11th), the most
preferred card is G. Its combination of levels is a local origin, an on-farm production,
a high price and a prepacked presentation. On the other hand, the card most often
ranked 10th or 11th is card C which presents a fresh cow cheese sold without
specified origin, produced industrially, sold at a low price but still prepacked.
The reasons standing behind preferences of cards are not clearly identified at this
stage as the impact and importance of each attribute is not calculated yet. As a matter
of fact, respondents had to make trade-offs as their ideal combination of levels was
not necessarily available among the cards displayed. Some attributes were therefore
considered as more essential than others. In the following paragraph, still at an
aggregated level, the importance value in decision-making of each attribute will be
calculated to determine the different degrees of influence, so as the utilities of levels
Table 8.4 First descriptive statistics about cards ranking

% of resp. % of resp. % of resp. % of resp.
Card letter Mean rank rank 1 rank 1 or 2 rank 11 rank 10 or 11
Card A 6.75 6.25 12.67 17.33 27.25
Card B 4.97 11.25 24.50 2.67 5.42
Card C 6.65 9.67 15.67 16.75 28.08
Card D 5.30 11.17 23.67 5.42 12.33
Card E 5.29 14.25 25.00 6.08 12.33
Card F 5.90 7.33 16.00 5.58 14.92
Card G 5.04 17.75 30.42 6.08 12.67
Card H 6.38 5.00 12.58 6.00 18.58
Card I 6.67 5.42 11.08 10.92 22.67
Card J 6.06 7.83 17.83 9.42 20.08
Card K 7.00 4.08 10.58 13.75 25.67
Fig. 8.2 Pictures of corresponding cards (Source: Authors)
to compare which are the most preferred or less preferred ones. A further segmenta-
tion will describe the different types of behaviours and characterise the consumers
from each cluster identified.
8.4.5.2 Attribute Importance
Table 8.5 displays the importance values for attributes and the utility value of each
level. Results were obtained thanks to SPSS conjoint procedure allowing to analyse
data gathered as sequences about card preferences.
Table 8.5 Importance of each attribute and utilities of their levels

Averaged
Factors Modalities importance (%) Utilities
Production On-farm 31.8 0.37
Small dairy 0.19
Industrial −0.55
Price Low 28.7 0.11
Medium 0.12
High −0.23
Origin Local 25.4 0.24
Country 0.19
No origin −0.43
Packaging Sold loose 14.1 −0.21
Prepacked 0.21
Utilities are only comparable when belonging to the same attribute. A positive
utility conveys that a level is more appreciated, whereas a negative utility con-
veys that it is less appreciated. For instance, some levels such as no origin and
industrial are the least preferred levels of their respective attributes (origin and
production).
Regarding the importance values, the level of production is the most important
purchase criterion, followed by the price and the geographical origin. Type of pack-
aging is by far the least relevant attribute for consumers.
The ideal combination (ideal card) for the average Balkan consumer would
be fresh cow cheese produced on-farm, sold at a medium price, with a local
specified origin and sold prepacked, whereas the least preferred combination
would be fresh cow cheese produced industrially, sold at a high price, without
any geographical origin specified and sold loose. Globally, there is a preference
for small production of fresh cow cheese with a specific localisation suggested
by a locality or the country. The consumers would not buy this product with a
high price and there is a slight preference for prepacked cheese instead of cheese
sold loose.
8.4.5.3 General Fit of the Model
A predictive validity can be estimated by calculating a utility for each card per each
respondent and by calculating the correlation between those results and the actual
ranks given. This correlation is given by Pearson’s R or Kendall’s tau in Table 8.6.
All the correlation coefficients being very close to one, it shows that correlations are
significant. This means that the model has a good predictive quality. Moreover, even
if prediction on cards, which created the design, is generally overconfident, the
cross validation making prediction for holdouts from the model created from the
nine cards confirms the model quality.
Table 8.6 Correlations between observed and estimated preferences

Value Sig.
Pearson’s R 0.998 0.000
Kendall’s tau 1.000 0.000
Kendall’s tau for holdouts 1.000
8.4.6 Consumer Segmentation
The analysis at the aggregate level of results is not sufficient to really comprehend
consumer behaviour. There is a need to study this behaviour at an individual level
and identify different segments of behaviours (post hoc segmentation). In post hoc
segmentation schemes (Green 1977), estimation of the conjoint analysis occurs at
the individual level, and subsequent level part-worths are then clustered to form
market segments (DeSarbo and DeSarbo 2003). Respondents belonging to one seg-
ment will present similar preferences for the different attribute levels of the product.
Some of these segments may be interesting to analyse in depth due to their size or
the sensitivity of their members towards a concept. We can study which kind of
product and which combination of attribute levels would be attractive for a particular
segment and try to match consumers’ desires.
The clusters are built from the table of individual utilities. Then, the segments
can be characterised and explained by supplementary data from an additional ques-
tionnaire. Importance values help us to identify which attributes are playing the
main role for each cluster. Four clusters are selected. The final stable clusters
obtained are described in the following paragraph and the mean utilities and impor-
tance values per cluster are displayed in Table 8.7.
Cluster1: Importance of origin (weak attractiveness of products without any
geographical origin specified): 216 respondents (18% of total sample)
Cluster 1 constitutes a segment of consumers for whom geographical origin of
fresh cow cheese is a main concern. They clearly prefer local fresh cow cheese and
are less fond of this product when no origin at all is specified. After having taken
into account the origin of the product, their attention goes to the means of produc-
tion. They still prefer on-farm production and less prefer industrial production.
However, this weaker attractiveness of industrial products is not as distinctive as
seen on average in the total sample; that is not what makes the distinction of this
segment. Price and packaging have little importance and no really specific behav-
iour appears considering these attributes. Moreover, in this class, importance of the
attribute ‘origin’ is significantly higher than on average.
In this cluster, no country is significantly overrepresented. However, Macedonia
is underrepresented (10.65 against 16.67% in the total sample), and this may be
linked to the fact that fresh cow cheese is apparently not as often produced locally
as in the other countries (a bit less traditional). Cluster 1 is characterised by the fact
Table 8.7 Importance and utility values detailed per cluster

Cluster Cl. 1 Cl. 2 Cl. 3 Cl. 4 Total
Utilities
Geographical origin Local 1.92 −0.11 0.02 −0.23 0.24
No origin −2.18 0.00 −0.19 −0.01 −0.43
Country 0.26 0.12 0.17 0.24 0.19
Packaging Sold loose −0.11 0.05 −0.25 −0.47 −0.21
Prepacked 0.11 −0.05 0.25 0.47 0.21
Price Low price 0.06 0.10 1.98 −1.01 0.11
Medium price 0.04 0.12 0.40 −0.01 0.12
High price −0.10 −0.22 −2.38 1.02 −0.23
Production Small dairy production −0.02 0.60 0.17 −0.09 0.19
On-farm production 0.37 1.72 −0.05 −0.66 0.37
Industrial production −0.35 −2.32 −0.12 0.74 −0.55
Importance values
Geographical origin 49.07 20.24 16.87 22.28 25.41
Packaging 10.93 13.21 13.70 16.99 14.10
Price 18.66 17.72 49.91 31.68 28.72
Production 21.34 48.82 19.53 29.05 31.77
that there are slightly more consumers declaring that they never consume fresh cow
cheese with the family on festive occasions (12.0 instead of 7.6% on average) and
more consumers declaring they did not consume it when they were a child or cannot
remember it. Households from cluster 1 are a bit larger than on average.
Cluster2: Importance of the means of production, weak attractiveness of industrial
products: 364 respondents (30% of total sample)
Cluster 2 constitutes a segment of consumers who place the means of production
as their main concern for fresh cow cheese purchases. They prefer on-farm pro-
duction, they also like fresh cow cheese from small dairies, and they clearly
prefer less this product when produced industrially. By decreasing importance
in decision-making, we find far behind geographical origin, then price and finally
packaging, all of them with no particular stressed preferences from this segment.
In this cluster, attention paid to production is significantly higher than on average.
On the other hand, the importance of origin and price is lower than the average
importance.
In this cluster, Croatia (26.92 against 16.67% in the total sample) and Slovenia
(21.43 against 16.67% in the total sample) are significantly overrepresented, whereas
Macedonia is strongly underrepresented (2.75 instead of 16.67% in the total sample).
Interviewees are less keen on supermarkets for fresh cow cheese purchases than the
average of the total sample and favour friends, family, on-farm or own production.
There are proportionally fewer respondents who think that food with geographical
indication (GI) is traditional. Moreover, consideration about the necessity of higher
hygiene is slightly less important than on average, whereas the country of origin is
a bit more important for them than on average.
Cluster3: Weak attractiveness of high prices: 238 respondents (20% of total sample)
In this third cluster, the main concern of consumers is the price of fresh cow
cheese. We find indeed a linear relation for this attribute, with the weakest prefer-
ence for high prices, a moderate acceptance of medium prices and a clear preference
for low prices. All other criteria seem not to have any weight in decision-making for
these consumers. Despite the fact that industrial products or products with no
specified origin are least preferred regarding their respective attributes, the gap with
the other levels is not really stressed. It means that these consumers may favour
price even if it can mean a lack of quality.
In this cluster, Montenegro (26.47 against 16.67%), BiH (22.69%) and Serbia
(22.69%) are overrepresented, whereas Macedonia (5.04%) and Croatia (6.30%)
are underrepresented. Consumers from cluster 3 buy their fresh cow cheese and
cheese more often on green or open markets than the tendency of all consumers.
This seems to convey that fresh cow cheese is more affordable on open markets.
These respondents are more often the main cooks of their household (48%). They or
their family/friends make their own fresh cow cheese less often and they receive less
often home-made cheese from friends or family than the average. High price is
more often given as a reason of no willingness to increase consumption. There is a
slightly higher agreement on the statement about the link between taste of the food
and the region of origin than on average. Regarding the socio-demographic vari-
ables, households are a bit smaller than the average size and the proportion of con-
sumers having finished faculty is lower.
Cluster4: Preference for industrial, prepacked products with high prices: 382
respondents (32% of total sample)
This cluster is an unexpected one. Consumers of this segment gave main impor-
tance to two attributes: first to the price and then to the means of production.
Strangely, they favour fresh cow cheese when sold at a high price but also when sold
industrially. The third attribute considered is origin and finally the packaging which
is more important here than in other clusters. Products with no origin specified are
a bit more preferred than on average (mean utility around 0 compared to the nega-
tive one in the total sample) and prepacked fresh cow cheese is clearly more pre-
ferred than on average.
In this cluster, Macedonia is overrepresented (40.58 against 16.67% in the total
sample), whereas BiH (9.16%), Slovenia (9.42%) and Croatia (11.26%) are under-
represented. The consumers of cluster 4 are less often the main buyers and cooks of
their households with regard to the average proportion. The consumption as child
and during festive occasions is more important. Their preference for industrial fresh
cow cheese at a high price is coherent with the fact that they buy less frequently at
farms or from friends and family. They buy fresh cow cheese more often in super-
markets than the average and own production is more common in this cluster for
cheese and fresh cow cheese in particular. The desire to consume fresh cow cheese
more often is inferior compared to other clusters. We also studied the income for
this segment because of their willingness to pay higher prices, and we just notice a
more important proportion of respondents who do not quote the income of the
household. They more often consider food with geographical indication as traditional
and significant characterisation shows they give more importance to hygienic con-
sideration (stricter for market/farmers and more confident towards own production)
than on average but, even if still high, have less consideration than the average
respondent for geographical origin of food. Maybe they buy industrial fresh cow
cheese in order to meet their requirements for hygiene and thus are willing to pay
more for this attribute.
8.5 Discussion
By trying to decipher consumer behaviour towards traditional food, different types

of consumers giving more or less importance to components considered as tradi-
tional have been highlighted (Fig. 8.3). To summarise what has been highlighted in
the six segmentations done by country and keeping in mind what we learn from the
global classification, four types of behaviour stand out:
– Consumers sensitive towards levels identified as rather traditional: Giving weakest
preference to industrial products and/or to products without specification of
geographical origin.
– Consumers looking for convenient purchase: Attracted by prepacked food (the
characterisation of this cluster can explain this behaviour as it includes in propor-
tion more young people from 26 to 35 years old who are not strongly deprived,
so their lifestyle may lead them to choose convenience and easiness over other
attributes). A cluster only highlighted for BiH consumers.
Fig. 8.3 Relative weight summarising the behaviours identified through the segmentations by
country (Source: Authors)
– Consumers favouring low prices: A behaviour that conveys mostly a situation of

poverty.
– Consumers giving lower importance to traditional levels: More strongly trusting
industrial products and willing to pay higher prices for the additional confidence
from these products (not really trusting the hygiene practices of small-scale food
processing).
Conjoint analysis, coupled with a declarative questionnaire, is an interesting
method, but it needs a long preparation: identification of the product chosen, choice
of attributes and levels, experimental design, creation of cards and other steps more.
It is also necessary to interview respondents face to face in a comfortable situation.
This is why this method is not very convenient for interviews in the street. A constraint
to take into account is also that cognitive capacities of respondents are weak.
The number of attributes to consider for getting a realistic description of the product
concept is large. However, conjoint analysis requires a limited number of attributes
in order not to propose consumers to rank too many cards, which will reduce the
reliability of results. Lastly, using such a method for a cross-cultural study requires
taking into account cultural differences between countries. For example, there are
language differences; therefore, it may be difficult to find a common product allowing
the comparison of results between countries.
Finally, the information obtained from this method can be applied to different
market research questions. It can be useful for product design, strategic advertising,
market share, cost-benefits analysis and market segmentation. Often used in market
research applications, conjoint analysis can also be interesting to measure people’s
perceptions or judgements. The information gained from a conjoint study could also
be used for the development of a theoretical model towards understanding con-
sumer apparel purchasing decisions (North and de Vos 2002).
8.6 Conclusions
In conclusion, this survey about consumers’ attitudes, expectations and behaviours

towards traditional food is innovative in the Balkans and highlights some interesting
results. Conjoint analysis, also called trade-off measurement, was used to determine
the main attributes of a traditional product expected by the consumers and to measure
the weight and attractiveness of targeted elements in consumer perception. However,
the method has some limits. The results are applied on fresh cow cheese and not on
traditional food in general. Fresh cow cheese is traditional in all WBC though. This
may highlight a specific behaviour towards cheese, so it will be interesting to conduct
the survey on another category of products such as meat. Moreover, even if a lot of
similarities exist among the six WBC studied, different consumer behaviours towards
traditional products have been highlighted between the countries.
These results could be strengthened by the other quantitative survey held in the
scope of the Focus Balkans project which measures notably attitudes towards food
in general, the consumption and purchase behaviour towards traditional dishes and
the perception of geographical indication. We could also compare these results with
those obtained in the European project TRUEFOOD focused on traditional food
perception in European countries and using conjoint analysis method (Naes et al.
2010). It would also be interesting to do a supplementary analysis with EuroFIR
results, the European Food Information Resource Network of Excellence, where
some definitions of traditional food based on reviews of national and European
regulations have been developed.
Lessons Learnt and Utility for Marketing Management

The implementation of the study on consumers’ preferences for traditional
food in WBC required to explore the diversity of traditional food in these
countries and showed the bond of the population with such food. Taking into
account this diversity and the cultural differences between the countries is
necessary for the implementation of the conjoint analysis, especially in the
scope of a cross-cultural analysis. Then, results are interesting and may be
used by marketing managers to promote traditional food in different coun-
tries. Coupled with cluster analysis, managers may identify different market
segments for their products and, this way, better understand the market prefer-
ences. Knowing which value consumers place on certain features of a product
or service is useful for market decisions. Conjoint analysis may also be used
by managers to design new products or adapt those existing in order to comply
with consumers’ needs.
References
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geographical origin in the Balkans. FAO, Agridea, Lindau
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International, Upper Saddle River
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Naes T, Lengard V, Bolling JS, Hersleth M (2010) Alternative methods for combining design vari-
ables and consumer preference with information about attitudes and demographics in con-
joint analysis. Food Qual Prefer 21:368–378
North E, de Vos R (2002) The use of conjoint analysis to determine consumer buying preferences:
a literature review. J Fam Ecol Consum Sci 30:32–39
Raghavarao D, Wiley JB, Chitturi P (2011) Choice-based conjoint analysis: models and designs.
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Chapter 9
Conclusions
Dominique Barjolle, Pascal Bernardoni, Jasna Milošević Ðorđević,

Goran Zivkov, Dragana Tar, and Boban Mugoša
Abstract Understanding consumer behaviour plays a major role in strengthening

the competitiveness of the food industry and in improving the well-being of Western
Balkan citizens. Whilst their governments are seeking to best manage the transition
from planned to market-based economies, the lack of data and applicable models
in food consumer science hinder these efforts significantly. Three reasons call for a
more developed food consumer science in the region: the rapidly evolving markets
that globalise domestic trade; the diverging preferences of consumers related to
changing living standards requiring new marketing strategies; and the importance of
information on food availability and dietary patterns for the development of food
policies. This book serves as a dissemination tool for the results of the European
research project Focus Balkans and as a textbook for prospective scientists. It sum-
marises the main findings of the related case studies and explains the methods
D. Barjolle, Ph.D. (*)

P. Bernardoni, M.Sc.
SEEDEV in Serbia, Koce Kapetana 47, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
J.M. Ðorđević, Ph.D. (*)
Ipsos Strategic Marketing, Gavrila Principa 8, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
G. Zivkov • D. Tar, M.A.
SEEDEV in Serbia, Koce Kapetana 47, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
B. Mugoša, Ph.D.
Institute of Public Health-Montenegro,
Džona Džeksona bb, 81000 Podgorica, Montenegro

128 D. Barjolle et al.
applied. In this chapter, conclusions concerning four major evolving markets (health
claim products, fruits, organic products and traditional food) and findings on food
choices of Western Balkan consumers are presented. It is concluded that institu-
tional capacity building is urgently needed. The development of consumer rights
and of public health policies must be supported by a Europe-wide network of scien-
tists and public health officials. This book aims at contributing to these important
developments.
Keywords Food choice motives • Qualitative approach • Quantitative survey •

Food choices • Institutional capacity building • Consumer rights • Public health
policies
9.1 Food Consumption in the Western Balkan

Countries: Concluding Remarks
In the Western Balkan countries (WBC), the lack of data and appropriate models of
food consumption hinders understanding of important changes that are currently
occurring in food markets. Indeed, these countries are seeking to best manage the
transition to more market-based and ‘Europeanized’ economies. The requirement to
develop food consumer science derives from several reasons.
First, markets are rapidly evolving: The changing nature of domestic markets
leads to an increasing presence of the major international and domestic supermar-
kets. Whilst the market is open and more accessible to private investments, the
supermarkets are gaining market shares. This tendency plays an important role in
forming requirements at the farm and local food processing level. In particular, local
actors must comply with increasingly demanding global requirements, for example,
the sanitary regulations.
Second, consumers’ preferences vary and diverge substantially according to
evolving living standards. These differences are the result of the evolution of pur-
chasing power, but this differs depending on the region and the social belonging of
the consumer. An appreciation of these new regional and social frameworks should
be integrated into the marketing strategies of producers. New opportunities appear:
For example, the demand for novelties (e.g. ‘health claim products’), organic prod-
ucts and traditional foods is growing both on domestic and export markets. Market
and consumer research is able to support producers in their commercial efforts to
cope with changing consumer requirements.
Third, information on food availability and dietary patterns in the WBC is essential
for the development of food policies designed to ensure sufficient food supply and
improved human health and well-being.
As a consequence, the need for an improvement in market participation is obvious:
The Western Balkan food industry (farmers, processors, producers and retailers)
requires a better understanding of consumer demand and consumption trends. This
9 Conclusions 129
presupposes the collection of the necessary information and its presentation in a

form accessible for food supply chain actors. It was a primary objective of the Focus
Balkans European research programme and of this book, as a tool for dissemina-
tion, to provide research results. In order to explore in-depth certain aspects of food
markets, the research undertaken in the Focus Balkans project was focused on four
major evolving markets: health claim products, fruits, organic products and tradi-
tional food. In some parts of the region, difficulties remain in calculating useful
statistics. For instance, censuses are not updated in all countries, and the generally
patchy and low-quality data on production and retailing hinder understanding of
general consumption patterns.
Nevertheless, combining expert opinions and consumers’ perceptions using a
qualitative approach and subsequently conducting a representative quantitative
survey, the Focus Balkans project builds a good basis for better understanding food
motives and choices, consumer behaviour and future trends on certain food markets
in the region.
9.1.1 Food Choices Motives
The most important food choice motives in the six Western Balkan countries under
review are: ‘sensory appeal’, ‘health and natural content’, ‘price’ and ‘purchase
convenience’ of the food. Differences between the six countries are commented on
in Chap. 3. This ranking of food choice motives is similar to the ones in other
European countries, that is, Great Britain (Steptoe et al. 1995; Pollard et al. 1998),
Belgium, Italy (Eertmans et al. 2006), Russia (Honkanen and Frewer 2009), Finland
(Lindeman and Väänänen 2000) and Greece (Fotopoulos et al. 2009) (see Table 3.3).
As in other studies, ‘ethical concern’ and ‘familiarity’ were found to be the least
important motives for dietary choice in the WBC.
Exploratory factor analyses yielded eight factors instead of nine as in the initial
UK study. The main differences were ‘natural content’ and ‘health’ loaded onto one
factor, whilst ‘convenience’ split into two, which we labelled ‘purchase convenience’
and ‘preparation convenience’. A single ‘health factor’ containing items relating to
health benefits and natural characteristics (absence of artificial ingredients or addi-
tives) was also obtained in research for Belgium and Italy (Eertmans et al. 2006),
suggesting that food consumers view both the safety and the nutritional value of the
food to be essential for its healthiness. Russian food consumers (Honkanen and
Frewer 2009) also viewed preparation convenience to be different from purchase
convenience (availability), with higher importance attributed to the latter motive.
Confirmatory factor analysis did not support the initial nine-factor structure pro-
posed by Steptoe et al. (1995). Although the normative study is more than 15 years
old, there are recent data suggesting that for some samples the nine-factor structure
still holds true (Bomba et al. 2011), so our findings cannot solely be attributed to
changes in the global market environment but also to the specific characteristics of
food consumers in the WBC.
The research conducted on a sample most similar to this one (Fotopoulos et al.
2009) is particularly relevant. Indeed, the Balkan Peninsula is one geographical
region, considered by some authors as presenting consistent similarities from a
cultural point of view (Prévélakis 1996). The results presented by Fotopoulos et al.
(2009) also suggested reducing the number of factors from the original nine to five
or even four as well as the collapsing of the second order motivations in order to
assess the more fundamental motivations behind food choices. There are some simi-
larities between the WBC and Greece. This research study used an existing validated
instrument to capture food motivations. Although developing a more appropriate
questionnaire tailored to the region, as suggested by Fotopoulos et al. (2009), was not
an objective of the project, this will be relevant for further research.
9.1.2 Health Claim Products
The market for products with health claims is one of the fastest growing segments
of the European and worldwide food industries. The take-off of the market is already
evident in Slovenia and Croatia and upcoming in the rest of the WBC (Serbia,
Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) and Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia (FYROM)). Young, educated, wealthy and urban women are the main
consumers. The health claims are related to nutritional labelling. Thus, the analysis
of the WBC market, which is rather underdeveloped, is necessarily based on the
observation of products with nutrition and health claims (N&H claims). The WBC
consumers tend to prefer domestic products.
According to the quantitative analysis, health claim products are perceived as
‘healthy but also as tasty and pleasant, suggesting that this product category has an
overall positive but undifferentiated image’ (Žeželj et al. 2012). The main barriers
to the development of the market are consumer related. Expert interviews (see presen-
tation in Chap. 5) reveal that eating habits were the most important problem quoted
by interviewees, followed by consumers’ lack of awareness and knowledge. Bearing
in mind the rising importance of the markets for health claim products, some retail-
ers in Slovenia have developed their own private labels for healthy food, thus giving
less space to private companies using their brand names. Processors in WBC are
highly dissatisfied with national policies for nutrition. Namely, in most of the coun-
tries, such policies have not been developed (Serbia, Montenegro, FYROM, BiH),
or, if existing, they are not properly implemented (Slovenia).
Supplying products with health claims on the market can be useful for the image
of brands: consumers may perceive this as innovative and socially responsible. It is,
however, a complex process, as the health claims have to be scientifically proved
and communicated properly to consumers. Based on expert interviews, the best
strategy identified is to choose and combine several health effects that are the most
important ones for the national health (e.g. cardiovascular diseases and diabetes)
and work on their promotion together with public health institutions. The develop-
ment of the market is best linked with the implementation of effective public policy.
9 Conclusions 131
Proactive public policy can promote the concept of healthy lifestyles and healthy
eating in the region. At the same time, the regulation of the market increases the
trust of consumers and supports efficiently the efforts of communication:
scientifically sustained information related both to relation of diet and health and of
diet and disease may be seen as reliable by the consumers.
9.1.3 Fruits
Western Balkan countries have a climate favourable for fruit growing. The con-
sumption of fruits in the region presents many similarities due to common cultural
habits and traditions. The food culture in the WBC is close to the Mediterranean diet
for the regions located at the coast and close to the European food culture for eastern
Croatia and Serbia. In the WBC, fruit consumption strongly decreased during the
1990s, but during the most recent years, the consumption of fresh and processed
fruits has increased. Statistical evidence suggests that the consumption of fruits in
general is lower than in European Union (EU) countries, although the availability of
traditional fruits is high combined with low prices. However, the reliability of statis-
tics is questionable, mainly because non-marketed output is not recorded despite the
importance of home-grown fruits being very high.
Based on complementary expert interviews not presented in this book, the
research made clear that the market suffers, on the one hand, from inadequate
coordination of production, quality and contracts with trade and processors and,
on the other hand, of the increasing influence of European retailers and their
worldwide sourcing strategies to obtain low prices, high-quality and assortment
standards.
Market strategies based on consumer segmentation will strengthen efforts to
increase fruit consumption. Complementary health policy measures like public
awareness campaigns would support increasing fruit intake. This would be particu-
larly useful for urban and young consumers, who are adopting Western European
lifestyles whilst losing the possibility to eat home-grown fruits.
9.1.4 Organic Products
Compared to developed European markets and the other Western markets in the
organic food sector, the WBC markets are immature and underdeveloped. Committed
market actors, some associations of organic farmers, stakeholders in rural develop-
ment and environmental protection, a few consumer associations and policymakers
act nevertheless proactively in favour of the expansion of the organic sector.
In the last 20 years, whilst the farming intensity in the region mostly could be
characterised as ‘low’, it was not certified as official organic production. Since the
year 2000, market actors and their associations but also foreign market actors, donor
agencies and policymakers have tried to stimulate the ‘official’ organic sector
regarding:
• Official regulation: In most WBC, national laws provide a framework based on the
model of EU regulations, for the production and marketing of organic products.
• Certification: In all WBC, domestic or international certification bodies guarantee
the respect of the domestic law and/or of international standards.
As a consequence, this clearer institutional framework has triggered production
growth in all countries. For the time being, the collection of wild products still
dominates sales. Furthermore, plant production is more significant than animal pro-
duction. Supply chains are generally short, with much direct selling on the domestic
market. The best-developed supply chains, with intensive and high-quality process-
ing, are directed to export markets.
Consumers in the WBC show little but increasing interest in buying organic food
products. The barriers are nevertheless high: there is still no clear image of what
means organic. Research shows that consumers in the WBC typically confuse
certified organic products with the ones sold on green markets and traditional prod-
ucts, believing that they are all organic, which is obviously not the case. Private
sector commitment to the development of the organic market, with public support,
should better inform consumers about the guidelines that are respected by organic
producers and about the significance and importance of certification.
9.1.5 Traditional Food
Consumers have a strong culinary heritage in the Western Balkans. In some WBC,
many products are already registered and protected according to specific legislation.
However, traditional food is not only limited to registered products under a legal
framework. In a context of economic transition, the existing national regulations
tend to comply more and more with EU regulations for traditional products. The
main objectives of this EU regulation are to maintain a diversified agricultural
production, to encourage rural development of less-favoured areas, to give clear
information to consumers regarding the origin of products and, eventually, to har-
monise the legal protection framework for geographical indications. The EU frame-
work also intends to prevent unfair competition between producers and enhance the
public credibility of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), Protected Geographical
Indication (PGI) and Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) schemes. The Focus
Balkans quantitative survey reveals that 80 % of WBC citizens think that traditional
products should be protected, and consider geographical origin as an important
purchase criterion for traditional foods.
However, as the concept of traditional products is wider than the PDO, PDI and
TSG schemes, some other concepts such as ‘on farm’, ‘regional’ or ‘local’ products
exist and meet consumer demand. The research underlines a lack of confidence
about hygiene practices especially for small-scale production. Consumers expect
9 Conclusions 133
that the regulation of traditional products will enhance the sustainability and the
diversity of food. A segment of consumers expresses a strong willingness to buy
high-quality traditional food products, even if prices are slightly higher than for
conventional products. In addition, according to focus groups conducted as part of
the Focus Balkans project, the negative aspect of traditional products is related to
health concerns because traditional food is often considered as too fatty or salty.
At the consumer level, a general lack of knowledge about traditional food prod-
ucts persists. There is no clear definition and geographical indications are not well
known by consumers. There may be also a confusion between organic and origin
labels. Public awareness campaigns undertaken by the private sector and consumer
associations with public support should provide better information to consumers
about food labelling and official voluntary standards like PDO or PGI.
9.2 Institutional Capacity Building
Consumer behaviour in the WBC has changed over the recent years. Consumers’
buying habits are shifting away from frequenting green markets and gardening for
self-consumption to supermarkets and other retail chains. This trend represents a
challenge for all the institutions, which are part of the food consumer knowledge
system. They need to adapt their strategies by taking into consideration changes in
consumer behaviour. This should encompass multidisciplinary research on the
impacts of such changes and inclusion of related topics in educational curricula, as
well as dissemination of information and awareness campaigns conducted by govern-
ments and public health organisations.
These changes are part of a wider process as the WBC shift to more market-based
economies that are integrated into European and global markets. One of the most
significant trends resulting from this process is the growing importance of supermarkets
and hypermarkets as the main format for food shopping. Shifts in shopping habits
may have negative effects on health, for increased consumption of non-traditional,
energy-dense processed foods high in salt, fat and sugar (Baillie 2008).
Hawkes (2005) examines the role of foreign direct investment (FDI) in changing
patterns of food consumption, focusing on highly processed foods. The effect of
FDI in food processing, services and retail is to make more highly processed foods
available to more people. Hence, FDI has made it possible to lower prices, open up
new purchasing channels, optimise the effectiveness of marketing and advertising,
and increase sales of highly processed food (Baillie 2008). FDI would therefore be
an appropriate entry point to implement a range of public health policies to ‘redi-
rect’ shifts in nutritional intake.
Hawkes (2008) analyses the dietary implications of supermarket development:
how supermarkets make decisions – namely, the location of stores, the foods they
sell, the prices they charge, the promotion strategies they use and the nutrition-related
activities (healthy production lines) they implement – influence food accessibility,
availability, prices and desirability. The findings are both positive – increased choice
of food for more people – and negative – reduced ability of marginalised groups to
access high-quality food and encouragement of the consumption of energy-dense,
nutrient-poor, highly processed food. Overall supermarkets encourage consumers to
eat more of whatever food. This is also confirmed by a study conducted in Guatemala
(Aswaf 2007). The latter details how supermarkets in developing countries concen-
trate on processed, dry and packaged foods because they enable economies of scale
and have long shelf lives. Most of these food items tend to contain a disproportion-
ately high amount of added fat, sugar and salt, which are identified as potential risk
factors for obesity and non-communicable chronic diseases.
Most of the WBC communication between consumers, as the end users, and
other entities in food consumer science is one way. At present, state administrations
and other entities of food consumer science are not paying sufficient attention to the
needs and interests of the end users.
This will have to change with the development of food consumer science, as all
WBC will be, sooner or later, part of the EU, and the demand and opinions of the
end consumers will have to be taken into account.
9.2.1 Development of Consumer Rights
As far as consumer rights are concerned, consumer awareness and the effective
implementation of the regulations about food safety and traceability should be
improved.
Consumer associations with strong linkages to their bases should be further
strengthened. This is, for three main reasons, particularly true as far as food-related
issues are concerned: Food is an important element of everyday life, food consump-
tion is strongly interrelated with human health and the concentration within the food
industry and retail sector taking place worldwide requires strong contact persons on
the side of consumers. Food production is not totally disconnected from the consumer,
but consumers should be taken into account and supported by other actors of food
consumer science much more, in particular governmental and state institutions.
9.2.2 Public Health Policies
Public health is a major concern in all WBC. As the transition process is still going
on in Serbia, BiH, Montenegro and FYROM, there is an urgent need to make
significant progress in ensuring a better general framework for food consumption.
Action needs to be taken at several levels, to implement better food safety provi-
sions or, for example, consumer rights regarding food labelling. In the framework of
the Focus-Balkans programme, it was unfortunately not possible to address all the
topics related to public health policy. From the beginning of the programme, some
specific sectors were chosen to address this issue in a concrete manner.
9 Conclusions 135
Effective food and health policies should underpin the development of the
market for health claim products. This will involve aligning the agro-food supply
chain with healthier diets, whilst key regulative aspects of nutrition labelling
have to be implemented. Government interventions should create a framework
for positive industry action. Future research should be focused on the institu-
tions that can help in better aligning the agro-food supply chain with the devel-
opment and adoption of healthy diets. Institutional reforms should be targeted
toward the design of the most effective tools to help public health systems to
tackle more efficiently the growing problems of food-related diseases. Public
health officials cannot leave this issue to chance. Extensive public programmes
are required to support and facilitate the adequate consumption of food that
would lead to healthier food choices. Scientists should undertake further research
on specific problems such as obesity and pay special attention to vulnerable
consumer groups.
9.3 Research Needs
For all the four studied markets (fruits, products with health claims, organic products
and traditional food), there is a need for future research on food consumption, food
and health policies, and market trends. The recommendation is to develop a system-
atic collection of reliable data on food consumption so as to increase scientific-
based knowledge in three main areas.
The first area of research relates to consumers: food intake, food behaviour,
consumers’ beliefs, expectations, preferences, motives and attitudes. The main
characteristics of food intake and diets are highly related to food culture and habits.
Therefore, consumers in the WBC behave different from those in Western Europe.
Even if the Western Balkans is a region where a strong common cultural heritage
leads to similarities in the food behaviour, local differences are noticeable. Food and
health policies have not yet had sufficient impact to enhance the general level of
well-being of the population. Hence, it is necessary to reinforce research, particu-
larly in these countries, both in terms of market development and strengthening
public policy.
The second research topic concerns communication and information policies and
tools (efficiency, targeting, content, uptake, etc.). There is a general need to improve
the level and nature of communication between stakeholders within the food system,
especially with consumers. Research should play a major role in developing innova-
tive means for communication.
The third area is market research: obtaining a detailed understanding of the
structure, functioning, rules, organisations, standards and level of investment on
specific food markets. The research should provide qualitative and quantitative data
about the trends of each market to better evaluate future opportunities and threats.
The various stakeholders require these data to complement consumer research in
order to elaborate appropriate strategies.
9.3.1 Networking for Food Consumer Science in Europe
The development of an extended European network on food consumer science

would increase the quality of research in this field. This infrastructure is required to
improve the real impact of research.
Food consumer science is currently a rather poorly defined field drawing on a broad
range of scientific disciplines. There is therefore a need to develop new knowledge and
working methods in this field. The Balkan network has been created but needs to be
strengthened and expanded. Thus, a common European network, including the WBC,
should be created and involve all the concerned disciplines. This is the only way to
better promote new knowledge and to strengthen consumer science in Europe.
Understanding consumer behaviour and preferences plays a major role in
strengthening the competitiveness of the food industry as well as in improving the
health and well-being of European and Western Balkan citizens. The development
of a critical mass (scientists, scientific disciplines, facilities, etc.), facilitation and
promotion of data exchange, joint activities (protocols, metrics, collaborative studies)
and comparability of research actions in the field of consumer science related to
food is urgently required. We hope that this book will provide the necessary scientific
knowledge to support this capacity building, especially by motivating future schol-
arly work in this highly important area.
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Authors Bios
Corinne Amblard, M.Sc., engineer Corinne Amblard is a research scientist at

VetAgroSup with expertise in consumer surveys. She has a Master’s degree in mar-
keting. She has been working at VetAgroSup since 1998 on different EU research
projects. Her field of expertise lies in consumer surveys, marketing and economy.
Pascal Bernardoni, M.Sc., graduated as a Master in Agro-Economics at the
Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zürich and worked in Western Africa and
Latin America. Since 1999, he has been engaged in the Balkans and in the Caucasus
with specific emphasis on agriculture and rural development. Since 2006, Pascal
Bernardoni has worked on various projects related to rural development with a
specific emphasis on the development of geographic indication systems in Bosnia,
Serbia and Croatia.
Ružica Butigan, M.B.A., is a teaching and research assistant in the Department
of Marketing. She holds courses in marketing, marketing strategy and SMEs mar-
keting. She is involved in organic food research in Croatia.
Miljan Cvetković, Ph.D., is an assistant professor and vice dean. He graduated as
a M.A. in Fruit Science and worked for 2 years as general manager in the Institute
for Viticulture and Enology. Since 2002, he has been working on fruit projects for
the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in Serbia. Since 2004, Miljan
Cvetković has been teaching assistant in the Department for Fruit, Agriculture
Faculty of the University of Banja Luka.
Georges Giraud, M.D., Ph.D., is a professor and as senior researcher in food con-
sumer science since 1993. He has written over 200 publications including several
peer review processes in the fields of agricultural marketing, consumer science,
food economics, geographical indications, rural development and retail studies.
Georges Giraud was partner and coordinator of EU-funded projects.
Cristina Mora, Ph.D., has been involved as senior researcher and project leader
for Italian and European research projects since 2000. She is an associate professor
at the University of Parma. During her research activities, she worked on topics

and Application to the Western Balkans, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5946-6,
138 Authors Bios
about food marketing with special attention to food safety standards, to quality prod-
ucts and to consumers’ willingness to pay for safer food.
Boban Mugoša, Ph.D., is an associate professor and is a specialist of epidemiol-
ogy. He holds a Master’s degree in epidemiology at the Medical Faculty of Belgrade.
In 2009, he wrote his Ph.D. thesis in epidemiology at the Medical Faculty in
Kragujevac. He is author and co-author of many books and guidelines. Since 2004,
he has been working as the director of the Institute of Public Health of Montenegro.
Mitchell Ness, Ph.D., is a lecturer in marketing at Newcastle University Business
School and was previously a lecturer in marketing in the Department of Agriculture,
Food and Rural Development in Newcastle. He is responsible for the delivery of
courses in analytical techniques for marketing and direct and digital marketing
strategy. His research interests are in consumer behaviour and consumer attitudes to
food quality issues. He has been involved in EU projects on products of geographi-
cal indication and quality and low-input foods. His current research activity has
focused upon modelling consumer intentions towards repeat purchase of online gro-
cery shopping in the UK and modelling the determinants of customer loyalty in
the Chinese restaurant sector.
Galjina Ognjanov, Ph.D., is associate professor of marketing at the Faculty of
Economics, University of Belgrade. Her research interests include integrated mar-
keting communication, advertising research and food consumption in emerging
economies. She has published three textbooks and a number of papers in scientific
journals and contributed to scientific monographs published both in Serbian and in
English. Since 2011, she has been serving as European Marketing Academy
(EMAC) national representative for Serbia.
Jure Pohar, Ph.D., is a professor and has more than 15 years of professional
experience in marketing and management. In addition to his academic carrier at the
University of Ljubljana, he has held different posts in marketing-advertising com-
panies. He was, as a member of the board of directors, responsible for marketing
and R&D at the largest Slovene dairy company. He served as a national coordinator
at the Slovene Ministry for science and technology and as the representative of
Europe in CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research).
Elise Prugnard, M.Sc., engineer Elise Prugnard is research scientist at VetAgro
Sup. She has a Master’s degree in data analysis and graduated in statistics. Her
field of experience is data extraction and analysis, statistics applied to marketing
and consumer behaviour.
Natasa Renko, Ph.D., is a full professor in the Department of Marketing. She
gives courses in marketing, marketing strategy, SMEs marketing and decision-mak-
ing in marketing. She is author and co-author of more than 100 papers. She specia-
lised in food marketing research. Natasa Renko is project leader of several food
projects in Croatia and in the United States of America (collaborating with the
United States Department of Education).
Authors Bios 139
Sanda Renko, Ph.D., is an associate professor at the Trade Department and is

involved in several scientific projects such as the project of the development of
organic food distribution channels and consumer protection in the Republic of
Croatia and the project of the development of sale and distribution systems in
Croatian enterprises. In 2006, she was awarded the “Mijo Mirković” award for the
best scientific paper. Today, she is the editor in chief of the International Journal of
Sales, Retailing and Marketing.
Burkhard Schaer, Ph.D., is an agricultural engineer and agronomist and has
written a Ph.D. on organic markets in Germany. Burkhard Schaer is a codi-
rector and co-founded Ecozept in 2000. He conducted more than 180 projects
on food marketing for private enterprises, research bodies and government
agencies in different countries. He is implied in European research projects.
His teaching activities comprise food marketing (guest lecturer) at several
universities.
Siet J. Sijtsema, Ph.D., is a scientific researcher and her key qualification is con-
sumer research on food being involved in qualitative research projects. She pays
attention to the cognitive aspects as well as to the affective aspects like feelings and
emotions. She is an expert on transforming consumer perception into food product
characteristics in a consumer-oriented product design.
Igor Spiroski, M.D., M.P.H., is medical doctor and holds a Master’s degree in
public health. He works as a researcher in the Department of Physiology and
Monitoring of Nutrition. His primary professional occupation is health risk assess-
ment related to nutrition for different population groups of interest. He also works
in safety assessment of functional foods. Igor is teaching assistant at the Faculty of
Medicine in Skopje for the subjects of nutrition and environmental health. He has
worked in several projects funded by United Nations agencies and the European
Commission.
Dragana Tar, M.A., holds a Master’s degree in development studies and a com-
bined experience of work in environmental field, organisational change and rural
development in the Balkans and Caucasus. Currently, she is mostly involved in the
study and protection of traditional products, working as a trainer and facilitator.
Ante Vuletić, M.A., is a teaching and research assistant in the Department of
Marketing. He gives courses in marketing, marketing strategy, decision-making in
marketing and public relations. He is involved in organic food research in
Croatia.
John White, Ph.D., is an associate professor and has acted as a coordinator for
two EU INTAS projects on the restructuring of food supply chains in the former
Soviet Union. His main research areas are supply chain management, especially
in the agri-food industry of Central and Eastern Europe, and brand management.
He teaches marketing communications and marketing theory at the University of
Plymouth.
140 Authors Bios
Martine Zaouche-Laniau is a graduate agro-food engineer (Ecole Nationale

Supérieure des Industries Alimentaires), Master of Psychology (Université Paris
V Sorbonne). She has joined Gestion Engineering Marketing (GEM) in 1980. She
is in charge of market studies and supply chain analysis.
Iris Žeželj, Ph.D., has been lecturer at the Belgrade University – Faculty of
Philosophy, Department of Psychology since 2003. She is a member of International
Society of Political Psychology. Her fields of interest are attitude change, attitude-
behaviour relation studies, media and communications and social sciences research
methodology.
Karin L. Zimmermann, B.Sc., R.M., is senior researcher and project manager
and his expertise lies in strategic trends and strategies based on consumer information.
Karin Zimmermann has been involved in quantitative and qualitative market
research, consumer and chain research and in agricultural environment (green)
economics. She is leader of a research group on strategic marketing and consumer
research. In the FP7 EU project FOCUS BALKANS, she is the administrative coor-
dinator for the Netherlands and involved in consumer and market research.
Goran Zivkov Between 2004 and 2007, Goran Zivkov has worked as an Assistant
Minister and Minister of Agriculture. Previously, Goran Zivkov worked for the UN
FAO in Serbia. He is currently working on agriculture and rural development projects
in the Western Balkan and Caucasus region.
Editors Bios
Dominique Barjolle, Ph.D., is senior researcher and lecturer at IED ETHZ. She is
interested in food consumer science, quality of food and food standards. She has
particular skills in the transaction cost theory in the frame of food supply chain
analysis. Notably, her work on food quality linked to origin and innovations in food
supply chains is recognised through numerous scientific publications. She works as
an expert for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the European
Commission.
She participated actively in more than ten European projects and is the coordinator
of the FP7 FOCUS BALKANS research programme.
Since May 2012, she is deputy director of the Research Institute of Organic
Agriculture in Switzerland and, in parallel, reads lectures at the Federal Institute of
Technology Switzerland (ETH).
Matthew Gorton, Ph.D., is a reader and has contributed to various projects on the
restructuring of the agri-food sector in Central and Eastern Europe. This has included
work on agricultural water management in the Western Balkans and rural develop-
ment policy in the New Member States of the European Union. He has undertaken
research on regional foods in the United Kingdom, financed by the Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA).
Jasna Milošević Ðorđević, Ph.D., works as a consultant at Ipsos Strategic
Marketing, as a lecturer of social psychology at the Faculty of Media and
Communication at the Singidunum University and as a researcher in the Institute for
Political Studies. Her Master’s and Ph.D. theses were related to voting behaviour
and identity. She has published 1 book and over 30 scientific articles in national and
international journals. She has worked on various projects related to political public
opinion and media with a specific emphasis on the development of the region.
Žaklina Stojanović, Ph.D., is an associate professor of Agricultural Economics at
the University of Belgrade – Faculty of Economics, Serbia. She has held this posi-
tion since 2008. She is currently a researcher at the Center of Scientific Research at

142 Editors Bios
the Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade (NICEF). She has participated in

several national and international projects concerning the food sector. Her work also
includes the fields of rural and regional development. She is the author of 4 books
and over 80 articles in the areas of agribusiness, food market and agricultural and
rural policy.
Index
B Food habits, 61
Barriers, 60, 63, 66–67, 74, 79–84, 116, 130, 132 Food intake, 52, 104, 135
Food motivations, 43–54, 130
Food purchase, 40, 60
C Food sector, 10, 91–92, 94, 95
Cluster analysis (CA), 10, 43–54, 124 Fruit perception, 73–86
Conjoint analysis, 11, 107–124 Fruits, 3, 8, 10, 11, 21, 23, 28, 48–52, 63, 66,
Consumer associations, 131, 133, 134 73–86, 97, 100, 129, 131, 135
Consumer awareness, 91, 104, 134
Consumer organizations, 8, 61
Consumer preferences, 10, 11, 107–124 H
Cross-cultural studies, 35, 40 Health claim products, 11, 58–70, 128–131, 135
Health concerns, 100, 104, 133
Home-grown, 79–82, 85, 131
D Household model, 17–18, 21
Delphi method, 11, 92, 93
Diet, 8, 24, 31, 40, 51, 58, 60, 61, 63–67, 69,
74, 131, 135 I
In-depth interview (IDI), 11, 21, 59, 60,
76, 79
E
Eating habits. See Food habits
Expert panel, 92, 94 L
Labelling, 91, 98, 100, 130, 133–135
Life style, 28, 58, 60, 63–65, 67, 69, 85, 97,
F 100, 101, 104, 122, 131
Factor analysis, 29, 32, 34, 46, 129
FCQ. See Food choice
questionnaire (FCQ) M
Feedback, 90, 92, 93, 95, 100, 111 Motives, 10, 11, 27–40, 60, 63–66, 69, 74,
Focus group, 11, 53, 57–70, 73–86, 109, 110, 133 79–82, 84, 91, 95, 97, 100, 129–130, 135
Food chain, 58, 60, 69
Food choice, 3, 10, 15–25, 27–40, 46, 53, 66,
69, 84, 129–130, 135 N
Food choice questionnaire (FCQ), 10, 27–40, Nutrition, 2–4, 21, 28, 31, 37, 58–62, 65–67,
46, 53, 136 130, 133, 135

144 Index
O S
Organic food, 21, 48, 50, 51, 78 Safety, 3, 4, 33, 40, 44, 80, 85, 91,
Organic market, 89–105, 132 129, 134
Organic product, 10, 90, 91, 96–98, 100, 101, Structured questionnaire, 90
104, 128, 131–132, 135 Supply chain, 3, 4, 8, 10, 95, 98, 100, 101,
103, 129, 132, 135
P
Planned behaviour, 17, 21–24 T
Post hoc segmentation, 119 Traditional food, 8, 10, 11, 107–124
Process model, 16, 19–21 Traditional product, 3, 11, 108, 110, 112,
Public health, 4, 5, 13, 44, 51–53, 58, 62, 65, 115, 123, 132, 133
69, 74, 130, 133–135 Transition, 4, 62, 74, 79, 85, 108, 128,
132, 134
Q
Qualitative methods, 2, 10 W
Quantitative methods, 2, 10 Western Balkans, 2, 3, 5–7, 18,
43–54, 74, 79, 80, 83, 85,
108, 112, 115, 128–129,
R 131, 132, 135, 136
Random utility, 16, 19 Willingness to buy, 133
Reasoned action, 16, 21–24 Willingness to pay, 121

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Dominique Barjolle · Matthew Gorton

Jasna Milošević Đorđević

Food Consumer Science

Jasna Milošević Ðorđević Žaklina Stojanović

ISBN 978-94-007-5945-9 ISBN 978-94-007-5946-6 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013934347

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Wim Verbeke, Ph.D.

Keywords Food consumer science • Health claims • Organic products • Traditional

Food consumer science is at the crossroad of a multitude of scientific disciplines

Aertsens J, Verbeke W, Mondelaers K, Van Huylenbroeck G (2009) Personal determinants of

8 Utilising Conjoint Analysis: Understanding

Authors Bios .................................................................................................... 137

Editors Bios...................................................................................................... 141

Index ................................................................................................................. 143

Corinne Amblard M.Sc. UR CALITYSS, Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup,

Elise Prugnard, M.Sc. UR CALITYSS, Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup,

AHA American Heart Association

PDO Protected Designation of Origin

Dominique Barjolle and Jure Pohar

Keywords Food consumer science • Economic theory • Food market • Motives of

D. Barjolle, Ph.D. (*)

D. Barjolle et al. (eds.), Food Consumer Science: Theories, Methods 1

1.1 Preliminary Considerations

Food consumer science is relatively young. It could be considered as a synonym for

to explore food consumption; second, a focus on research results related to consumers

1.2 Economic Foundations for Food Consumer Science

Classical and neoclassical microeconomic perspectives focus on the functioning of

under conditions of perfect information. A main assumption is that the consumer

1.3 Food Consumption in the Western Balkans

recreation/culture, education, restaurants/hotels and miscellaneous items is much

Table 1.3 Average household expenditures (percentage)

1.4 The FOCUS BALKANS Project

conferences and in publishing papers in scientific journals in order to make food

1.5 Objectives, Scope and Outline of the Book

Table 1.4 Scope, methods and illustrations presented in the book

Matthew Gorton and Dominique Barjolle

Keywords Food choice • Economic household model • Random utility model

M. Gorton, Ph.D. (*)

D. Barjolle et al. (eds.), Food Consumer Science: Theories, Methods 15

2.2 Economic Models

2.2.1 Economic Household Model

the fortunes of restaurants to changes in income (Schumacher and Boland 2005). In

2.2.2 Random Utility Models

2.3 Food Choice Process Model

Fig. 2.3 Food choice process

Resources are classified as tangible (money, equipment and space) or intangible

2.4 Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)/Theory

outcomes of such behaviour (outcome evaluation). Subjective norms refer to

healthily if they perceive themselves as ‘health conscious’ or eat environmentally

of food choice should incorporate a historical dimension. Finally, while several

Jasna Milošević Ðorđević and Iris Žeželj

Keywords Food Choice Questionnaire • Western Balkans • Factor analysis • Food

J.M. Ðorđević, Ph.D. (*)

D. Barjolle et al. (eds.), Food Consumer Science: Theories, Methods 27

3.2.1 Origin of Instruments Used

3.2.2 Searching for Underlying Constructs: Factor Analysis