Lecture Note

Fault Analysis

Prepared By

Eng. Essam Abdel Halim Mostafa

Predictive Maintenance Manager
Delta Co. For Electronics

E-mail: [email protected]

Page 1
 Fault Analysis

z Unbalance
z Misalignment
z Pulleys faults
z Bent shaft
z Shaft crack
z Mechanical looseness
z Journal bearing faults
z Rolling element bearing faults
z Rotor rub
z Electrical motor problems
z Pumps Problems
z Gear faults

The main advantage of making vibration measurements on rotating

machinery, is the possibility to detect faults, before they make the
machine break down, and thereby reduce economical losses, such as
damaged equipment and production loss. To this the constant percentage
band width spectrum has shown to be the most efficient.

When a fault is detected, vibration analysis can be used to diagnose the

fault.

Making diagnosis using vibration analysis requires skill and experience.

Additional measurements of FFT spectra and phase measurements is
often required.

In the following some simple rules for the most common machine faults
are drawn up giving the fault type and a characteristic vibration
measurements.
The spectra in the examples are all made as drawings, in order to
emphasize the typical feature of each fault.

Page 2
 Unbalance
Unbalance Definition Z
A rotor is not completely balanced when the center of
gravity axis does not coincides with the rotational axis F
as prescribed by construction.
& r u
Unbalance: & &
US u˜r e ˜m S
Specific unbalance or &
center of gravity eccentricity: & u ˜r
e e
m
Centrifugal force: & & & m
Fu U S ˜Z 2 u ˜ r ˜Z 2

The effects of unbalance will be: e:

r:
Center of gravity displacement
Radius to unbalance mass
z Displacement of the center of gravity S: Center of gravity
u: Unbalance mass
z Centrifugal forces created during rotation m: Rotor mass
F: Centrifugal force

Page 3
 Unbalance
Static Unbalance
-If an unbalance is added to a completely balanced rotor in Typical
Typical
the same radial plane as the center of gravity, this Unbalance
constitutes a static unbalance. This unbalance causes a
Unbalance
Spectrum
Spectrum
parallel displacement of the center of gravity axis from the
rotational axis.
-Equal phase on each bearing
-Mainly radial vibration FU
Please Note: Strong
unbalance cause harmonics
z
T S T
z
D D

U
E

E: Center of gravity
displacement
S: Center of gravity
U: Unbalance mass
D-D: Shaft axis
T-T: Center of gravity axis

Page 4
 Unbalance
Couple Unbalance
Typical
Typical
- If two equal unbalances are added to a completely
Unbalance
Unbalance
balanced rotor at the same radius in two different
planes exactly opposite one another, they constitute Spectrum
Spectrum
a couple unbalance. In this case the center of
gravity axis is inclined to the rotational axis and
intersects it at the center of gravity of the rotor.
Please Note: Strong
- Phase changes 180 ° across bearing unbalance cause harmonics
-Mainly radial vibration FU1

z
T
S
D D
z
E: Center of gravity
displacement T
S: Center of gravity z
U: Unbalance mass
D-D: Shaft axis
T-T: Center of gravity axis FU2 U1 = U2

Page 5
 Unbalance
Quasi-static Unbalance
Typical
Typical
-A combination of static and couple unbalance existing Unbalance
in most rotors. In this case the center of gravity axis is Unbalance
Spectrum
Spectrum
inclined to the rotational axis and intersects it at a
point other than the center of gravity of the rotor.

- Phase changes across bearing

Please Note: Strong
unbalance cause harmonics
- Mainly radial vibration
FU1

z
S T
D z
E: Center of gravity D
T
displacement
S: Center of gravity z
U: Unbalance mass
D-D: Shaft axis
T-T: Center of gravity axis FU2 U1 U2

Page 6
 Unbalance
Dynamic Unbalance
Typical
Typical
A combination of static and couple unbalance Unbalance
Unbalance
existing in most rotors. In this case the center of Spectrum
gravity axis is inclined to the rotational axis but Spectrum
does not intersects it.
-Mainly radial vibration
FU1
Please Note: Strong
unbalance cause harmonics

z
S T
T z
D D

E: Center of gravity FU2 U1 U2

displacement
S: Center of gravity
U: Unbalance mass
D-D: Shaft axis
T-T: Center of gravity axis

Page 7
 Results of Unbalance (1)

z Higher dynamic bearing loading

– Speeds up wear and shortens service life time
– Makes use of lighter/cheaper
constructions of bearing types impossible
– Makes high service speeds impossible/undesirable
z Fatigue fracture
– Fracture of housings, associated parts and
foundations
– Breaking of rotating shaft components
– Makes service speeds near resonance frequencies
dangerous

z Increased mechanical looseness

– Screws, bolts and key couplings loosened by
excessive shaking

Page 8
 Results of Unbalance (2)
z Reduction of the utility value
– Diminution of the operational accuracy

z Reduction of operational safety and comfort

– Physical damage to operators and bystanders
– Increased annoyance and human fatigue
– Decreased human comfort

z Reduced perceived quality

– Excessive noise and vibration indicate poor
manufacturing quality and/or wear-down

Case Studies\04-Unbalance-coolingtower.ppt Eastern Tobaco\balancing.ppt

Page 9
 Misalignment
mm/s
A. Parallel misalignment
10

3.1

0.31

Radial Vibration approx. 180 ° phase shifted mm/s 1X 2X 3X

2X often highest peak
10

B. Angular misalignment 3.1

0.31

1X 2X 3X

Axial Vibration approx.. 180 ° phase shifted Please

PleaseNote:
Note:
Misalignment
Misalignmentmay
maybe
beappears
appearson
on1X
And in phase in radial direction. 1X
component
componentonly
only
1X , 2X or 3 X highest

Misalignment is traditionally associated with a 2nd harmonic component,

which according to some sources is due to to 2 times the stress reversal
during one rotation. More probably the harmonic occurs due to distortion
of the ideal sinusoidal vibration signal.
It is quite common that misalignment occurs on the 1st harmonic only in
the spectrum. An investigation of the phase relationship across the rotor
and across the coupling should therefore always be carried out for
distinguishing misalignment from unbalance.
A misaligned rotor tend to wear in. That is after a while the bearing will
get deformed after the misalignment. In the spectrum this is seen as the
2nd order component will decrease and the third order will increase as
wear develops.
Causes of Misalignment
Misalignment is typically caused by the following conditions:
Inaccurate assembly of components, such as motors, pumps, etc.
Relative position of components shifting after assembly
Distortion due to forces exerted by piping
Distortion of flexible supports due to torque
Temperature induced growth of machine structure
Coupling face not perpendicular to the shaft axis
Soft foot, where the machine shifts when hold down bolts are torqued.

Page 10
 Misalignment Results (1)

– Vibration.

– Bearing failure.

– Seal Leakage
Seal Manufacturer verifies:
50 times longer machine operation through proper shaft alignment

Page 11
 Misalignment Results (2)

– Coupling Failure, even in flexible types!

– Internal heating.

Page 12
 Misalignment Results (3)

- High energy consumption.

Page 13
Page 14
 Bent Shaft

mm/s

10

3.1

0.31

1X 2X
• Axial And Radial Vibration
• 180 ° Phase shift in Axial Vibration
• 0 ° Phase shift in radial vibration

A Bent Shaft to many extents is looking like a misalignment in the

spectrum.
A phase measurement for axial vibration across the shaft will distinguish
between misalignment and bent shaft as the bent shaft will produce a
180 Degrees Phase shift.

Page 15
 Belt Drive Problem
Mismatched, Worn, or Stretched Belts
Mismatched, worn, or stretched belts, especially Vee belts, will
generate vibration at the fundamental belt pass frequency and
harmonics of it. Usually the second harmonic is dominant if
there are two sheaves in the system. The Fundamental Belt
Frequency FBF is given by the following formula. It is always
sub-synchronous, meaning it is lower in frequency than 1X.

Fundamental Belt Frequency (FBF) = ›*D*RPM/L

Vibration Amplitude

10 FBF

3.1

1
Where
WhereDD==Sheave
SheaveDiameter
Diameter
2x FBF
LL==Belt Length
Belt Length
0.31 RPM
RPM==Turn
Turnspeed
speedof
ofsheave
sheaveDD

Frequency

Variable Definitions:
PS = Pulley rpm (PS1 = Driver Pulley Speed, PS2 = Driven Pulley
Speed)
PD = Pulley diameter (PD1 = Driver Pulley Dia., PD2 = Driven Pulley
Dia)
SD = Distance between shaft centers
BL = Belt Length
Belt Length = 1.57 x (PD1 + PD2) + 2(SD)

Page 16
 Belt Drive Problem Cont.
Sheave Misalignment
Sheave misalignment will generate strong axial 1X components and
axial harmonics of the fundamental belt frequency.

Angular Parallel Both

Page 17
 Belt Drive Problem Cont.
Eccentric Sheaves, Sheave Runout
Eccentric sheaves will generate strong 1X radial components, especially in the direction parallel to
the belts. This condition is very common, and mimics imbalance. This can be checked by removing
the belts and measuring again. 1X vibration of an eccentric sheave or a sheave with run out will
usually also show up at the other sheave.
Vibration Amplitude

10

3.1

0.31

Fan Motor Frequency

RPM RPM

• Center of rotation different from

geometrical center
•Vertical an horizontal Phase
either equal or 180 ° different

The Eccentric rotor will produce high vibration at the rotation speed.
The Phase will be the same in both horizontal and vertical direction.
If you try to balance an eccentric rotor, you may reduce the vibration
readings in one direction, but the readings will increase in the other

Page 18
 Looseness
mm/s

Vibration Amplitude
10

3.1

0.31

Loose Foundation
2X often high Sub-harmonics .5X 1X 1.5X 2X 3X
Frequency

mm/s

Vibration Amplitude
10

3.1

0.31

Loose shaft .5X 1X 1.5X 2X 3X

Frequency
Often series of sub harmonic
Components ½, 1/3, ... 1/n

Mechanical looseness produce a strongly distorted signal. The inter

harmonics (½, 1/3 etc.) are attributable to the fact that the loose part
bounces and thus does get excited every 2nd or 3rd revolution of the
shaft.

Looseness between a machine and its foundation will increase the 1X

vibration component in the direction if the least stiffness. This is usually
the horizontal direction, but it depends on the physical layout of the
machine. Low-order 1X harmonics are also commonly produced if the
looseness is severe. It is often hard to tell imbalance from foundation
looseness or flexibility, especially in vertical machines. If 1X tangential is
much greater than 1X radial, looseness is suspected. If 1X tangential is
lower than or equal to 1X radial, then imbalance is suspected. Foundation
flexibility or looseness can be caused by loose bolts, corrosion, or
cracking of mounting hardware.

Page 19
 Looseness
Vertical Looseness

Vertical Looseness
Mechanical looseness in the vertical plane generates a series of harmonic and half
harmonic
frequency components. Figure above is a simple example of a vertical
mechanical looseness signature.
In most cases, the half-harmonic components are about one-half of the amplitude of
the harmonic components. They result from the machine-train lifting until stopped by
the bolts. The impact as the machine reaches the upper limit of travel generates a
frequency
component at one-half multiples (i.e., orders) of running speed. As the
machine returns to the bottom of its movement, its original position, a larger impact
occurs that generates the full harmonics of running speed.
The difference in amplitude between the full harmonics and half-harmonics is caused
by the effects of gravity. As the machine lifts to its limit of travel, gravity resists the
lifting force. Therefore, the impact force that is generated as the machine foot contacts
the mounting bolt is the difference between the lifting force and gravity. As the
machine drops, the force of gravity combines with the force generated by imbalance.
The impact force as the machine foot contacts the foundation is the sum of the force
of gravity and the force resulting from imbalance.

Page 20
 Looseness
Horizontal Looseness

The Figure illustrates horizontal mechanical looseness, which is also

common to machine-trains. In this example, the machine's support legs
flex in the horizontal plane. Unlike the vertical looseness illustrated in
previous fig (vertical looseness), gravity is uniform at each leg and there is
no increased impact energy as the leg's direction is reversed.
Horizontal mechanical looseness generates a combination of first (1x) and
second (2x) harmonic vibrations. Since the energy source is the
machine’s rotating shaft, the timing of the flex is equal to one complete
revolution of the shaft, or 1x . During this single rotation, the mounting
legs flex to their maximum deflection on both sides of neutral. The double
change in direction as the leg first deflects to one side then the other
generates a frequency at two times (2x) the shaft’s rotating speed.

Page 21
 Rotor Rub
mm/

10

3.1

0.31

Truncated waveform .5X 1X 1.5X 2X 2.5X 3X

• Symptoms same as Mechanical

Looseness
• Subharmonics ½ ,1/3 etc.
• Strong Harmonic pattern
Caused by truncation

The characteristics of Rotor Rub are very similar to mechanics looseness.

Page 22
 Shaft Crack
X/Y Position History
Shaft
ShaftCracks
Cracksmaymaybe bedetected
detected
by
bymonitoring
monitoringof of
••Amplitude
Amplitudeand andPhase
Phaseofof
1X
1Xfirst
firstand
and2X2Xand
and
second
secondharmonic
harmonicof ofRPM.
RPM.
Longitudinal Crack ••Monitoring
Monitoringof ofCoast
Coastdown
down
and
andRun
Run- -up
upcharacteristics
characteristics
when
whenpassing
passingthrough
through
resonance
resonance

Radial Crack

Amplitude
Nyquist Bode

rpm

Phase
rpm
Run Up
1X Run Up

Shaft Cracks have been detected by continuously monitoring of 1st and

2nd harmonics, or by comparing run ups and coast down, where a
cracked shaft will change the characteristic curve as it passes through the
resonance.
Shaft Cracks are often mistaken for the far more common misalignment.

Page 23
 Journal Bearings
Sleeve Bearing Looseness
Wear
mm/s
Clearance Problems
• Harmonic Series 10
of Rotation Speed
3.1

0.31

1X 2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X 8X 9X 10X...

Sleeve Bearing Looseness Symptoms

The precise symptoms detected and amplitudes recorded on a spectrum will depend on
the amount of force being generated by the shaft's rotation, where we are taking the
readings and other variables.

Even if direct shaft readings are taken, if there is not enough force being generated to
cause the shaft to throw itself around, the shaft will simply spin as the bearing continues
to wear and the clearances continue to increase. In this case, vibration symptoms of the
problem will be minimal or even non-existent.

If the readings are taken on the housing instead of the shaft, you may be measuring
only 10% or so of shaft movement and the chances are even greater that vibration
symptoms of bearing wear will not be generated. Other factors now involved include the
relative masses of the rotor and bearing housing / structure (how much can the
relatively lightweight shaft move the massive housing ?).

It is important to understand that vibration is not monitoring bearing condition as it is

x

with rolling element bearings. It is monitoring a result of the bearing wear - looseness -
that does not cause vibration. Looseness merely allows the forces present to have more
of an effect than they would if everything was properly fastened in place. If there are
insufficient forces to throw the rotor around, vibration symptoms are not generated.

Page 24
 Journal Bearings
Oil Whirl
mm/s
normally 42 %- 47 % of
Oil whirl can be induced by several running speed
conditions including: • May appear from 0.3 -0.7X
10 in some occasions
• Light dynamic and preload forces 3.1 • Non Synchronous
1
• Excessive bearing wear or clearance
0.31

• A change in oil properties (primarily shear viscosity)

0.43X 1X 2X
• An increase or decrease in oil pressure or oil temperature;
improper bearing design (sometimes an over design for the wo= 0
actual shaft loading) fluid leakage in the shroud of blades
and shaft labyrinth seals (so-called “aerodynamic force”)
wo= ws
• Change in internal damping (hysteretic, or material damping,
or dry friction) gyroscopic effects, especially on overhung
rotors with excessive overhang.

Any of these conditions can induce oil whirl after a disturbing

force induces an initial rotor deflection. Oil Film Within a Journal

Oil Whirl, although unusual, can occur when clearances become excessive. An oil wedge
is formed that is held in place by the rotation of the shaft. The friction of the shaft against
the wedge then pushes the shaft around the housing. Fortunately (for the analyst), it
occurs in a very precise sub-synchronous frequency range.

Some bearing designs may develop instability at certain conditions of oil viscosity and bearing load. In such
cases the oil film will pump around the shaft with about the average speed of the oil film speed profile.
The speed of such pumping normally appears around 42 % - 47% of the shaft speed though instability has
been reported in the range 30% to 70 % of shaft speed.
- Sometimes machines exhibit oil whirl intermittently due to external vibratory forces transmitting into the unit or
from sources within the machinery itself. In these cases, these vibratory forces have the same frequency as
the oil whirl frequency of that bearing and can contribute just the right magnitude of disturbing force at just the
right tuned frequency to set the shaft into the whirl motion. This vibration transmits from other machinery
through attached structures such as piping and braces, or even through the floor and foundation. If this occurs,
it may be necessary to either isolate this machine from surrounding machinery, or to isolate the offending
machine itself.
-Oil whirl is easily recognized by its unusual vibration frequency which is generally 40 percent to 48 percent of
shaft RPM. (some reference states that pure oil whirl occurs at 43 percent of shaft speed, but that the
instability may occur at the first critical speed.)
- Oil whirl is considered severe when vibration amplitudes reach 40 to 50 percent of the normal bearing
clearance. At this point, corrective action must be taken.
-Temporary corrective measures include changing the temperature of the oil (thus, the oil viscosity), purposely
introducing a slight unbalance or misalignment to increase the loading, temporarily shifting the alignment by
heating or cooling support legs, scraping the sides of or grooving the bearing surface to disrupt the lubricant
wedge, or changing the oil pressure.
-Permanent corrective steps to resolve the oil whirl problem include installing a new bearing shell with proper
clearances, preloading the bearing by an internal oil pressure dam, or completely changing the bearing type to
oil film bearings that are less susceptible to oil whirl (including axial-groove bearings, lobed bearings or tilting
pad bearings). The tilting pad bearing is a good choice because each segment or pad develops a pressurized
oil wedge tending to center the shaft in the bearing, thereby increasing the system damping and overall
stability.

Page 25
 Journal Bearings
Oil Whip
mm/s

Oil Whip Symptoms

10

Oil whirl is present (bearing clearances are excessive). 3.1

Problem develops when rotor is running at 2.1-2.4x
1
critical speed (at this speed, the frequency of the rotor's
1st critical is between 0.42-0.48xRPM - the oil whirl 0.31

range).
High vibration develops at frequency of rotor's critical
0.43X 1X 2X
speed. This occurs when the vibration due to the oil whirl
condition acts to excite the resonant frequency of the
rotor. · High vibration remains at frequency of 1st
critical even as rotor speed continues to increase.

Oil Film Within a Journal

Page 26
 Rolling Element Bearings
Faults in Rolling Element Bearings
are Detected with CPB in the High
frequency range

Envelope Spectra can be used both

for Detection and Diagnosis of
Rolling Element Bearing Faults

No Defects on Rolling Element

Bearing

“Flat” Envelope Spectrum.

Rolling element bearing faults normally start with small cracks or spalls,
which produce very hard impacts by the passing of the balls.

As the bearing impacts are very short, they will contain energy in very
high frequencies - the resonances of the force path will be excited and
ring.

Detection of bearing wear is done by seeing increases of the resonances

of the bearing and the machine structure in the 2kHz - 14 kHz
frequency range.

Using Envelope analysis the modulation of the high frequency can be

analyzed. Envelope analysis provides thus an excellent tool for both
detection and diagnosis of bearing signals.

If no modulation is present in the signal. There will be no peaks in the

envelope spectra.

Page 27
 Rolling Element Bearing Frequencies

D1 D2

D1  D 2
PD
2
n = number of balls

f r = rotation frequency

The rolling element bearing can be considered as a planetary gear with

the inner ring as the sun weal and the balls as planets. Different defects
will be repeated at frequencies which can be calculated with above
formulas. The Ball Diameter and the Race diameters, as well as the
contact angle beta is normally given by the manufacturer. The number of
balls is given in newer literature from the bearing manufacturers. You
may use the mounting diameters of the bearing for calculating the Pitch
Diameter if the Outer and Inner Race diameter is not available.
It is general experience that these frequencies show up in a FFT
spectrum at a very late stage of bearing wear.
With envelope analysis the bearing frequencies are seen at a very early
stage of fault development however. The envelope analysis can be used
for accurately predicting the breakdown of a bearing.
It should be noted that the balls will slip few percents in the bearings
specially when lightly loaded.

Page 28
 Typical Bearing Defects
Development Envelope Analysis
1. Outer Race Faults
• Lead Time Month’s
• Ball Pass Frequency Outer
Race ( BPFO) and Harmonic
BPFO

RPM

2. Inner Race Faults

• Lead Time Days - Weeks
• Ball Pass Frequency Inner Race BPFI
(BPFI) With Side bands
of Rotation speed

3. Ball Defects
• Requires Immediate action
• Ball Spin Frequency
BSF
BSF with Harmonics.
• Often in combinations with
above with various inter-harmonics.

The typical bearing fault start as a crack or spall in the outer race.
Depending on bearing load a rolling element bearing can “survive” long
time with an outer race fault.

An outer race spall will eventually develop to a wear. This can be seen in
the envelope spectrum by the reduction of harmonics of the BPFO and an
increase of the BPFO itself.

At as certain stage the balls off tracked by the outer race fault will cause
a fault in the inner race. As the fault in the inner race is rotating into and
out of the load zone, the fault frequency will be modulated with the
rotation speed, and thus produce side bands with RPM spacing.
An inner race fault is often faster growing than an outer race fault.
In the end of a bearing fault, often faults and the balls are seen as well
as inter modulation frequencies between the different fault types.

Page 29
 Bearing Mounting Defects
Analyzed With Envelope Analysis
Rotor Misalignment
1*RPM
Rotor Unbalance
RPM

Radial Tension 2*RPM

of Bearing
2*RPM

Misalignment of
2*BPFO
outer Race (Cocked)
2*BPFO

Slip of Race in Harmonics

the Mounting Seat of RPM
RPM

Increase of
Lubrication Defect Background
level

The earliest detection of bearing fault is done by placing the envelope

filter on a resonance of the bearing. By doing so however, one miss the
opportunity of classifying the defect depth, by the height of the peaks in
the envelope spectrum.
Also one misses the opportunity of being able to analyze above defects in
the envelope spectra.

For getting the best information about modulations of random noise

produced by a rolling element bearing, it is recommended to place the
envelope filter in the high frequency at a place where signal is available,
but not amplified by resonances. (There should be maximum 10dB
variation across the envelope filter range).

Page 30
 AC Motor Induction Motor Problems

Electrically Generated Vibrations

The supply of AC power to a motor generates

mechanical vibration.
Since AC power is supplied as a sinusoid,
each pole of the motor is energized twice
once with a "+" peak and once with a "-"
peak during each cycle.

This means that the most common vibration frequency that is generated
is NOT line frequency it is 2x line frequency ( 2 x 50 Hz= 100 Hz)

Page 31
 AC Motor Induction Motor Problems
There are two spectra necessary to detecting electrically-related problems.
Each example that follows is taken on one or the other.

•High frequency (200 x RPM).

•High resolution (12kcpm Fmax w/ 1600 lines is usually sufficient).

There are also certain terms and frequencies which must be defined:

FLine = Electrical line frequency - normally 50 Hz (3000 rpm) or 60 Hz (3600

rpm).

2 x FLine = Torque Pulse Frequency. This is a common frequency found on a high

resolution spectrum.

P = # of poles on the motor. The number of poles is how the speed of the motor is
controlled. The greater the number of poles, the slower the motor runs. The number
of poles is always an even number (2, 4, 6, etc.).

Page 32
 AC Induction Motor Problems:
Air gap Variation, Stator Weakness & Winding Shorts

Air Gap Variation, Winding Shorts, Stator Weakness Symptoms:

High amplitudes at 2 x FLine.

Recommended Actions:

Check for soft foot and repair.

Check alignment and repair.
Perform winding tests to assess insulation integrity of the windings.
Live with it or buy a new motor.

The Stator- consists of the windings and the metal of the motor housing
itself (i.e. the 'iron', or 'core'). The symptom we will see here is related to
variation in the air gap between the windings and the rotor. That air gap is
not perfectly even all the way around. Since the strength of a magnetic
field - which causes the rotation of the rotor - is proportional to the gap
(the smaller the gap, the stronger the force), variation in the gap produces
vibration at (2 x FLine). The greater the variation, the higher the
amplitude. The air gap can also be affected, however, by mechanical
problems such as soft foot (which stresses & distorts the housing), stator
looseness / weakness (allowing it to be influenced to a greater degree by
those magnetic forces) and winding shorts (which cause localized heating
and thermal distortion). The only one of the previous problems that is
easily tested for and fixed is soft foot.

Page 33
 AC Induction Motor Problems:
Eccentric Rotor

Eccentric Rotor Symptoms

-High amplitudes at 2 x FLine.

-Possible sidebands around 2x line frequency and/or 1x rpm.

Recommended Actions:
-Check for soft foot and repair.
-Check alignment and repair.
-On-line current analysis to assess condition and determine severity.
-Live with it or buy a new motor.

NOTE: It is important to realize that vibration at 2 x FLine is a normally

occurring vibration. The effect on the bearings is no greater or less than
the same amplitude due to unbalance. Do not over-react.

NOTE: Do not confuse the presence of a running speed harmonic with a

pole pass frequency sideband. By definition, a running speed harmonic
will always be separated from 2 x FLine by pole pass frequency.

Page 34
 AC Induction Motor Problems:
Phasing Problems

One Possible Spectrum Caused By A Problem With Another Possible Spectrum Caused By A Problem With
A Short In One Of The Phases Or Feeder Cables A Short In One Of The Phases Or Feeder Cables

Single Phasing Symptoms:

High amplitudes at 2 x FLine (this can be the only symptom).
Sidebands around 2 x FLine at 1/3 FLine (1/3 line frequency).
Recommended Actions:
This may occur with a sudden, dramatic increase in amplitudes. In that case,
a short should be suspected and testing should be performed.
Inspect connections at junction box on motor.
Surge test unit from motor control center.
This will detect a problem anywhere in the leads, splices or windings.
If a problem is found, the splices at the motor should be broken and the leads and
windings tested separately to isolate the problem.
If nothing found in windings, on-line current analysis should be performed on the motor.

The main problem caused by phasing shorts is impeding the free flow of
current to the motor. This can cause problems ranging from danger to
personnel to heat-related damage to catastrophic motor failure.

Page 35
 AC Induction Motor Problems:
Broken / Cracked Rotor Bars

Broken Cracked Rotor Bar Symptoms:

FPole sidebands surrounding running speed harmonics.
Advanced problems will exhibit a 'humming' or 'pulsing' sound and feel.
Significant is the number of and size of the sidebands.
They increase as the unit Deteriorates.
Amplitude at 1x rpm is relatively unimportant - it will fluctuate greatly as the
hot spots being generated cause the rotor to bow unpredictably.
It is a result of the problem - not a cause.
Recommended Actions:
On-line current analysis to determine severity.
Limit starts since they are easily the single,
most destructive thing you can do to a motor.

Page 36
 AC Induction Motor Problems:
Loose Rotor Bars

Loose Rotor Bar Symptoms:

High amplitude at a very high frequency (WSPF, but we don't know what it is)
accompanied by sidebands at 2 x FLine.
This symptom is not unusual and at low amplitudes - below 0.1 ips or 2.5 mm/sec –
often means little more than an imperfection in the machine.
In fact, it usually has more to do with a potential winding problem than rotor bar looseness.
Vibration at 2 x WSPF and even 3 x WSPF w/ sidebands at 2 x FLine.
These are much more unusual and indicate a much more potentially severe problem.
Symptoms identical to the next problem - looseness in the windings
(make sure both are understood before recommending any action for either problem).
Recommended Actions:
On-line current analysis to determine severity. If a healthy rotor is found, it is more
likely a potential winding problem.
Winding testing in addition to rotor testing will provide for a comprehensive eletrcial PdM program.

Loose rotor bars- Extremely unusual and never found in cast rotors. As a
loose rotor bar passes a winding slot, the magnetic force causes it to
momentarily lift and then drop. The frequency, then, is the number of
windings slots x RPM (Winding Slot Pass Frequency or WSPF). The
number of winding slots will be between about 25 and 100. The bad news
is that you will not know the number of winding slots and it is very difficult
to find out. The good news is that the vibration is accompanied by a
precise sideband - 2 x FLine.

Page 37
 AC Induction Motor Problems:
Loose in Winding Slots, Iron, End Turns And/Or Connections

Velocity FFT Showing Pattern Of Peaks Separated By 2xLine Frequency (Sidebands)

In High Frequency Range (30-90xRPM).

Envelope Plot Showing 2xLine Peak And Harmonics. This Indicates Impacts Occurring At 2xLine Frequency.

Looseness In The Windings Symptoms:

High amplitude at a very high frequency (RBPF, but we don't know what it is)
accompanied by sidebands at 2 x FLine.
This is not unusual and often means little. In fact,
it often has more to do with a potential winding problem than rotor bar looseness
Amplitude peaks on the enveloping spectra at 2 x FLine and harmonics.
Recommended Actions:
Surge testing to check insulation integrity and test for any wire to wire, turn to turn
and phase to phase shorts as well as the integrity of the ground wall insulation.

Looseness in the winding slots- are detectable with vibration analysis but
cannot be trended towards failure since the problem does not worsen
(vibration-wise) prior to winding failure. The problem causes wear of the
insluation on the windings and eventually a ground short (catastrophic
failure). Only winding testers (surge testing) can trend this problem and
assess the severity. It is commonly found and should not be over-reacted
to. The symptoms are very similar to loose rotor bars on the velocity /
acceleration spectra. Additionally, however, there will be high amplitude
peaks on your enveloping spectra (e.g. gSE spectrum) at 2 x FLine and
harmonics. Each time a rotor bar passes the loose winding, it lifts and
then drops back. The vibration frequency, therefore, is the number of rotor
bars x RPM (rotor bar pass frequency = RBPF). Like WSPF, it will be
surrounded by 2 x FLine sidebands. Like the number of winding slots, we
won't know the number of rotor bars but it's not important - the pattern of
peaks separated by 2 x FLine is the clue we need.

Page 38
 AC Variable Frequency Drives

Variable Frequency Drives - VFD's are AC motors that give the operator the
speed control that a DC Drive normally provides at a small fraction of the cost
and difficulty in maintenance and troubleshooting. It operates exactly as an
AC induction motor does with all of the same electrically generated frequencies.
That's the good news.
The bad news is that a VFD is the vibration analyst's worst nightmare.
For example, the vibration frequencies detectable with both AC induction motors
and DC motors are constant - only a couple vary at all and they are part of a easily
recognizable pattern. With a VFD, the speed is controlled by modifying the
frequency of the power supply. In other words, a motor normally running
at 3550 rpm can be slowed down to, say, 1775 rpm (1/2) by reducing line
frequency from 60 Hz to 30 Hz. In all likelihood, however, you will not know
the exact frequency being supplied to the motor and that is the problem

Page 39
 Synchronous Motors

Synchronous Motors
Loose Stator Coils
• RPM spaced Sidebands
around Coil Pass Frequency.

1 RPM
spacing

1X 2X Coil Pass Freq.

Loose stator coils in synchronous motors may generate high vibration at

the coil passing frequency which is the number of stator coils times the
RPM.
Modulation is often present and can be seen as side bands spaced with
RPM.

Page 40
 DC Motors
Half Wave rectification
This type of drive arrangement is
known as "half-wave rectified". You 1 2 3
can see from the animation that FLine DC
is supplied to the drive. However, if the Voltage
drive is operating properly, the seen
frequency will be 3x FLine. 3x FLine is
a normal vibration frequency to be
found on a DC motor. This frequency
is known as SCR firing frequency, or
FSCR. The amplitude at FSCR can be
up to 0.1 ips (2.5 mm/sec) before Bottom half of Wave Cut off
beginning to cause any notice. There
can also be a small amplitude peak at
2x FSCR.

Page 41
 DC Motors

Full Wave rectification

FSCR on a full-wave rectified drive is, 1 2 3 4 5 6

DC
of course, 6x Line Frequency.
You can see how a full-wave rectified drive
Voltage
gives better control and a more constant
voltage than a half-wave rectified drive
does.

Bottom half of Wave Cut off

Page 42
 DC Motors

DC Motors
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
SCR firing frequency increase may show:
• Bad SCR
•Loose Connections
•Broken Field Windings

1X 2X SFC Freq.= 6*Line freq. 2*SCR

At the SCR frequency which is usually 6 times the line frequency,

increases will show problems with the SCR.
DC Drives - generate certain electrical frequencies due to the way the drive itself works.
Direct current is the flow of electricity in one direction (as opposed to alternating current
which changes direction at a rate of 50 times per second). However, a DC drive gets its
power supplied by an AC power source. Since AC power is a sinusoid, the drive cuts off
the bottom ("-" portion) of the sine wave in order to get a constant "+" voltage. This is
done with an SCR - a 'Silicon Controlled Rectifier'. Using a single SCR, however, would
result in a '+' peak followed by a period of no current flow since the '-' peak would be cut
off. This would be unacceptable as it would lead to a surging, pulsing power supply. A
better solution is to have 3 SCR's with the AC signals separated by a 120° phase lag. The
following animation shows how that would create a much more constant power supply.

DC motors are often controlled by Silicon Controlled Rectifiers ( SCR ).

At the SCR frequency which is usually 6 times the line frequency,

increases will show problems with the SCR.
DC Drives - generate certain electrical frequencies due to the way the
drive itself works. Direct current is the flow of electricity in one direction
(as opposed to alternating current which changes direction at a rate of 60
times per second). However, a DC drive gets its power supplied by an AC
power source. Since AC power is a sinusoid, the drive cuts off the bottom
("-" portion) of the sine wave in order to get a constant "+" voltage. This is
done with an SCR - a 'Silicon Controlled Rectifier'. Using a single SCR,
however, would result in a '+' peak followed by a period of no current flow
since the '-' peak would be cut off. This would be unacceptable as it would
lead to a surging, pulsing power supply. A better solution is to have 3
SCR's with the AC signals separated by a 120° phase lag. The following
animation shows how that would create a much more constant power
supply.

Page 43
Spectrum Example on DC Motor

Page 44
 Centrifugal Pumps Problems

Cavitation begins as the formation of vapor

bubbles at the impeller eye due to low
pressure.

The bubbles form at the position of lowest

pressure at the pump inlet which is just prior
to the fluid being acted upon by the impeller
vanes and then rapidly compressed.

The compression of the vapor bubbles

produces a small shock wave that impacts
the impeller surface and pits away at the
metal creating over time large eroded areas
and subsequent failure.

The sound of cavitation is very characteristic

and resembles the sound of gravel in a
concrete mixer.

Page 45
 Pumps Problems
Centrifugal Pumps Cavitation is caused by the collapse of small bubbles that occurs
during local boiling at certain condition of the fluid (low dynamic
The following spectrum, containing pressure) The Collapses are short in time and thus wide in Frequency.
broadband high-frequency noise,
indicates cavitation in a centrifugal
-The resonances are exited throughout the spectrum
pump due to low inlet pressure.
-Specially high Frequencies are exited

- In Envelope Spectra an increase of the background

level with no distinct lines are seen.

Constant Percentage Bandwidth Spectrum Envelope Spectrum

The faster a fluid travels by an object the lower the pressure will be, this
phenomenon is well known as Bernoulli's law, and it is the reason that
aero planes can fly and turbo machines are working.
The lower the pressure, the lower the boiling temperature of water.
In some instances the water of a pump may start boiling locally as a
result of the local fluid speed will decrease local dynamic pressure and
hence decreased the boiling point below the fluid temperature.
When the local pressure increases again the small bubbles formed in the
boiling process collapses very rapidly. The rapid collapse causes shock
pulses which may be strong enough to break apart fragments of metal on
the location it occurs - cavitation wear.
The collapsing bubbles also induce shock waves which are transferred
through the structure. Since the pulses are very short, they have a very
high frequency content, and they will excite resonances throughout the
spectrum range.

Page 46
 Pumps Problems Cont.
Gear Pumps

Gear pumps are commonly used for pumping lube oil, and they almost always have a strong vibration
component at the tooth mesh frequency, which is the number of teeth on the gear times the RPM.
This component will be highly dependent on the output pressure of the pump. If the tooth mesh
frequency changes significantly, such as the sudden appearance of harmonics or sidebands in the
vibration spectrum, it could indicate a cracked or otherwise damaged tooth.

Gear
Meshing
Vibration Amplitude

1X Frequency

Typical Gear Pump Spectrum Frequency

Page 47
 Pumps Problems Cont.

Screw Pumps

The screw type pump can generate a multitude

of frequency components in the vibration spectrum.
Thread (loop) wear or damage will usually produce
strong harmonics of the thread rate, which is
the number of threads (loop) times the RPM.

Vibration Amplitude Loop

1X Meshing
Frequency

Frequency

Page 48
 Fan Problems

Fans
A phenomena similar to gear mesh frequency is Van passing
frequency on fluid-handling machines.
The source of Van Passing frequency is a pressure fluctuation
as a Van Passes a discontinuity within its chamber
The Van Passing Frequency is always the product of the
rotational speed times the number of Vanes.
d
ee
Sp

d
ee

Blade
n

Sp
Vibration Amplitude

Fa

Passing
to r

Frequency
Mo

Frequency

Fan are the cause of more field vibration problems than any other
category of machines. Motors easily outnumber every other kind of
machine and are a significant source of vibration on their own, but fans
require more attention to keep running. The reasons are their function and
their construction.

Page 49
 Compressor Problems

Screw Compressor
The screw type compressor can generate a
multitude of frequency components in the
vibration spectrum. Thread (loop) wear or
damage will usually produce strong
harmonics of the thread rate, which is the
number of threads (loop) times the RPM.

Screw
Vibration Amplitude

1X Meshing
Frequency

Frequency

Page 50
 Gears

Gear Boxes Produce Complex Spectra

Cepstrum Analysis and Time Domain

averaging greatly simplifies the job of
the analysis in assessment of Gear
Box faults.

TMF 2*TMF

Gear
GearBox
BoxSpectrum
Spectrum Gear
GearBox
BoxCepstrum
Cepstrum
• Faults produce Side Band families
• Faults produce Side Band families
• •The
TheEnergy
Energyofofeach
eachSide
SideBand
Band
around
aroundtooth
toothmesh
meshfrequency
frequency(TMF)
(TMF) Family
Family(fault)
(fault)isiseasily
easilyassessed.
assessed.
and harmonics TMF.
and harmonics TMF.

Gear box spectra contains a range of frequencies of the different tooth

mesh and its harmonics.
The tooth mesh frequency itself, is generally dependent of gearbox load,
whereas gear box wear can be diagnosed as an increase of the 2nd and
3rd harmonic.
Side bands around the tooth mesh frequency and its harmonics, are quite
common and contains information about gearbox faults.
As a general rule a distributed faults such as runout and gear
misalignment will produce side bands which have high amplitudes close
around the fault, whereas distributed faults produce side bands which are
spread more widely.
Cepstrum analysis produce an excellent tool for analyzing the energy in
each side band family.
With signal enhancement analysis you may collect the vibration spectrum
from a single shaft inside a gear box.

Use of Order analysis will eliminate smearing the many components

together due to small speed variations.

Page 51
 Gear Normal Spectrum

z Normal spectrum shows 1X and 2X and gear mesh

frequency GMF
z GMF commonly will have sidebands of running speed
z All peaks are of low amplitude and no natural frequencies
are present

Page 52
 Gear teeth Wear

z Wear is indicated by excitation of natural frequencies along

with sidebands of the bad gear running speed
z Sidebands are a better wear indicator than the GMF
z GMF may not change in amplitude when wear occurs

Page 53
 Gear Eccentricity and Backlash

z Fairly high amplitude sidebands around GMF suggest

eccentricity, backlash or non parallel shafts
z The problem gear will modulate the sidebands
z Incorrect backlash normally excites gear natural frequency

Page 54
 Gear misalignment

Vibration Amplitude
2xGMF
3xGMF
GMF

Frequency

z Gear misalignment almost always excites second order or higher

harmonics with sidebands of running speed
z Small amplitude at 1X GMF but higher levels at 2X
and 3X GMF
z Important to set Fmax high enough to capture at least
2X GMF

Page 55
 Cracked or broken tooth

Vibration Amplitude
GMF
1X

Frequency

z A cracked or broken tooth will generate a high amplitude at 1X RPM

of the gear
z It will excite the gear natural frequency which will be side banded by
the running speed fundamental
z Time interval between impacts will be the reciprocal of the 1X RPM

Page 56
End

Page 57