Computer Fundamentals Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Computer Fundamentals Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Unit 1
Computer Basics
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ /

Topic Page No
No / Graph Activity
1 Introduction - -
3- 6
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Criteria for using Computers - 1 7-8
3 Characteristics of a Computers - 2 9 - 10
4 History of Computers - -
4.1 In the pre-computer era and Early -
-
Computing Devices
11 - 14
4.2 Development of Modern Computers -
-
and Key Milestones
4.3 Evolution of Computer Architecture - -
5 Generations of Computer - 3 15 - 17
6 Classification of Computers 1 4 18 - 19
7 Applications of Computer - 5 20 - 21
8 Basic Components of PC - 6 22 - 23
9 Computer Architecture 2 7 24 - 26
10 Summary - - 27
11 Terminal Questions - - 28
12 Answers - - 28 - 29

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1. INTRODUCTION

At the beginning of civilization, our ancestors used figures and pebbles for computing
purposes. With the growth in civilisation, our need for computing also grew. The need for a
mechanism to perform lengthy and complex calculations led to the invention of the first
calculator and then to computers.

The term ‘computer’ is derived from ‘compute’, which means to calculate. A computer can be
defined as an electronic device which processes the input (data) and displays the desired
output. The computer is also used for storing data. In this unit, you will be studying the
characteristics of computers and getting to know the different classifications of computers.
You will also study the different applications of computers. Further, we will discuss the
architecture of computers in which we can explain the different devices and know the
different functions of those devices.

1.1 Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

❖ List the characteristics of computers.

❖ Classify various generations of computers.
❖ Elaborate on the different classifications of computers.
❖ Identify the applications of computers.
❖ Explain various components of a computer.

1.1.1 Purpose and Scope of Computer Basics

Purpose:

• Having a basic understanding of computers and technology is crucial in today's digital

age. Computer basics play a vital role in helping individuals understand what a
computer is, how it works, and the components that make up a computer system. This
knowledge is necessary for anyone who wants to utilize computers personally or
professionally.

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• Computer basics are a fundamental part of digital literacy, which is the ability to use,
understand, and navigate digital technologies. It is an essential skill in today's
technology-driven world. Learning computer basics teaches problem-solving skills, as
individuals must troubleshoot and address various issues that may arise when using
computers. Additionally, computer basics enable individuals to use computers as tools
to enhance their efficiency in various tasks, from word processing to data analysis and
communication.
• Many careers require a basic understanding of computers and technology. Computer
basics provide the foundation for more advanced IT and computer science studies or
careers in fields where computer use is essential.

Scope:

• Computer basics include understanding computer hardware, such as the central

processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, input/output devices, and
peripherals. Additionally, it includes learning about software, including operating
systems and applications, and how to install, run, and manage software on a
computer.
• Exploring different operating systems and their basic features, including file
management, user interfaces, and system settings, is also a part of computer basics.
Another essential aspect is organizing and managing files and folders on a computer,
including creating, moving, copying, and deleting files. Understanding basic
networking concepts like IP addresses and connectivity and computer security best
practices, including password management, antivirus software, and protecting
personal information online, is also an essential part of learning computer basics.
• Identifying and solving common computer problems, such as software errors,
hardware issues, and network connectivity problems, is also crucial. Introduction to
common productivity software like word processors, spreadsheets, and presentation
software, and how to use them for various tasks is also a part of computer basics.
• Understanding ethical considerations related to computer and internet usage,
including issues like privacy, online behavior, and digital rights, and an overview of

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emerging technologies and trends in computing, such as artificial intelligence, cloud

computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT), is also included in computer basics.

In conclusion, computer basics serve as a foundation for individuals to build more advanced
computer skills and adapt to evolving technology. Whether for personal use or as a
prerequisite for a career in technology, having a grasp of these fundamentals is essential in
today's digital age.

1.1.2 Importance of Computer Basics in Various Fields

It is evident that computers have become an integral part of our lives, and every field relies
on them somehow.

• In the business and finance sector: computers are crucial for data management,
accounting and finance, and e-commerce.
• In education: computers facilitate digital learning, administrative tasks, and research.
• In healthcare: computers play a vital role in managing patient records, medical
imaging, and research.
• In science and research: computers are used for data analysis, visualization, and
communication. Engineers and designers use computers for CAD, CAM, simulation, and
project management.
• In IT and computer science: computer basics are the foundation for software
development, network management, and cybersecurity. Government agencies use
computers for data analysis and administrative functions.
• In art and entertainment: computers are used in media production and gaming. In
agriculture, computers assist in precision farming and data analytics.
• In social sciences: computers are crucial for survey research and statistical analysis.

1.1.3 Evolution of Computers and Introduction to Generations

Computers' evolution dates to when people used their fingers or pebbles to count or add.
Later, computing devices such as the abacus, Napier bones, and slide rule were invented to
simplify the process of counting. In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented the first functional
automatic calculator, which was called the Pascaline. It used eight movable dials to add up

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to eight figures long. In 1694, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz extended Pascal’s design to
perform multiplication, division and find square roots, creating a machine called the Stepped
Reckoner. Charles Babbage proposed the first machine to perform differential equations,
called the Difference Engine, in 1822. In 1889, Herman Hollerith, who worked for the US
Census Bureau, used the Jacquard loom concept and cards to store data, which he fed into a
machine that compiled the results mechanically. Harvard Aiken and IBM built the electronic
calculating machine Mark I in 1944, which used relays and electromagnetic components to
replace mechanical components. In 1946, John Eckert and John Mauchly developed ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), which used electronic vacuum tubes to
replace mechanical parts. They also proposed the concept of EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer), which was the first electronic computer to use the stored
program concept introduced by John von Neumann. In 1949, Maurice Wilkes developed
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) at Cambridge University. The
machine used mercury delay lines for memory and vacuum tubes for logic. The Eckert-
Mauchly Corporation manufactured UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) in 1951,
which marked the real beginning of the computer era.

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2. CRITERIA FOR USING COMPUTERS

Computers play a vital role in our daily life. Any work that can be carried out systematically,
using a precise step-by-step method, can be performed by a computer.

Some of the major criteria for using computers are:

• To make quick availability of information:

Computers are used to process raw data and convert it into meaningful information. As
the computer works at a very high speed, the information is retrieved quickly and
promptly.

• To provide highly accurate and reliable information:

The information produced by the computer is highly accurate, reliable and dependable.
The computers perform their task as per the given program.

• To prepare reports:

The computers help to generate various types of financial and non-financial reports
required by executives for decision making and control in a short period.

• To reduce paperwork:

Using computers for data processing has helped the management of business
organisations to cope with the increasing problem of paper handling by speeding up
the process and eliminating paper needs through proper storage of data in elaborately
constructed databases and files where they can be retrieved when needed.

• To prepare statements of payroll, income tax, etc.

Computers are used to prepare payroll and to generate various other statements such
as income tax statements, provident fund statements, etc.

• To identify problem areas: The computer facilitates the identification of business

problems by analysing data. It helps the management to take corrective action over the
business problem.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1

1. The speed of a computer is calculated in___________.

2. The level depends on the instructions and the type of machines being used.

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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

Nowadays, computers are found everywhere, including in offices, homes, automobiles,

schools, and colleges. The world runs on computers, and they have improved our lives. Let
us discuss some of the characteristics of a computer that make it an essential part of every
emerging technology and such a desirable tool in human development.

• Speed: The computers process data at a speedy rate. The speed of a computer is
calculated in MHz (Megahertz), that is, one million instructions per second. The latest
computers can perform billions of operations in just one second.
• Storage: Computers can store large amounts of data and recall the required
information almost instantaneously. However, the computer's main memory is
relatively small and can hold only a certain amount of data. Therefore, the data is stored
on secondary storage devices like magnetic tapes and disks.
• Accuracy: We can say that computers are accurate because they can do only what they
are instructed to do, so faulty data for processing automatically leads to faulty results.
The level of accuracy depends on the instructions and the type of machines being used.
• Reliability: Reliability generally means the measurement of the performance of a
computer, which is measured against some predetermined standard for operation
without failure.
• Automatic: A computer can automatically perform operations without interfering with
the user during the operations. It automatically controls different devices attached to
the computer and executes the program instructions one by one.
• Diligence / Endurance: A computer can continually work for hours without creating
any errors. A computer is free from dullness and lack of concentration. It does not tire
while working after hours of work, and it performs the operations with the same
accuracy and speed as the first one.
• Versatility: Versatility means flexibility. Modern computers can perform different
kinds of tasks one by one or simultaneously. This is the most essential feature of a
computer. At one moment, you are playing a game on the computer; the next moment,
you are composing and sending emails, etc. In colleges and universities, computers are

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used to deliver lectures to the students. The talent of computers is dependent on the
software.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2

3. A team developed the first computer-like machine from.

4. The invention of the ______ made smaller and less expensive computers possible.

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4. HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Since civilisations began, many of the advances made by science and technology have
depended upon the ability to process large amounts of data and perform complex
mathematical calculations. For thousands of years, mathematicians, scientists and
businessmen have searched for computing machines to perform calculations and analyse
data quickly and efficiently. One such device was the abacus. The abacus was an important
counting machine in ancient Babylon, China, and throughout Europe, where it was used until
the late Middle Ages. It was followed by a series of improvements in mechanical counting
machines that led to the development of accurate mechanical adding machines in the 1930s.
A machine capable of making decisions is called a computer.

A team developed the first computer-like machine from IBM and Harvard University. It used
mechanical telephone relays to store information and it processed data entered on punch
cards. This machine was not an actual computer since it could not make decisions. In June
1943, work began on the world's first electronic computer. It was built at the University of
Pennsylvania as a secret military project during World War II and was to be used to calculate
the trajectory of artillery shells.

The invention of the transistor made smaller and less expensive computers possible.
Although computers shrank, they were still huge by today’s standards. Another innovation
to computers in the ’60s was storing data on

tape instead of punch cards. This gave computers the ability to store and retrieve data
quickly and reliably.

4.1. In the pre-computer era and Early Computing Devices

Humans relied on manual calculations and machines like the abacus to solve mathematical
problems. The first computing devices were developed in the early 19th century, such as
Charles Babbage's Difference Engine and Analytical Engine. These machines used punch
cards to input data and perform calculations, paving the way for the modern computer.

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4.2. Development of Modern Computers and Key Milestones

The development of modern computers has been a long and complex process, spanning over
several decades. The first mechanical computers were built in the 19th century, but it was
not until the mid-20th century that electronic computers were invented. Here are some key
milestones in the development of modern computers:

1. Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine (1837): Charles Babbage designed the first
mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine, which was capable of performing complex
calculations. Although he was never able to build a working model, his ideas laid the
groundwork for the development of modern computers.
2. The First Electronic Computer (1946): The first electronic computer, ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer), was built in 1946 at the University of
Pennsylvania. It was capable of performing 5,000 additions per second.
3. The First Stored-Program Computer (1948): The Manchester Mark I, built at the
University of Manchester in England, was the first electronic computer to use a stored-
program architecture. This allowed it to be programmed with a series of instructions
that could be stored in its memory.
4. The First Transistor Computer (1953): The first computer to use transistors instead of
vacuum tubes was the IBM 7090, which was introduced in 1953. The use of transistors
made the computer smaller, faster, and more reliable than earlier models.
5. The First Integrated Circuit (1960): The first integrated circuit was developed by Jack
Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1960. This allowed multiple transistors to be fabricated
on a single piece of silicon, making computers even smaller and more powerful.
6. The First Personal Computer (1975): The first personal computer, the Altair 8800, was
introduced in 1975 by MITS (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems). It was
sold as a kit and required assembly by the user.
7. The First Apple Computer (1976): The first Apple computer, the Apple I, was
introduced in 1976 by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. It was the first computer to use a
keyboard and a video display.

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8. The First IBM PC (1981): The first IBM PC (Personal Computer) was introduced in
1981. It was the first computer to be based on the Intel 8088 microprocessor and used
the MS-DOS operating system.
9. The World Wide Web (1989): The World Wide Web was invented by Sir Tim Berners-
Lee in 1989. It allowed for the sharing of information on a global scale and paved the
way for the modern internet.
10. The First Smartphone (1992): The first smartphone, the IBM Simon, was introduced in
1992. It was capable of sending and receiving faxes and emails, as well as making phone
calls.

These are just a few of the key milestones in the development of modern computers. Today,
computers are an essential part of our daily lives, and they continue to evolve and improve
rapidly.

4.3. Evolution of Computer Architecture

Computer architecture has undergone significant changes since the first computers were
invented. This section will explore the evolution of computer architecture over time.

The first computers were large and used vacuum tubes. These early computers were not very
reliable and required a lot of maintenance. The second generation of computers used
transistors, which were smaller and more reliable than vacuum tubes. This led to the
development of smaller and more powerful computers.

The third generation of computers used integrated circuits, which were even smaller and
more reliable than transistors. This led to the development of even smaller and more
powerful computers that could be used in a wider range of applications.

The fourth generation of computers saw the development of microprocessors.

Microprocessors are small chips that contain the central processing unit (CPU) of a
computer. This made it possible to build even smaller and more powerful computers that
could be used in a wider range of applications.

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The fifth generation of computers saw the development of parallel processing and artificial
intelligence. Parallel processing allows computers to perform multiple tasks simultaneously,
while artificial intelligence allows computers to learn and make decisions based on data.

Overall, the evolution of computer architecture has led to the development of smaller, more
powerful, and more versatile computers that have transformed the way we live and work.

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5. GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

• First Generation Computers [1940s – 1950s]

The first-generation computers are vacuum tubes. These computers used vacuum
tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. These computers relied on binary-
coded language to perform operations and were able to solve only one problem at a
time. They were huge and required a lot of space for installation. These computers
lacked versatility and speed. Since machine language was used, these computers were
difficult to program and use.

Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC

• Second Generation Computers [1950s – 1960s]

The computers used in the second generation were transistors. The vacuum tubes were
replaced by transistors made up of semiconductor materials like germanium and
silicon. The size of the transistor is small, so the size of the computers was significantly
reduced. These computers used magnetic cores as primary memory and magnetic disks
as secondary storage devices. Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, and more
reliable than their predecessors. The computational time was reduced to microseconds
from milliseconds.

Examples: IBM1401, IBM7090

• Third Generation Computers [1960s – 1970s]

The most significant development of the third generation was an integrated circuit
called IC. It consists of a single chip with components like transistors and resistors
fabricated on it. The development of the transistors helped decrease the size of the
computers as they replaced several individually wired transistors.

In first- and second-generation computers, punched cards and printouts were used to
interact with the computers. Third generation onwards, the user started interacting
through keyboard and monitors and interfaced with an operating system. The

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computers became smaller and cheaper and hence became popular. High-level
programming language was used for programming.

Examples: NCR 395, B6500

• Fourth Generation Computers [1970s – 1980s]

The fourth-generation computers use microprocessors (circuits containing millions of

transistors) as their essential processing device. A microprocessor is built on a single
piece of silicon called a chip. The computers of the fourth generation led to the growth
of large-scale integration (LSI) and very large-scale integration (VLSI) technology. This
technology helped in squeezing thousands of transistors on a single chip. The ultra-
large-scale today's PC (Personal Computer) life1983egration (ULSI) increased the
number to millions. In this way, computers have become smaller, and today's PC
(Personal Computer) lives today's PC (Personal Computer) life is cheaper. During this
period, computers became more popular with the masses. This generation of
computers also saw the development of the graphical user interface, mouse, and
handheld devices. Today's PC (Personal Computer) life worked with Microsoft during
the 1980s to start what we can call PC (Personal Computer) life today. IBM PC was
introduced in October 1981, and it worked with the operating system (software) called
‘Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) 1.0. Development of MS-DOS began in
October 1980 when IBM began searching the market for an operating system for the
then-proposed IBM PC, and significant contributors were Bill Gates, Paul Allen and Tim
Paterson. In 1983, Microsoft Windows was announced, and it has witnessed several
improvements and revisions over the last twenty years.

Examples: Apple II, CRAY – 1.

• Fifth Generation Computers (1980s-Present)

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural

language input and will have the capability of learning and self-organization. These
computers use intelligent programming (artificial intelligence) and knowledge-based
problem-solving techniques. The input and output for these machines will be in

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the form of graphic images or speeches. Presently, these computers are used in
medicine, treatment planning, monitoring, etc., on a tiny scale.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3

5. The second-generation computers are __________ and__________ .

6. The input and output for the fifth-generation machines will be in the form
of___________ or ____________ .

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6. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers are available in different shapes and sizes; they are used for various purposes.
The computers can be classified as analog, digital and hybrid computers.

• Analog computers: These computers work on the measuring principle, in which the
measurements obtained are translated into desired output. The inputs to these
computers are voltages, pressure, etc.; they do not deal directly with numbers. They
measure continuous physical magnitudes analogous to the numbers under
consideration. For example, computers are used in petrol pumps.
• Digital computers: The computers we use these days are digital computers, which use
the binary digits (bits) 0 and 1 to represent all forms of information internally in digital
form. In these types of computers, the analog quantities are converted into digital
quantities before processing. Digital computers can produce the result with more
accuracy and at a faster rate. The desktop PC at your home or laptop is a classic example
of a digital computer.
• Hybrid computers: As the name suggests, these types of computers are a combination
of both analog and digital computers. The analog components are used for
computational purposes, and the digital for storing intermediate results. The
converters are used to bind the powers of both techniques. We use such computers in
scientific applications and in the various fields of engineering.

1.1: a) EAI Analog Computer (1964) b) Digital Computer c) Hybrid Computer

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4

7. _________________ Computers are the combination of both analog and digital computer.
8. _____________ computers can produce the result with more accuracy and at a faster
rate.

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7. APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER

We use computers to perform mathematical and non-mathematical operations to achieve

desired outputs. They are also used in vast areas; every small or large company depends on
the computer for their work to be done. Some of the areas where we use computers are given
below.

• Communication: messages or letters are sent through e-mail with the help of a
computer. The invention of the internet has changed the lifestyle and working
environment. The significant advantage of this service is that it saves time, saves paper,
etc. Nowadays, all the facilities are available on the net, like online booking of airline
tickets, train tickets, online shopping and many more.
• Entertainment: The computer is widely used as a mode of entertainment, primarily
by youngsters. We use computers to watch movies, listen to music, store images, etc.;
the special effects in the movies would not have been possible without the computer.
It also helps the film industry by adding graphics and animations to the movie.
• Banking: The work of a bank has been made more accessible with a computer, almost
all the work is done with a computer. The various branches of the bank works together
through the network, and the transaction is completed without delay through the
computer. We can withdraw or deposit cash from any ATM of the same bank or other
at any time.
• Science: Computers develop theories, analyze, and test the data. They are used for
research, the study of weather patterns, the study of solar systems and other
applications. They also help in comparative study and allow different scientific
analyses to be carried out.
• Engineering/manufacturing: The engineers use computers for drawing and
designing. Computers create three-dimensional objects which can be viewed as natural
objects. The manufacturing factories use computerized robots for hazardous jobs, and
we see the vast machines working on their own in the factory; those machines are the
robots. The computers help coordinate the entire manufacturing process.

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• Education: The whole education process has changed due to computers. Computers
are used in classrooms, libraries and museums to make education more exciting and
interactive.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5

9. The invention of __________ has changed the lifestyle and working environment.
10. Computers are used in the ___________ , _______________ & ____________ .

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8. BASIC COMPONENTS OF PC

Different types of Computers

a) Micro Computers: Microcomputers are the most common computers at home,

workplace, schools, and colleges. They are the smallest in the computer family. These
computers are designed for a single user, but they can be used by multiple users when
networked. Some examples are IBM-PC Pentium, Apple Macintosh, desktops, laptops,
and hand-held computers like Personal Digital Assistants (PDA).
b) Mainframe Computers: The mainframe computers are designed to perform high-
volume, processor-intensive computing. They can process and store more data than a
minicomputer and far more than a Microcomputer. Mainframes are the second largest
(in capability and size) of the computer family. Mainframe computers are used in large
institutions such as government, banks and corporations.
c) Minicomputers: The minicomputers are small digital computers which usually
process and store less data than a mainframe but more than a microcomputer.
Minicomputer systems provide faster operating speeds and larger storage capacities
than microcomputer systems. They are sometimes called mid-range computers and are
designed to meet the computing needs of several people simultaneously in a small to
medium-sized business environment. They are used in industries, research
organizations, colleges, and universities.
d) Super Computers: As the name suggests, these computers are the most significant and
fastest machines. The computers are designed for purposes requiring the highest
processing speed, like solving scientific and engineering problems. Due to this feature,
these computers help in many applications such as information retrieval computer-
aided design, like in nuclear weapon development, accurate weather forecasting and
host processors for local computer and time-sharing networks.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 6

11. The different types of computers are ,_________ ,__________ and ____________ .
12. Mainframes are the ____________ of the computer family.

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9. COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

The computer architecture consists of Central Processing Unit (CPU), Input and Output units.
The CPU is the brain of the computer, and it performs all major activities that take place
within the computer. In the block diagram given the bold lines represent the flow of data and
the other lines represent the flow of instruction or flow of control.

Figure 1.2: The block diagram of a computer

Input devices

The data is fed into the computer with the help of various input devices. The most used input
devices are the keyboard and mouse. They help the users communicate with the computers
and act as a medium of communication. The other input devices are scanners, light pens,
digital cameras, joysticks, etc.

Output devices: The way humans communicate with computers with the help of input
devices, the computers communicate with the help of output devices. The output devices are
instruments of interpretation and communication between humans and computers. The
most used output devices are monitors, printers and speakers.

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Central Processing Unit (CPU): The Central Processing Unit is the main section of the
computer system, which interprets, coordinates the operations, and supervises the
instructions. Whenever we feed input (data) to the computer, the data is sent to the CPU for
processing, and the result is sent to the output device. The various components of CPU are
Main Memory (MM), Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) [Refer figure 1.1]

• Main Memory (MM): It consists of continuous memory cells used to store data and
instructions during the execution of programs and provides the data as and when
required. The main memory is also called primary memory. The data you give to the
computer is stored in the memory before and after processing it. It can be classified as
volatile and nonvolatile memory. Volatile memory is computer memory that requires
power to maintain the stored information, for example, RAM. Non-volatile memory is
computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered,
example, ROM.
• Control Unit (CU): The Control Unit coordinates and directs the operations of a
computer. It fetches the data or instructions given by you to the computer from the
memory, interprets them, ensures correct execution of them, and sends them to the
output device. It controls and directs the overall functioning of other devices of the
computer system.

The operation of a computer can be summarized as follows:

➢ The computer accepts information through programs and data through an input
device.
➢ Information stored in the memory is fetched, under program control, into an
arithmetic & logic unit, where it is processed.
➢ Processed information leaves the computer through the output unit.
➢ The control unit directs all activities inside the machine.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): All the arithmetic and logical operations on the
stored data are performed by this unit. The data stored is transferred to the arithmetic
logic section, processed, and returned to the memory. These processes are repeated
several times before the results are transferred to the output devices.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 7

13. The main memory is also called _________ memory.

14. ___________ memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored
information.
15. CPU consists of __________ ,__________ and __________ .

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10. SUMMARY
You can define a computer as an electronic device that performs mathematical and non-
mathematical operations with the help of instructions to process the information to achieve
desired results. We can list out the characteristics of a computer as speed, storage, accuracy,
reliability, automaticity, diligence and versatility.

Computer development is divided into five main generations. With every generation,
computer technology has fundamentally changed, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper,
more powerful, more efficient, and more reliable devices. We now know that according to
the primary data handling principle, computers can be classified as analog, digital and
hybrid.

We can categorize computers into micro, mini, mainframe and supercomputers based on
physical size, performance, and application areas. The input unit involves the receipt of data
from the user, and output unit supplies the resulting data to the user. The Central Processing
Unit (CPU) interprets, coordinates the operation and supervises the instructions. It has three
parts: arithmetic and logic unit, control unit and memory unit.

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11. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the characteristics of computers.

2. Discuss the various computer generations along with key characteristics of the
computers of each generation.
3. List out the various applications of computers.
4. Draw a block diagram to illustrate the architecture of a computer system and explain
the functions of various units.
5. Discuss the essential features of micro, mini, mainframes and supercomputers.

12. ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions

1. MHz (Megahertz)
2. Accuracy
3. IBM and Harvard University
4. Transistor
5. IBM1401, IBM70906.
6. Graphic images, speeches.
7. Hybrid
8. Digital
9. Internet
10. Classrooms, libraries, museums
11. Micro, mainframe, mini, super
12. Second largest
13. Primary
14. Volatile
15. Control Unit, Memory Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Terminal Questions

1. Refer to 1.2, Characteristics of Computers.

2. Refer to 1.5, Generations of computers.

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3. Refer to 1.7, Applications of computers.

4. Refer to 1.9, Computer Architecture.
5. Refer to 1.8, Basic components of PC.

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Unit 2: Number Systems 1

Computer Fundamentals Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Unit 2
Number Systems
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ /

Topic Page No
No / Graph Activity
1 Introduction - -
1.1 Objectives - -
1.2 Meaning and Significance of Number -
- 3- 4
Systems
1.3 Importance of Number Systems in -
-
Computing
2 Classification of Number System - 1
2.1 Natural Numbers and Whole Numbers - -
2.2 Integers and Rational Numbers - - 5-6
2.3 Real Numbers and Irrational Numbers - -
2.4 Complex Numbers - -
3 Types of Number System 1 2
3.1 Decimal Number System - -
3.2 Binary Number System - - 7-9
3.3 Octal Number System - -
3.4 Hexadecimal Number System - -
4 Conversions from One Base to Another - 3 10 - 14
5 Conversion Using Shortcut Method - 4 15 - 17
6 Summary - - 18
7 Terminal Questions - - 18
8 Answers - - 19

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1. INTRODUCTION

Since the early days of human civilization, people have been using their fingers, sticks and
other things for counting. As daily activities became more complex, numbers became more
important in trade, time, distance and all other spheres of human life. In this chapter, we’ll
be discussing the various number systems, namely decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal,
and we’ll also discuss the conversion of one number system to another.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

❖ Differentiate between non-positional and positional number system.

❖ List out the various number systems.
❖ convert the number system from one form to another.

1.2. Meaning and Significance of Number Systems

Number systems are a way to represent numbers. They are essential because they provide a
way to count, measure, and quantify things. The various number systems are used in
different fields, such as mathematics, computer science, engineering, and science. Each
number system has its unique properties and uses.

The most common number system is the decimal number system, which uses 10 digits (0-9)
for everyday operations like counting, measuring, and money transactions. On the other
hand, a binary number system is used in computing and electronics where the data is
represented in the form of 0s and 1s.

Octal and hexadecimal number systems are also used in computing and represent large
numbers compactly and efficiently. Each of these number systems has its unique properties
and uses.

In summary, number systems are essential because they provide a way to represent
numbers and are used in various fields of study. Understanding the different number
systems and their significance is essential for anyone who works with numbers.

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1.3. Importance of Number Systems in Computing

Number systems play a crucial role in computing. Computers use binary number systems
because it is easier for hardware to represent data in 0s and 1s. The binary number system
represents all data types, including text, images, audio, and video. Octal and hexadecimal
number systems are also used in computing for representing large numbers compactly and
efficiently. In addition, understanding number systems is vital for programming and
software development, as it helps developers write efficient algorithms for arithmetic
operations and data manipulation. Therefore, a good understanding of number systems is
essential for anyone who works with computers or programming.

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2. CLASSIFICATION OF NUMBER SYSTEM

• Non-Positional Number System. In earlier days, our ancestors used fingers to count;
when fingers were insufficient for counting, they used stones, pebbles or sticks to
indicate the values. This method of counting is called the Non-Positional Number
system. The most common non-positional number system is the Roman Number
System, where only a few characters represent numbers like I, V, X, L (for fifty), C(for
hundred), etc. Zero cannot be represented using this number system and moreover it
is very difficult to perform any arithmetic operations.
• Positional Number System. The decimal number system used for any arithmetic
operation with base 10, which contains 10 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9), is the most
common Positional Number System used nowadays. There is another way, which is
binary representation with base 2. In this type of number system, the value of each digit
in a number is defined not only by the symbol but also by the symbol’s position. These
types of number systems have a base or radix. For example, in a decimal number
system (base 10), the number 325 means (3x102) + (2x101) + (5x100), noting that 100
= 1. In the binary number system, the number 325 is 101001011 which means (1 x 28
) + (0 x 27 ) + (1 x 26 )+ (0 x 25 )+ (0 x 24 ) +(1 x 23 )+ (+0 x 22)+ (1 x 21 )+ (1 x 20 )

2.1. Natural Numbers and Whole Numbers

Natural numbers are the set of positive integers, including zero. They are commonly denoted
by the symbol "N".

Whole numbers are a set of non-negative integers, including zero, denoted by the symbol
"W". In other words, every natural number is a whole number, but not every whole number
is a natural number.

2.2. Integers and Rational Numbers

Integers are a set of whole numbers and their opposites. They are commonly denoted by the
symbol "Z". In other words, integers include all natural numbers, zero and their negative
counterparts (-1, -2, -3, etc.).

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Rational numbers can be expressed as a fraction, where the numerator and denominator are
integers and the denominator is not equal to zero. They are commonly denoted by the
symbol "Q". In other words, rational numbers can be written in p/q, where p and q are
integers and q is not equal to zero. Examples of rational numbers include 1/2, -3/5, and 7/4.

2.3. Real Numbers and Irrational Numbers

Real numbers can be expressed as decimals or fractions. They include rational numbers,
which can be expressed as a ratio of two integers, and irrational numbers, which cannot be
expressed as a ratio of two integers.

Irrational numbers have decimal expansions that are non-repeating and non-terminating,
such as the square root of 2 or pi. They play an important role in mathematics and represent
quantities such as a square's diagonal or a circle's circumference.

2.4. Complex Numbers

Complex numbers consist of a natural part and an imaginary part. The imaginary part is a
multiple of the imaginary unit, denoted as "i," defined as the square root of -1. Complex
numbers are written as a + bi, where "a" is the real part and "b" is the imaginary part. They
have many applications in mathematics, physics, engineering, and other fields.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1

1. The number system can be categorized into two broad categories _________
And __________ .
2. In positional number system the value of each digit is defined by the
and its ___________ .

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3. TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM

The number systems generally used by computers are decimal, binary, octal and
hexadecimal number systems.

3.1 Decimal Number System.

The decimal we use digital system is the primary number system that we use daily while
counting and has base ten. The name is derived from the Latin word ‘Decem’, which means
ten. Each digit in a base ten number represents units ten times the units of the digit to its
right. In a decimal number system, each position of the digit is represented by the base
(radix) value raised to a power. The power starts at 0 for the leftmost digit, and it increments
each position that continues to the left. For example, 103 102 101 100 where,

103 = 10x10x10 = 1000

102 = 10x10 = 100

101 = 10 = 10

100 =1

So, 3145 = (3x1000) + (1x100) + (4x10) + (5x1) or

= (3x103) + (1x102) + (4x101) + (5x100)

3.2. Binary Number System.

The data which you store in your computer is stored in binary form because the CPU and
memory are made up of millions of tiny switches that can be either in the ON (1) or OFF (0)
states. With this kind of number system, it is very easier for the hardware to represent data
since it has to deal with only two numbers (0 and 1). This type of number system has base 2,
each position is in this number system represents a power of the base 2. For example, binary
equivalent of the decimal number 8 is (1000)2 which can be written as:

=1x23 + 0x22 + 0x21 + 0x20

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=8+0+0+0

3.3. Octal Number System.

It is another positional number system with 8 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) and has base 8. To
determine the digit of a number system, the octal system uses a power of 8. The octal
equivalent of the decimal number (359)10 is (547)8 and the binary equivalent of (547)8 is
(101100111)2. The next section will explain the conversion from one form to another.

3.4. Hexadecimal Number System.

This is another number system which works exactly like decimal and binary number systems
except that it has base 16 with 16 digits. To represent the decimal numbers, this system uses
0 to 9 numbers and A to F characters to represent 10 to 15, respectively and uses a power of
16 to determine the digits.

Table 2.1 shows the comparison among various number systems.

Decimal Hexadecimal
Binary Number Octal Number
Number Number
0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 – 8
9 1001 – 9
10 1010 – A
11 1011 – B
12 1100 – C
13 1101 – D
14 1110 – E
15 1111 – F

Table 2.1: various number systems and their equivalents

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2

3. The radix of the hexadecimal number system is _________ .

4. The data in the computer memory are stored in ________ form.

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4. CONVERSIONS FROM ONE BASE TO ANOTHER

We discussed earlier that the computer internally uses a binary number system to represent
data. A number can be represented in any form. Let us now discuss the various methods of
converting the number system from one form to another.

Converting from the Decimal Number System to:

1. Binary. The method of converting decimal numbers to binary is often called the
remainder method, where the remainders are taken as the binary equivalent of the
decimal number in reverse form. This method involves the following steps:
• Step 1. Divide the decimal number by 2 (base of binary number system).
• Step 2. Note the remainder separately as the rightmost digit (the remainder will
be either 0 or 1).
• Step 3. Continue the steps 1 and 2 until the quotient is 0 and keep writing the
remainders after each step of division.
• Step 4. Finally, when no more division can occur, note down the remainders in
reverse order (last remainder written first).

Example 1. Determine the binary equivalent of (25)10

The binary equivalent of (25)10 is (11001)2, taking remainders in the reverse order. Here,
bit at position zero referred to as LSB (Least Significant Bit) and first bit from the left is
referred to as MSB (Most Significant Bit) respectively.

2. Decimal fraction to binary. The method of conversion is similar to the above but instead
of division we’ll use the mathematical process of multiplication for the decimal fraction.
The steps involved are:
• Step 1. Multiply the decimal fraction by 2 (the base of the binary system).

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• Step 2. If a whole number (number to the left of the decimal point) is generated,
consider it be the first binary digit.
• Step 3. Remove the whole number and continue step1 and step2 with the fraction
value until it becomes 0.
• Step 4. Write the whole numbers in the downward direction when no more
multiplication can occur.

Example 2. Determine the binary equivalent of (.375)10

.375 x 2 = 0.750

.750 x 2 = 1.500

.500 x 2 = 1.000

The binary equivalent of (.375)10 is (011)2, taking the whole numbers in downward
direction.

3. Decimal to octal. The method of conversion of decimal to octal is similar to the decimal
to binary conversion but while converting decimal to octal divide the number by 8 (the
base of octal number system).

Example 3. Determine the octal equivalent of (476)10

The octal equivalent of (476)10 is (734)8, taking remainders in the reverse order.

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4. Decimal fraction to Octal Equivalent. The method that is used to convert decimal
fraction to octal is similar to the method used for the decimal fraction to binary but
here, the decimal number is multiplied by 8 (the base of octal number system).

Example 4. Determine the octal equivalent of (.3125)10

3125 x 8 = 2.5 2
5 x 8 = 4.0 4

The octal equivalent of (.3125)10 is (24)8, taking the whole numbers in downward
direction.

5. Decimal to hexadecimal. In order to convert decimal to hexadecimal, the same

procedure is adopted as decimal to binary conversion but the decimal number is
divided by 16 (the base of hexadecimal number system).

Example 5. Determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (2132)10

The hexadecimal equivalent of (2132)10 is (854)16, taking remainders in the reverse

order.

Converting from the Binary Number System to:

6. Octal Number System. We can obtain the octal equivalent of the binary number by
following the given steps:
• Step 1. Obtain the decimal equivalent of the given binary number.
• Step 2. Convert the decimal number into octal equivalent. Refer 1.4 (Conversion
of decimal number to octal number).

Example 6. Determine the octal equivalent of the given binary number (101011)2.

Conversion of binary number to its decimal equivalent (Step 1).

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In order to obtain decimal equivalent of the given binary number, you should multiply each
digit of the binary number by its weighted position, and each weighted values is added
together to get the decimal number. Consider the following example.

Determine the decimal equivalent of (101011)2.

Binary Number 1 0 1 0 1 1
Weight of each bit 25 24 23 22 21 20
Weighted value 25 x 1 24 x 0 23 x 1 22 x 0 21 x 1 20 x 1
Product 32 0 8 0 2 1

Sum of weight of all bits = 32 + 8 + 2 + 1

= 43

The decimal equivalent of (101011)2 is (43)10.

Now, convert decimal equivalent into octal number (Step2).

Therefore, the octal equivalent of the given binary number (101011)2 is (53)8.

7. Hexadecimal number system. We can obtain the octal equivalent of the binary
number by following the given steps:
• Step 1. Obtain the decimal equivalent of the given binary number.
• Step 2. Convert the decimal number into hexadecimal equivalent. Refer 1.4
(Conversion of decimal number to hexadecimal number).

Example 7. Determine the hexadecimal equivalent of the given binary number (10111)2.

Conversion of binary number to its decimal equivalent (Step 1).

In order to obtain decimal equivalent of the given binary number, you should multiply each
digit of the binary number by its weighted position, and each weighted values is added
together to get the decimal number. Consider the following example.

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Determine the decimal equivalent of (10111)2.

Binary Number 1 0 1 1 1

Weight of each bit 24 23 22 21 20

Weighted value 24 x 1 23 x 0 22 x 1 21 x 1 20 x 1
Product 16 0 4 2 1

The decimal equivalent of (10111)2 is (23)10.

Now, convert decimal equivalent into hexadecimal number (Step2).

Therefore, the hexadecimal of the given binary number (10111)2 is (17)16.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3

5. The decimal equivalent of the number (111)2 is ___________ .

6. The octal equivalent of the number (34)10 is ___________ .
7. The hexadecimal equivalent of the number (36)10 is ___________ .
8. The method of converting decimal number to binary is often called as
the_____________ method.
9. The decimal equivalent of the number (01011010)2 is ___________ .
10. hexadecimal equivalent of the number (111)10 is ____________ .

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5. CONVERSION USING SHORTCUT METHOD

Binary to hexadecimal The conversion of binary numbers to hexadecimal is accomplished

by the following steps:

Step 1. Break the binary number into 4-bit sections starting from the LSB to the MSB.

Step 2. Convert the 4-bit binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent (Refer to table 2.1).

Example 8. Determine the hexadecimal equivalent of the number (110101)2.

Binary Number 0011(MSB) 0101(LSB)
Hexadecimal Number 3 5

The hexadecimal equivalent of (110101)2 is (35)16.

Octal to Decimal. To obtain the decimal equivalent of the given octal number, you should
multiply each digit of the octal number by its weighted position, and each weighted value is
added together to get the decimal number. Consider the following example.

Example 9. Determine the decimal equivalent of the given number (161)8.

Octal Number 1 6 1
Weight of each digit 82 81 80
Weighted value 82 x 1 81 x6 80 x1

Sum = 64 + 48 + 1

= 113

The decimal equivalent of (161)8 is (113)10.

Octal Fraction to Decimal In order to obtain decimal equivalent of the given octal number,
you should multiply each digit of the octal number by its weighted position, and each
weighted values is added together to get the decimal number. The exponential expressions
of each fractional placeholder are 8-1, 8-2, and this way the exponent notation proceeds.
Consider the following example.

Example 10. Determine the decimal equivalent of the given number (23.12)8.

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Octal Number 2 3 1 2
Weight of each digit 81 80 8-1 8-2
Weighted value 81 x 2 80 x 3 8-1 x 1 8-2 x 2
Product 16 3 .125 .0156

Sum = 16 + 3 + .125 + .0156

= 19.1406

The decimal equivalent of (23.12)8 is (19.1406)10.

Hexadecimal to Decimal To obtain the decimal equivalent of the given hexadecimal number,
you should multiply each digit of the hexadecimal number by its weighted position, and each
weighted value is added together to get the decimal number. Consider the following example.

Example 11. Determine the decimal equivalent of the given number (122)16.
Hexadecimal Number 1 2 2
Weight of each digit 162 161 160
Weighted value 162 x 1 161 x 2 160 x 2
Product 256 32 2

Sum = 256 + 32 + 2

= 290

The decimal equivalent of (122)16 is (290)10.

Hexadecimal Fraction to Decimal To obtain the decimal equivalent of the given

hexadecimal number, you should multiply each digit of the hexadecimal number by its
weighted position, and each weighted value is added together to get the decimal number.
The exponential expressions of each fractional placeholder are 16-1 16-2, and this way, the
exponent notation proceeds. Consider the following example.

Example 12. Determine the decimal equivalent of the given number (56.23)16.
Hexadecimal Number 5 6 2 3
Weight of each digit 161 160 16-1 16-2
Weighted value 161 x 5 160 x 6 16-1 x 2 16-2 x 3
Product 80 6 .125 .01172

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Sum = 80 + 6 +.125 + .01172

= 86.13672

The decimal equivalent of (56.23)16 is (86.13672)10.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4

11. The decimal equivalent of the number (34)8 is __________ .

12. The decimal equivalent of the number (A.23)16 is _________ .

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6. SUMMARY

As we know number systems have been around for thousands of years. It defines a set of
values used to represent the quantity, and other special characters. Number systems are of
two types: non-positional and positional. number system. The positional number system
most used nowadays is decimal. Other positional number systems are binary, octal, and
hexadecimal.

The base or radix of the number system tells the number of symbols or digits used in the
system. The base of the decimal number system is 10 of the binary number system is 2, of
the octal number system is 8, and of the hexadecimal number system is 16.

We have also seen that every number system can be converted into another number system,
such as decimal to binary, decimal to octal, decimal to hexadecimal, etc and vice versa.
However, the method of conversion is different from one another.

7. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between positional and non-positional number system.
2. Briefly explain the various types of number system.
3. Convert the decimal number (75)10 to binary, octal and hexadecimal number system.
4. Convert (55)8, (78.12)16 to decimal equivalent.
5. Convert (110101011)2 to hexadecimal using shortcut method.

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8. ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions

1. Non-positional, positional
2. Symbol, position
3. 16
4. Binary
5. (7)10
6. (42)8
7. (24)16
8. Remainder
9. (90)10
10. F
11. (28)10
12. (10.1328125)10

Terminal Questions

1. Refer 1.2, Classification of Number System.

2. Refer 1.3, Types of Number System.
3. Refer 1.4, Conversions from one Base to another Example 1, 3, 5.

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Computer Fundamentals Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Unit 3: Hardware and Software 1

Computer Fundamentals Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Unit 3
Hardware and Software
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ /

Topic Page No
No / Graph Activity
1 Introduction - -
3-8
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Computer Memory 1 1
2.1 Primary Memory or Main Memory - -
9 - 11
2.2 Functions of Primary Memory - -
2.3 Types of Primary Memory - -
3 Secondary Memory 2 to 8 2
3.1 Storage Devices Magnetic Media - - 12 - 18
3.2 CD ROM - -
4 Computer Peripherals 9 to 16 3 19 - 25
5 Output Devices - 4 26 - 27
6 Software requirements - 5
6.1 Classification of Software - -
6.2 Programming Languages - - 28 - 30
6.3 Language Processors - -
6.4 Fourth Generation Language - -
7 Summary - - 31
8 Terminal Questions - - 32
9 Answers - - 32

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1. INTRODUCTION

A typical computer system has two important components: hardware and software.
Hardware refers to the physical components of the system, whereas software refers to the
logical components of the system. These two components collaborate to perform tasks.

There are different types of hardware components, such as memory, processors, and I/O
devices. Software components manage these hardware components.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

❖ describe computer memory.

❖ identify and describe different types of memory and their functions.
❖ elaborate on the different types of peripheral devices.

3.1.1 Understanding Hardware and Software

In computer systems, hardware and software play different but complementary roles.
Combined, they allow computers to be used for many purposes and provide a vast variety
of features. An outline of the functions of software and hardware in computer systems is
provided below:

1. Hardware

System Basis: A computer system's hardware serves as its structural basis. Some of its
constituent parts include input/output devices (keyboard, mouse, monitor, etc.),
motherboards, memory (RAM), storage devices (hard drives or SSDs), and network
interfaces.

Data processing: The CPU oversees carrying out instructions and processing data on
hardware. In addition to managing data flow and doing computations, the CPU also
orchestrates the actions of other hardware parts.

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Storage and Data Retrieval: Programs and data are stored on hardware devices such as
SSDs and hard disks. When information must be processed or displayed, they make it
possible to retrieve it from storage.

User Interaction: Users may enter data into computers via input devices like keyboards
and mouse. Monitors and speakers are examples of output devices that provide user
feedback and display findings.

Connectivity: Network cards and ports are hardware elements that allow computers to
connect to networks, the Internet, and other devices. This link is essential for data
interchange and communication.

Performance: A computer system's performance is directly impacted by the

capabilities and quality of its hardware. Faster CPUs, greater RAM, and high-speed
storage devices result in better system performance.

2. Software:

Operating System: An essential piece of software, the operating system (OS) controls
hardware resources, offers an interface, and makes it easier for apps to run. It manages
how memory, peripheral devices, and CPU time are distributed.

Application Software: Programs that enable users to carry out certain activities or
functions, including word processors, web browsers, and games. These software
applications make use of the computer's hardware resources.

Programming Languages: Software engineers utilize programming languages to create

software and apps. Programming languages provide the link between machine-
executable instructions and human-readable code.

Tools management: Utility software includes tools for activities like file management,
virus scanning, data backup, and system maintenance. These tools improve the
computer system's general functioning and security. Software permanently stored in
hardware components, such as the motherboard's BIOS (Basic Input/Output System),
is known as firmware. It offers crucial guidance on device startup.

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Software: It is a key component of computer security. Firewalls, antivirus applications,

and encryption software guard against attacks and weaknesses.

In conclusion, the functions that hardware and software play in computer systems are
complementary. Hardware provides the resources and physical infrastructure needed
for computing, while software uses those resources to allow certain functions and
activities. The two parts provide a completely functioning and adaptable computer
environment, with software controlling the hardware's features and functions.

3.1.2 Importance of Hardware and Software in Computing

Together, hardware and software allow the operation and usefulness of computers and
other electronic devices. They are both vital parts of any computing system. These are the
reasons each matter:

Importance of Hardware

Basis of Computing: The hardware of a computer equipment is its physical basis. It consists
of parts such as input/output devices, memory, storage, and CPU. A computer cannot exist
or operate without these parts.

Performance: High-quality hardware may greatly impact a computer's performance.

Faster CPUs, greater RAM, and faster storage devices result in quicker processing,
seamless multitasking, and faster data access.

Durability and Dependability: A computer system's ability to function for a long time
depends on its hardware, which must be dependable and well-built. High-quality
hardware minimizes maintenance expenses and downtime by being less likely to break or
need frequent repairs.

Scalability: Users may modify their PCs to meet changing demands by expanding or
upgrading their hardware. For instance, a computer's capabilities may be increased by
updating the graphics card or adding more RAM.

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Specialised Tasks: Hardware may be made to perform certain functions. Examples of

specialized hardware include GPUs, which are used for parallel computing and graphics
rendering, and ASICs, or application-specific integrated circuits, which are made for
specific uses like mining cryptocurrencies or artificial intelligence.

Importance of Software:

• Functionality: A computer's software is what gives it its usefulness. Hardware is

essentially a group of parts without software. Programs, operating systems, and apps
provide functionality enabling users to carry out various activities.
• User Interface: Users may interact with and control devices using the software's user-
friendly interface. For instance, an operating system's graphical user interface (GUI)
makes it simple for users to handle files, launch applications, and carry out other
operations.
• Productivity: Task automation, data organization, and the provision of tools for
effective work are some of the ways that software programs such as word processors,
spreadsheets, and email clients increase productivity.
• Customization: Applications may be made to fit specific requirements and tastes.
Users' ability to install and customize software programs to meet their needs
personalizes computers.
• Updates and Enhancements: Programs may be often updated and enhanced to
provide new functionalities, bug fixes, and increased security. Over time, this
flexibility guarantees that computers will remain safe and relevant.
• Emulation and virtualization: Software may build virtual environments, allowing
different applications or operating systems to operate on the same physical platform.
This is essential for running old software and for testing and developing it.
• Security: Software is a key component of computer security. Firewalls, encryption
software, and antivirus systems guard against weaknesses and attacks.

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3.1.3 Role of Hardware and Software in Computer Systems

In computer systems, hardware and software perform complimentary roles, both essential
to the system's overall functioning and usefulness. Below is a summary of their roles:

Function of Hardware:

Instruction Execution: Software programs' instructions are carried out by hardware

parts, mainly the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The computer can complete tasks because
the CPU retrieves, decodes, and executes these instructions.

Data Storage and Retrieval: Data is stored and retrieved by hardware elements such as
RAM and storage devices (hard drives, SSDs). While storage devices retain data for a longer
period of time, RAM offers quick, temporary storage for data that is needed by running
applications.

Input and Output: Keyboards, mouse, displays, printers, speakers, and other input and
output (I/O) devices help communicate between the user and the computer. They enable
data entry and output from the computer for users.

Processing and Calculation: Complex computations and data processing are handled by
hardware components,mainly the CPU and Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). GPUs are
dedicated to parallel computing and graphics rendering, whereas CPUs do general-
purpose calculations.

Networking: Computers may connect to and interact with other devices and networks,
including the internet, thanks to network hardware components like routers and network
interface cards (NICs).

Function of Software:

Software, such as operating systems (such as Windows, macOS, and Linux), is used to
execute software programs and control hardware resources. These programs provide the
instructions that hardware components carry out.

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User Interface: Software gives users an easy-to-use interface to connect with computers
and execute applications via command-line interfaces (CLIs) or graphical user interfaces
(GUIs).

Applications: Software programs let users carry out certain activities and operations.
Examples include word processors, web browsers, games, and productivity tools. Utilizing
hardware resources, they provide functionality.

Data management is the process of using software to create, read, update, and remove
databases and files. Data organization and maintenance software includes file systems and
database management systems.

Security and Protection: Security software protects the computer against viruses,
malware, and unwanted access. Examples of this software include firewalls and antivirus
applications. To improve security, software upgrades also fix vulnerabilities.

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2. COMPUTER MEMORY
Computer memories are electronic devices that store data as a binary pattern (a sequence of
binary digits 0 or 1). These devices can store the data either temporarily (also known as
volatile memory) or permanently (also known as nonvolatile memory). They include
switches, capacitors, magnetic disks, or silicon disks with pits and lands.

Volatile memory requires power to maintain static information (i.e. the stored information)
such as SRAM and DRAM. Nonvolatile memories can retain their static information (i.e. the
stored information) even when they are not as powerful as ROM and magnetic disks.

2.1. Primary Memory or Main Memory

The data and instruction required to perform an operation is first uniformly loaded on to the
primary memory. The central processing unit or the CPU accesses the primary memory for
data and instruction to perform operation. It also acts as an interface between various other
units and the CPU. RAM is a typical example of primary memory. Other than RAM there are
two other additional layers of primary memory. These are CPU registers and the cache
memory (internal and external cache). Registers are present within the processor and
provide faster data access. Caches are used for improving performance as it is used to store
data elements that the processor frequently uses.

2.2. Functions of Primary Memory

Primary memory stores the data and instructions required by the CPU for performing the
required operation. Primary memory is used to communicate data and instructions among
the input unit, secondary memory, output unit and the CPU.

The following are the functions of primary memory.

1. It holds the operating system instructions when you boot the computer i.e., when you
turn on the system.
2. It is responsible for holding a copy of the programming instructions and data
temporarily input from the keyboard through the user that are currently being executed.

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3. It stores the results temporarily, which is generated after processing until it is

transferred to the corresponding output device.

2.3. Types of Primary Memory

• RAM (Random Access Memory) is a volatile memory device. In a RAM, the memory
cells can be accessed directly if the bit line (the column) and the word line (the row)
are known, as these intersect at a memory cell. The speed of the RAM depends upon
two important factors identifiably these are the width (group of bits that can be send
to the processor at an instance) and the speed (number of groups per second) of the
bus.

Types of RAM:

✓ SRAM Static Random Access Memory

✓ DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
✓ SDRAM Synchronous Random Access Memory
✓ FPM DRAM Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory
✓ EDO DRAM Extended Data-out Dynamic Random Access Memory
✓ RDRAM Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory
✓ DDR SDRAM Double data rate synchronous Random Access Memory
• ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a nonvolatile memory device that uses diodes to connect
lines. 0 and 1 refer to the connected and not connected states of the lines. Once
programmed, these devices cannot be reprogrammed.

The following are the different types of ROM.

• PROM Programmable Read Only Memory: PROM is a nonvolatile memory. In this

memory, instruction can be written once by the programmer and then can be
subsequently read. PROM chips are custom-made for the user by the manufacturer.

EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: EPROM is nonvolatile memory. In this
memory, instructions can be rewritten by the programmer using special techniques. These
chips were developed as an improvement over PROM chips. With the help of

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A special device that uses ultraviolet light can erase the data /instructions on an EPROM
chip and record new data/instructions in its place. To change the instructions on an EPROM,
you must remove the chip from the machine and then put it back when changes have been
made.

EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: it is an advanced addition

to the ROM family of chips to avoid the inconvenience of changing the instructions by taking
the chip outside the machine. Instead, changes can be made electrically under software
control. These chips are used in Point-of-sale (POS) terminals to record product price-
related data. So, the prices recorded on them can be easily updated as needed. The main
disadvantage of EEPROM chips is that they are more costly than regular ROM chips.

Table 3.1: Difference between RAM and ROM

Sl. No. RAM ROM
1 instructions are temporarily in Instructions are permanent in
nature nature
2. Instructions can be read and Instructions can be only read fromthe
write form the memory memory
3 Instructions can be updated(add, Instructions cannot be updated by
modify, delete) by user. user.
4 Volatile memory Non-volatile memory

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1

1. SRAM stands for ______________

2. EEPROM stands for ______________

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3. SECONDARY MEMORY

Secondary memory also referred to as auxiliary memory, is a nonvolatile memory that

extends the storage capacity of the computer. The data and instructions stored are retained
even when the power supply is turned off and can be erased only by an overwrite operation.
These memory devices are slow and comparatively cheap compared to that of the primary
memory, but it has greater capacity. These memory cells are used as assistance to the
working memory or the primary memory. It cannot be directly accessed by the CPU and can
be accessed only through the primary memory. HDD, Flask Drives and Floppy drives are
examples of secondary memory.

We saw how the primary memory within the computer has limited storage capacity and is
temporary, to overcome these limitations, it is necessary to retain the data and program
permanently for future use, which could be huge storage capacity and present outside the
CPU, these may call as “Backing Storage Devices” or “Secondary Memory” or “External
Storage Devices”. Secondary memory storage capacity is enormous and permanent in
nature; instructions can be updated at any time.

Example: Magnetic media – [Magnetic Disk/Tape/Drum]

• Magnetic Tape
• Magnetic Disk [ Floppy Disk, Hard Disk etc]
• Magnetic Drum.
• MICR [Magnetic Ink Character Reader]
• CD-ROMS

3.1. Storage Devices [Magnetic Media]

Magnetic Tape:

These are similar to audio cassette tapes. It is made of plastic ribbon coated on one side with
an iron–oxide–based magnetizable material. Data are recorded as tiny visible spots on the
magnetized side as Magnetic Tapes can only be accessed serially.

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The typical magnetic tape would be ½” in width and run from 50 – 2400 feet long and have
seven to nine tracks running the length of the tape, with a range of 556 to 6250 characters
per inch. The tape runs from a supply reel to a pick-up reel via two Vacuum channels that
prevent the tape from snapping. The read-and-write heads are present to access or place
information on the tapes. Magnetic tapes are still widely used either as backup or to maintain
History records. These devices are used where information needs to be accessed serially
only.

Figure 3.1: Magnetic Tape

Fig. 3.1

Magnetic Disk

Magnetic Disks resemble L.P. [Long playing] records and can be accessed randomly. Six or
more disks are mounted on a central hub to form a “Disk Pack”, which rotates, spinning the
disks at speeds of 50 or more revolutions per second. Information can be recorded on both
sides of the inner disks through a series of magnetized and non-magnetized spots, while on
the two outer disks, recording is possible only on the inner surface. Each recording surface
is divided into several concentric tracks, and patterns of bits in sequence on one track
represent a character. Despite the varying lengths, each track has the same number of
characters. The tracks are further sub-divided into sectors, and information can be accessed
by track and sector address. The standard-sized disk is about 14”, 8”, 51/4” & 31/2”, varying
in size and may have several hundred tracks per surface, quickly making the storage capacity
of the pack about 1000 Megabytes / Gigabytes. The disk packs can either be permanently
fixed or can be replaceable [Removable] disks.

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Figure 3.2: Magnetic disk

Fig. 3.2

• There are two Types of Magnetic Disks

a) Hard Disk
b) Floppy disk [Flexible Disk]
a. Hard Disk:

It is made of thin circular aluminum disks coated on one or both surfaces with a
magnetizable material. These disks are mounted on a spindle shaft. The disks have two
surfaces, upper and lower. The upper surface of the topmost disk and the lower surface
of the lowermost disk are not magnetized, whereas both the surface of the other in
between disks are magnetized, each disk has a read and write head. With the help of
read and write head, information can be accessed and written on the surface of the disk.

The capacity of Hard disks is available from 40MB, 60MB, 80MB, 260 MB, 540 MB –
1GB, 2.1GB, 4.1 GB, 8.0 GB, 10 GB, 20 GB, 40 GB,

80GB Hard Disk.

Figure 3.3: Hard Disk Drive

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Fig. 3.3

b. Floppy Disk:

Figure 3.4 (a): Floppy disk (one side view)

Fig. 3.4 (a)

Figure 3.4 (b): Floppy disk(the other side view)

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Fig. 3.4 (b)

Figure 3.5: Disk drive

Fig. 3.5

The floppy disk is also called as Flexible disk. It comprises a thin, circular plastic material
coated with an oxide on one or both surfaces. The magnetic material–coated circular disk is
enclosed in a square jacket for protection and user – handling. The disk has a large central
hole called the ‘drive hole’ or ‘mount hole’. The ‘Floppy disk drive’ is a device which reads
data from and writes data into a disk. The read / write head of the drive is used to read/write
data from/into the disk. The head comes into direct contact with the floppy only through the
“Head access slot” [read/write Aperture]. A small hole called the ‘index hole’ is used to
identify the starting point of the disk. Relative to this, the other portions of the disk are
identified. The “write protect notch” when marked by a small sticker, disables the write head,
thus ensuring that nothing can be written on the disk. However, the marking is only till the
sticker covers the notch. The “Labels” on the top of the floppy disk merely identify the

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capacity of the floppy and also the broad contents of the disk and probably username,
information of content of disk etc.

The Floppies comes in various sizes. The diameter of the floppy determines its size and
capacity. The typical sizes are 8”, 51/4” [360 KB or K], 51/4” [1.22 MB or M] and 31/2” [1.44
MB or M]. The method of data reading / writing is the same of all type.

Advantages

a. Accessing and transfer speed is fast.

b. Random access processing
c. Permanent in nature, until new data are written in the same location.
d. Due to possible integration of files. Inputs may be processed very comprehensively.
e. Disk can be removed and stored off – line, if desired.

Drawbacks

a. Disk packs and equipment are more expensive than magnetic tape for the same
storage capacity.
b. Serial/sequential disk processing may be slower and less efficient than Magnetic
Tape.
c. When records in a disk file are updated, the old records may be erased by writing
the new records on the same disk space. Thus, old records may not be readily
available if a malfunction should occur.
d. Disk content is not human-readable.

3.2. CD-ROM [Compact Disk Read Only Memory]

CD-ROM stands for compact disc, read-only memory, the data that is in huge volumes but
rarely needs to be changed is stored on this media. .. Example: dictionaries, encyclopedias,
medical/legal reference libraries, music, video companies distribute their products on CD-
ROM. Because of high precision and data density, CD-ROMs can hold data up to 600MB –
700MB. Because of the CD's high capacities and the fact that nobody can change the data,
many companies choose CD-ROMs as the distribution media for their products. Another

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critical application of CD-ROM technology is CD-l or CD-Interactive, which stores digital

audio, full motion video and graphics, animation, text, and data on CD.

CD (CD DRIVE)

CD drives come in two flavors.

Figure 3.6: CD-ROM Drive

Fig. 3.6

Figure 3.7: CD-R/W Drive

Fig. 3.7

CD-ROM is read-only, while CD R/W is used for writing on a CD. CD-ROM can read standard
music up to 700MB of data at various speeds. When buying a CD-ROM, you should go for the
fastest one. The speed of a CD-ROM is indicated by an X, which is placed after the speed
parameter. Currently, the 52X CD-ROM and 64X CD-ROM are often preferred. These days,
DVD has replaced CD-ROM, which is the better option than CD-ROM.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2

3. Indentations on CD RPM are called as ________ and _________

4. Magnetic devices can be accessed either _________ or __________

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4. COMPUTER PERIPHERALS

Computer peripherals refer to the host of devices which are not the constitute component of
the system architecture, but they are attached to the system to extend its capacities.

➢ Input Devices:
• Paper Media Devices

Paper media devices are devices that use paper as the media for storing data and
information. These devices may use tapes or cards to store data. These paper media
may contain images of holes or punches, as in the case of IBM 1134 and Mylar
devices. In the case of paper media devices, the paper media contains a series of
images or punches that are used to represent the address location as well as data to
be stored in the address location and are suitable for interpretation.

• Punched Paper card reader devices.

Punched Paper card readers are electronic devices attached to the computer system
to read the punched cards, such as IBM 3505 and IBM 2540. These devices can read
the punches stored at different address locations and are interpreted into data and
instructions. Suitable code translators are to be constructed for interpreting the
pattern.

• Punched paper tape reader devices.

Punched paper tape readers are devices that are attached to the computer system
that accepts punched tape, converts punches, or holes representing data at specified
locations into signals that can be processed by a computer.

• Optical Media Devices

Optical media are nonvolatile devices that use optically readable medium for storing
the bit pattern representing the data and information in the form of deformities.
These deformities are in forms of pits and lands. It may be permanent (read only),
such as CD, formed once (write once), such as CD-R or reversible (write many), such

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as CD-RW. The optical media is illuminated by laser diodes and the reflection from
the media is observed to interpret information.

• Standard Input Devices

Standard Input Devices communicate data and instructions to the computer and
store them in memory. Some of the standard input devices are keyboard, mouse,
trackball, joystick, digitizing table, scanners, digital Camera, MICR, OCR, OMR, bar-
code reader, speech input devices, light pen, and touch screen.

Keyboard:

This is the most common input device, which consists of keys marked with characters on
them, is referred to as a “KEYBOARD”. Some of the keys have two-character marks on them,
one above the other, which are known as upper-case and lower-case characters, respectively.
The numbers usually appear on the topmost row keyboard and consist of number keys from
0 – 9, alphabets (A – Z, a – z) and some special characters such as (), {}, #, $, etc., some of the
operating keys ‘F’ function key (F1……. F12) arrow keys etc. Keyboards are used to input
data online to the computer from the user; keyboards consist of 101 keys or 104 keys. A
numeric pad is a supplementary keyboard which appears in many keyboards. It consists only
of numeric characters and is usually placed to the right of the keyboard. It also consists of
cursor function keys like home, end, Pg Up and Pg Dn; keyboard consist of special operating
keys like SHIFT, CTRL, ALT, ESC, keys.

Figure 3.8: Keyboard

Fig. 3.8

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Figure 3.9: Mouse

Fig. 3.9

A mouse is a pointing Input device used to communicate with your computer. It is

recommended in the Windows environment. Mouse operations are described as click,
Double-click, Right-click and drag. To select, move the mouse pointer on top of an item, press
and release (or click) the left mouse button (classic view), or rest the mouse pointer over an
item for a few seconds. Sometimes, you can click twice in rapid succession (Double-click) to
select an item in the classic view or single-click in the web view.

A mouse will usually have at least one or more buttons on the right (called the right mouse
button). This provides further facilities; for example, a right-click of the mouse button when
it is over an appropriate object will display a shortcut menu of related options for further
selection. A mouse can also be used to move items on the screen. This is achieved by first
moving the mouse pointer over an item. Then, press and hold down the left mouse.

Press the mouse button and move the mouse to position the item. Finally, once you see the
item in its new location, release the mouse button. This technique is called “Dragging.”

Scanners

Figure 3.10: Scanner

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Fig. 3.10

Image scanners convert any image into electronic form by shining light on it and sending the
intensity of the reflection at every point. They translate printed images into an electronic
format that can be stored in a computer memory. With the right kind of software, the image
can be altered in interesting ways.

Joystick:

Figure 3.11: Joystick

Fig. 3.11

It is like the tracker ball the function of the joystick is to move the cursor across the width
and height of the screen. It consists of a small lever handle or a stick mounted on a rolling
ball. The cursor movement controls through software techniques based on the lever handle
movement (Right, Left, Front, and Back). The function of joystick sends the electrical signals
to the CPU for the subsequent process task, then the CPU translate these signals and
highlights the cursor (pointer) movement on the screen.

Light Pen:

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Figure 3.11: Light Pen

Fig. 3.11

This device is used to point/select the screen coordinates by detecting the light coming from
the device. This device consists of a photoelectric cell, which is covered with a pen-shaped
device; mainly, these devices are used in computer graphics/photo editing applications.

Bar Code Reader

Figure 3.13: Bar Code readers

Fig. 3.13

This device is used to decode the bar-coded data. These devices are mainly used in Book
House to read book prices etc., and you can also find it in the ‘speed post’ service in the postal
department.

A bar code represents an uneven sequence of vertical dark/light bars (lines). Bar code
Reader device reads the barcoded data using a ‘laser beam’ and scans the coded area, then
sequence bar code pattern sends to the computer memory, which will be stored as data form.

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Digital Camera

Figure 3.14: Digital camera

Fig. 3.14

This device is used as a regular camera to take photographs, but it generates digital photo
images, which are clearer than your regular camera. In this device, you will select the view
of the image on the small screen and then snap the photo or image. It has a facility to connect
to computer systems for transferring images; it has built-in memory and removable storage
media. Images can be stored directly without using any film, and there is no film
development cost. This camera has special facilities where images can be edited, delete
unwanted parts from the image, with the help of the editing software you can give special
effects to your image.

Smart Cards

Fig. 3.15: Smart card

A smart card can be considered a portable storage device that controls some non-volatile
memory. This card contains some encrypted key compared to a secret key in the user’s
processor. Some smart cards have provisions to allow users to enter a personal identification
number (PIN) code. The origin of smart cards can be traced to a Frenchman named Ronald
Moreno in the mid-1970s. Smart Cards are used as interface devices for the mobile digital

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economy. These cards hold your cash, ID. information and other important related
information. These cards are mainly used to pay the bills against the purchases.

There are two types of smart cards:

1. Relationship Based Smart Credit Cards

2. Electronic purses (replace money, known as debit card)

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3

5. CD-RW stands for __________________

6. Optical media is device_______________ .

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5. OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices are devices that communicate data and information from the computer to the
user. Some of the standard output devices are monitors, printer speakers etc.

• Visual Display Unit (VDU): Monitor

Visual display units are peripheral electrical devices that provide a two-dimensional
visual representation of data in images processed by the processor without storing it.
Some examples of VDU are CRT, LCD, and plasma screens.

• Cathode ray tube (CRT)

This technology places the negatively charged cathode at the back of the tube. Electrons
are shot at the charged screen with the help of an electron gun. The screen is coated
with phosphor dots, which glow when struck by a stream of electrons. One pixel is
represented by three such dots, one for each colour.

• Liquid crystal Display (LCD)

This technology creates images by passing polarized light through a liquid crystal
material either from the surrounding or internal sources. The liquid crystals are
aligned to either transmit or block light.

• Plasma Display

It is also referred to as a gas-discharge display. In this technology, a mixture of gases,

such as neon, fills the region between two aligned glass plates. A series of vertical
conducting ribbons are placed on one glass panel and horizontal conducting ribbons
are placed on the other. Then voltages are applied to these ribbons, as a result the gas
molecules at the intersection of these ribbons break down into glowing plasma.

• Video Output

These devices communicate data from the computer system to the peripheral devices.
Video output devices support video display on pocket PCs, monitors and projectors.

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• Printer

Printers are devices used to print artefacts. Printers are classified by the print
technology they use. The printers' performance, quality and cost depend on the
technology used. Some examples are Toner-based printers, Liquid inkjet printers, Solid
ink printers, Dye-sublimation printers, Inkless printers, Dot-matrix printers, and Daisy
wheel printers.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4

7. The screen in CRT is coated with ____________ dots

8. In LCD __________ , light is passed through the crystals.

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6. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

Software is a logically existing article of business, capable of performing generic or specific

tasks.

6.1. Classification of Software

Software is classified into three broad categories: - System

Software

System Software is required to manage the computer resources such as Input/ Output,
Memory, CPU, peripheral devices, etc. It also helps in creating and executing programs. Some
examples of system software are Operating systems software, Network software,
Development tools programming language software etc.

Utility software

Utility software is software that helps in the working of the system software. Some examples
of utility software are linkers, compilers and drivers etc.

Application software

Application software can perform specific operation as per request of the client. Some
examples of application software business productivity applications, Home use applications,
Industry application software, and Market application software.

6.2. Programming languages

A programming language is an artificial language designed to assist programmers in writing

program instructions for a particular concept (algorithm).

Machine Language

It is the lowest level of programming language and is represented in the form of a bit
sequence.

Assembly languages

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It is a low-level language which implements symbolic representation of the numeric machine

codes. It uses mnemonics for representing instructions.

High-level languages

High-level is used to write programs in user understandable format considering the

language's syntactic and semantic rules. These languages are not understandable to the
computer and suitable language convertors or translators (such as compilers and
interpreters) are used to convert it to machine language into machine understandable
language. Some examples of high-level languages are Java and C, etc.

6.3. Language processors

The software can create a machine-understandable representation of the program written

at a high or assembly level. There are two types of language processors.

Compiler

Compilers are a program that converts the high-level program into machine-understandable
program in one shot.

Interpreter

Interpreters are a program that converts the high-level program into machine
understandable program one line at a time.

Assembler

Assemblers are programs used to create low level representation for assembly instructions.

6.4. Fourth generation language

A fourth-generation programming language is designed to serve specific requirements of

business software. These languages are designed to overcome the disadvantages of 3Gl, such
as the rate of error commitment and time required to develop an application. 4Gl is designed
to reduce the effort and time required for development, decreasing the cost of the
application. Use of 4GL also reduces error commitment.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5

9. __________ converts the entire program into machine level at one shot.
10. Linker is an example of ___________ category of software.

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7. SUMMARY

Computer memories are used to store binary patterns representing the data and
information. The smallest unit of memory is called a bit it can store 0 or 1 (binary digits);
group of 8 bits make a byte, a group of 1024 bytes make a kilobyte, group of 1024 kilo byte
make a megabyte and 1024 megabyte make a Gigabyte.

There are two types of memory, volatile and non-volatile, depending on its ability to retain
information. The two categories of memory devices are primary and secondary memory.
RAM and ROM are examples of primary memory, and HDD and floppy are examples of
secondary memory.

Computer peripherals are the devices attached to the computer system to communicate data
and information to and from the computer system.

The different categories are system software, utility software and application software.
System software manages the system resources. Utility software assists system software in
performing tasks and application software performs data manipulation.

Programming languages are used to write programs to make use of the system resources.
Programs can be written using high level or assembly level languages that are converted into
machine understandable form using language processors.

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8. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the different types of memory devices with example.
2. Discuss the different categories of peripheral devices along with their functionality.
3. Explain the working of plasma technology in detail.
4. Why do we need language processor?
5. Explain the working of Cathode ray tube.

9. ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions

1. Static Random Access Memory

2. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
3. Pits, lands
4. Linearly, randomly
5. Compact Disc-Rewritable
6. Nonvolatile
7. Phosphor
8. Polarized
9. Compiler
10.Utility

Terminal Questions

1. Refer to 3, Primary Memory or Main memory, Secondary Memory.

2. Refer to 3, Computer peripherals.
3. Refer to 3, Output Devices.
4. Refer to 3, Software requirements.
5. Refer to 3, Output Devices.

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Unit 4
Windows Operating System
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ /

Topic Page No
No / Graph Activity
1 Introduction 1 -
4-5
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Features 2, 3 1 6-9
3 Comparison between Professional and Home
4, 2 10 - 11
edition
4 Windows installation 5, 6, 7 -
4.1 Preparation before installation - - 12 - 21
4.2 Performing a clean installation - -
5 Activating Windows 8, 3 22 -24
6 Security Features of Windows - 4
6.1 Permissions and Rights - -
6.2 User Accounts - - 25 - 31
6.3 Account Type - -
6.4 User Profile - -
7 Accessing User Accounts 9, 10, 11,12, 13 5
7.1 Creating a User Account - -
7.2 Changing Account Settings - -
7.3 Deleting an Account - - 32 - 38
7.4 Logging off and Locking - -
7.5 Administrator Login - -
7.6 Password Setting - -
8 Getting Help 14 6 39 - 40
9 Summary - - 41

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10 Terminal Questions 41
11 Answers 42

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1. INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you studied the hardware and software components. We have discussed
the various programming languages and the types of translators and explained the operating
system. This unit will discuss the operating system by considering Windows OS. We will
compare the two types of Windows OS: professional and home edition. We can discuss
installing and activating Windows OS. We will study the features of Windows OS and learn
how to access user accounts.

Microsoft’s desktop operating system dramatically differs from previous versions like
Windows 98, Windows Me etc. XP brings together two product families: reliability, generally
crash-proof foundations of Windows 2000 and user-friendly features and system utilities of
Windows 98. There are two different versions of Windows XP: Windows OS Professional and
Windows OS Home Edition.

Windows XP inherits a reliable and crash-proof foundation from Windows 2000 and user-
friendly features and system utility from Windows 98 and Windows ME. Follow three steps
to check out a version of the Windows Operating system installed on a Personal computer.

Start => Control Panel => Performance and Maintenance => See basic information about your
computer => General Tab

Or

Start => Control Panel => System Option => General Tab

Figure 4.1 shows the System Properties dialog box that gives detailed information about the
Windows version and hardware configuration of the Windows Operating System and the
Personal Computer.

Figure 4.1: System Property

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Fig. 4.1

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

❖ list the new features of Windows OS

❖ differentiate between professional and home edition of Windows OS ∙ perform install and
activate Windows.
❖ use the user accounts.

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2. FEATURES OF WINDOWS OS
1. New Windows engine: In Windows 2000, the robust and reliable kernel was the
critical concern of the two versions of Windows XP. It has a fully protected memory
model, which provides tightly integrated security. The hardware abstraction layer
(HAL) protects critical system components from poorly written programs. Windows
XP is far less likely to crash in everyday use.
2. Robust system protection tools: The primary source of problems in the previous
versions of Windows is “DLL hell”- the instability that results when poorly written
applications replace crucial system files without dated or incorrect versions. Windows
XP monitors these crucial system files, preserving the correct version of the system file
while allowing the program just installed to use its own DLL file. For additional
protection, use the System Restore utility (Figure 4.2) to create a snapshot of system
files and settings to “roll back” to a previous configuration when a new application or
device driver causes problems.
3. Device driver rollback: Windows XP protects from driver-related woes by warning
when someone tries to install an unsigned driver that has not been certified as
compatible with Windows XP. It also allows uninstalling a driver and restoring the
previous version from Safe Mode, if necessary.
4. Security Features: Password-protected logins and the ability to set permissions on
files and folders make it possible to share a PC with others without allowing them to
install unwelcome software or delete essential files. A friendly Welcome screen and
easy-to-use administrative tools make it especially easy to set up a shared PC at home
or in a small office. Each user has a customized desktop and Start menu, plus secure
access to protected files.

Figure 4.2: System Restore Utility

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Fig. 4.2

5. Brighter colours: The default Windows XP colour scheme is bolder and edgier than
the sedate colour combinations used in previous Windows versions. Windows XP takes
full advantage of video hardware that is capable of 24-bit and 32-bit accurate colour
settings.
6. 3-D windows and buttons. When you choose the Windows XP style, Windows and
buttons take on a 3-D appearance with rounded edges and sleek shadows. In addition,
subtle shifts in colour will occur as the mouse pointer passes over buttons, tabs, and
other interface elements, much like those characterizing hot spots on a Web page.
7. Sharper icons. Every system icon has been reworked for Windows XP. The new icons
are brighter and more prosperous because they support colour resolutions up to 24-
bit. In addition, each icon is available in three sizes, including a super-size 48*48-pixel
version that’s more than twice as large as the standard 32*32. The extra detail is most
useful in the new Tiles view, where two or three lines of annotation can appear
alongside the icon to provide additional information.
8. Friendly Welcome screen. As a Windows XP machine administrator, one can define a
user account for each person allowed to use that computer. The Welcome screen lists
each authorised user, each user clicks his or her name and enters a password to jump

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to a personalized desktop and unlock access to private files. On a shared PC, one can
switch between users without closing down running programs or stopping a download.
9. Fast User Switching. On a shared home computer, the capability to switch quickly
between accounts without having to log off is the single best reason to prefer either
edition of Windows XP to previous Windows versions.
10. Start menu improvement. The redesigned Windows XP Start menu, shown in Figure
4-3, uses two columns instead of one; it organises shortcuts to the programs used most
often to locations where the personal files are stored and to system folders and tools.
11. A cleaner desktop. In a new/clean installation, the Windows XP only installs the
Recycle Bin by default. A wizard sweeps across the desktop, offering to move icons not
recently used into an Unused Desktop Shortcuts folder. Similarly, Windows XP group
taskbar buttons to avoid the common problem of buttons being so small and unusable.
If five browser windows are open, for instance, all those windows will be grouped
under a single Internet Explorer button, with a number on the button to show how
many separate windows are grouped there; click that button to choose from a menu
that lists each window.

Figure 4.3

Fig. 4.3

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1

1. The speed of the computer is measured in ______________.

2. ____________ is measured against some predetermined standard for operations
without failure.
3. ____________________ means flexible,

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3. COMPARISON BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL AND HOME EDITION

To understand the differences between the two editions of Windows XP i.e. Windows
Professional Edition and Windows XP Home Edition, one should know that Windows XP
Professional contains everything included in Windows XP Home Edition and much more. The
operating system kernel is identical in both editions. The Web browser works like all the file
and folder management tools and techniques in Windows Explorer. Some default settings
are different, depending on the edition in use; for instance, the taskbar is locked by default
in Windows XP Home Edition but not in Professional. The table below shows key features
available only in Windows XP Professional Edition.

Table 4.1: features in windows XP professional edition

Feature Description

Support for multiple processors Windows XP Professional supports symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) designs that
employ up to two CPUs.

Support for 64-bit CPUs Systems built around a 64-bit Intel Itanium processor must use a 64-bit version of
Windows Professional.

Advanced security features Several sophisticated security capabilities are found only in Windows XP
Professional, including support for Encrypting File Systems and Internet Protocol
Security (IPsec) and assigning complex access controls to files.

Internet Information Services Using Windows XP Professional Edition, one can set up a personal Web server using
Internet Information Services.

Remote Desktop Connection Using this feature, one can configure a Windows XP Professional machine to allow
remote access, either across a local area network or over the Internet. The client
machine can run any 32-bit version of Windows, of Windows, including Windows
95/98/ME, Windows 2000, or any version of Windows XP.

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Domain membership On a corporate network, Windows XP Professional Edition can join a domain and
take advantage of domain-based management features such as group policies and
roaming profiles. A system running Windows XP Home Edition can access domain
resources such as printers and servers, but it does not exist as an object in the
domain.

Dynamic disks Windows XP Professional allows the creation of disk volumes that span multiple
hard drives; this capability increases the storage capacity and performance of drives.
Windows XP Home.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2

4. _________________ is the main source of problems in the previous versions of

Windows.
5. _________________ layer protects key system components from poorly written
programs.
6. In a new/clean installation, the Windows XP has only the Recycle Bin installed by
default. (True/False?)

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4. MICROSOFT OFFICE INSTALLATION (LATEST VERSION)

The evolution of the Windows user experience

When you click on the start button at the bottom left of the screen, you get two panels side
by side, With the left column showing pinned, recently added and most-used apps. The right
column features a selection of live tiles that you can customize, resized, and reorganise. We
can have the start menu expand to full screen whenever we want.

4.1. Preparing the System for Microsoft Office Installation

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Source: Microsoft_Press_eBook_Introducing_Windows_10_PDF.pdf

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4.2. Downloading And Installing Microsoft Office

➢ A working Windows 10 product key is required for the installation procedure, so ensure
you have one before starting.
➢ First, make the installation media for Windows 10. To get the Windows 10 Media
Creation Tool, go to the official Microsoft website: Get the Media Creation Tool for
Windows 10 here.
➢ You may download the utility by selecting the "Download tool now" option on the page.
Exercise the downloaded utility. Accept the conditions of the license when requested.
➢ On the "Create installation media for another PC" menu, choose the option and press
"Next."
➢ Choose from 32-bit and 64-bit architecture, language, and edition. It is possible to pick
both if you are unsure about the architecture.
➢ You can download an ISO file to make an installation DVD later or use Windows 10 to
generate a USB flash drive. The USB alternative is convenient and more widely used.
➢ Make the installation media by following the instructions. Once the USB device is ready,
the utility will download the Windows 10 installation files.
➢ Stage 2: Set up Windows 10:
➢ After creating the installation DVD, you may now use your computer to install Windows
10:
➢ Put the Windows 10 USB flash disk into your computer.
➢ You should boot from the USB disk when you restart your computer. To do so, you may
need to adjust your machine's BIOS/UEFI boot order.
➢ Installing Windows 10 will start. Decide on your keyboard layout, time zone, currency,
and language.
➢ Press "Install Now."
➢ Your Windows 10 product key will appear when you enter it. The option to input the
product key later is available if you don't have one.
➢ Select the version of Windows 10 (Home or Pro) you want to install.
➢ Following your acceptance of the licensing conditions, choose "Next."
➢ Go with "Custom: Install Windows only (advanced)."

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➢ Decide which partition you want to use to install Windows 10. If necessary, partitions
may be created or formatted. To start the installation, click "Next".
➢ Complete the installation by following the directions on the screen. There will be many
restarts of your computer throughout this procedure.
➢ You'll be walked through the first setup when the installation is finished, which includes
setting up your preferences and establishing or logging in using a Microsoft account.
➢ You will have a brand-new Windows 10 installation when the setup is finished.
➢ Since the installation will destroy your current data, don't forget to back up any vital
data before beginning. Ensure your PC also satisfies the minimum system requirements
for Windows 10.

The Media Creation Tool downloads Windows 10 installation files that can be used on multiple
PCs and in virtual machines.

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Use the media creation tool to create a bootable USB flash drive immediately or save the
installer files as an ISO disk image.

Activation and Registration of Microsoft Office

You can check the activation status of a Windows 10 device from Settings, Update & Security,
on the Activation tab. Fig shows this information for a system upgraded from Windows 8.1
Pro to Windows 10 Pro.

Product activation has been a part of Windows for the past 15 years, starting with Windows
XP. Like its predecessors, Windows 10 requires activation as part of the license agreement.
Typically, that process is automatic, with Windows checking a product key (or other
authorized method) against an activation server to confirm that the installed version of
Windows matches the product key, and that the device is authorized to use the associated
Windows license.

➢ Activation using a “digital entitlement” is new in Windows 10 and is created when you
upgrade a PC currently running a properly activated copy of Windows 7 or Windows
8.1.
➢ If you start Setup from within that older Windows version, you do not need to enter a
product key. Windows confirms that the underlying system is appropriately activated
and creates a digital entitlement based on the unique hardware ID.

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Console Script to view the licensing status for the activation window.

You can see even more detailed activation information about the current Windows
installation by opening an administrative Command Prompt window and entering the
command slmgr.vbs / dlv. The figure shows the highly detailed output for the same system
whose activation status is shown. Window 10 is a Service and Mobility with improved
application, graphics use interface and fast booting system.

Windows XP Installation

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When setting up either edition of Windows XP one must choose one of three installation
strategies, each with its own set of pros and cons.

1. Clean install: As the name implies, this installation option sets up a fresh new copy of
Windows XP, completely replacing any previous version of Windows on the partition
where it’s set up and erasing all other files on that partition. Clean installation can be
started by booting directly from the CD.
2. Upgrade over an existing Windows Version: It is possible to upgrade to Windows
XP Home Edition or Professional from Windows 98, Windows 98 Second Edition, or
Windows Millennium Edition and from Windows NT Workstation 4 or Windows 2000
Professional. But Windows 95 cannot be upgraded to any version of Windows XP and
must perform a clean install. In all upgrade scenarios, Setup preserves most user
settings and installed programs and attempts to upgrade device drivers to Windows
XP-compatible versions.
3. Side-by-side (multiboot) installation: Use it to preserve an existing copy of
Windows. When Setup is finished, choose OS from a boot menu. Install the new version
on a separate partition.

4.1. Preparation before installation

1. Minimum system requirements according to Microsoft’s official spec sheet the

minimum configuration includes a 233 MHz processor from the Pentium/Celeron
family or the AMDK6/Athlon/Duron family (or compatible);64 MB of RAM, 1.5 GB of
space disk space; and a video adapter capable of Super VGA (800*600) resolution. The
recommended configuration is at least a 300 MHz CPU with 128 MB OF RAM, a mouse
or other pointing device,a keyboard, and a CD-ROM or DVD drive.
2. Gather network details collect static IP address, subnet mask, workgroup or domain
name, collect this information and have it at hand.
3. Check hardware and software compatibility If any updated drivers or upgrade packs is
required, download them before running Setup and copy them to floppy disks or burn
them to CD so they’ll be available whenever required.

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4. Back up your data files and system settings for an upgrade, use a reliable backup
program to make a safe copy of important data.
5. Disable antivirus software and other system utilities The Upgrade Report should
identify utilities that might interfere with Setup. To be on the safe side, disable any
system utility before getting started.

4.2. Performing a clean installation.

Clicking from the Windows XP CD is the safest way to start a clean install. Insert the
Windows CD and restart the computer. Watch for a boot prompt; press a key to boot from
the CD. The next stop will be a series of text mode Setup screens. If the system currently
contains a working version of Windows, then the screen appears to repair the installation.
Press Esc to bypass this screen and reach a disk setup screen like the one shown in figure
4.4.

Fig. 4.4: Windows XP professional set up

From this screen (figure 4.4), the following tasks can be done: Select an existing
partition on which to install Windows XP Use this option if the empty partition has already
been created and formatted for setting up Windows or if you are planning to install Windows
XP on a pre-existing partition that currently contains data or programs but no operating
system. Do not choose this option if a previous version of Windows is already installed on
the selected partition. In that case, the result might be leaving behind unwanted system files

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and leftovers from previously installed programs, defeating the purpose of doing a clean
install.

• Create a new partition from un-partitioned space Use this option to set up one or more
partitions on a new drive or on an existing drive after deleting partitions. By default,
Setup offers to use all un-partitioned space on the current disk. One can specify a
smaller partition size if he wants to subdivide the disk into multiple drives.
• Delete an existing partition. Choose this option for a clean install on a drive that
currently contains an earlier version of Windows. Because this operation deletes data
irretrievably, it takes at least two “Are you sure?” confirmation requests. After deleting
the partition, the installer can create a new one and select it as the destination for
Windows XP installation.

Steps to set up Windows 10 for New installation

Fig. 4.5

Figure 4.6: Setup option dialog box.

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Fig. 4.6

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5. ACTIVATING WINDOWS XP

Windows XP includes a new antipiracy feature called Windows Product Activation (WPA).
As in previous Windows versions, one must enter a 25- 25-character product key during the
Setup process. WPA adds a new requirement: After setup is completed, it must be activated
within 30 days, either by connecting to a Microsoft activation server over the Internet or by
calling a toll-free number and speaking with a customer service representative at a WPA
clearinghouse.

WPA is a mechanism designed to enforce licence restrictions by preventing the most

common form of software piracy, casual copying. A Microsoft Windows XP license typically
entitles one to install the operating system software on a single computer. If someone uses
the same CD and product key to install Windows XP on a different system, he cannot activate
the software automatically.

More about WPA:

• Under most circumstances, activation is automatic and instantaneous. If a shrink-

wrapped copy of Windows XP is purchased and installed on a new computer, it can be
activated over the Internet, and the process would take no more than a few seconds.
The process takes longer through the phone because one has to read a 50-digit
identification key to the customer service representative and then input the 42-digit
confirmation ID supplied by the clearinghouse representative, as shown in Figure 4.7.
• Activation is not registration. The activation process is completely anonymous and
does not require personal information unless you choose to register a copy of Windows
XP.
• Reinstall Windows an unlimited number of times on the same hardware. During the
activation process, Windows transmits an encrypted file that serves as a “fingerprint”
of key system components. To reinstall Windows XP on the same hardware, the
activation server checks the new fingerprint against the one stored in its database. If
they match, activation is automatic.

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Figure 4.7: Activate Windows

Fig. 4.7

• Multiple hardware upgrades may require reactivating Windows. The activation

software is designed to prevent attempts to “clone” an activated copy of Windows and
install it on another computer. If anyone replaces or upgrades four or more
components from a list of 10 components on the computer in a period of 120 days or
less, the activation mechanism may mistakenly assume that he has installed the
operating system on a new computer. In that case, he must call the WPA
clearinghouse and get a new activation code. The components included in the
hardware “fingerprint” include a video card, primary hard disk, disk controller, CD-
ROM drive, network adapter, CPU, and RAM. It does not include Zip drives, digital
cameras, or similar peripheral devices.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3

7. Delete an existing partition is used for a clean install on a drive that currently
contains an earlier version of Windows. (True/False?)
8. Windows XP includes a new antipiracy feature called _____________.
9. State whether the following statements are True or False:
a. Activation is registration
b. Zip drive is included in the list of components of hardware fingerprint.

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6. SECURITY FEATURE OF WINDOWS

The Windows XP approach to security is discretionary. That is, each securable system
resource file or printer has an owner who has discretion over who can and cannot access the
resource. Usually, a resource is owned by the user who created it. If a user creates a file, for
example, he is the file’s owner under ordinary circumstances.

Windows assign a security ID (SID) to each user account to determine which users can access
a resource. This SID is a unique number that follows the user around whatever log-on in
Windows. When he logs on, the operating system first validates his username and password.
Then, it creates a security access token. It includes username and SID, plus information about
any security groups to which the account belongs. Any program that starts a copy of the
security access token.

Whenever he attempts to walk through a controlled “door” or any time a program attempts
to do that on his behalf, the operating system examines his security access token and decides
whether to let him pass. If access is denied, he will see an unavailable menu or dialog box
control or, in some cases, a refusal message with a beep sound.

6.1. Permission and Rights

Windows distinguishes two types of access privileges: permissions and rights. Permission is
the ability to access a particular object in some defined manner. for example, to write to an
NTFS file or to modify a printer queue. A right is the ability to perform a particular system-
wide action, such as logging on or resetting the clock.

The resource owner (or an administrator) assigns permissions to the resource via its
properties dialogue box. For example, if someone is the printer owner or has administrative
privileges, he can restrict others from using a particular printer by visiting the properties
dialogue box for that printer. Administrators set rights via the Local Security Policy console
in the Administrative Tools folder.

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6.2. User Accounts

The backbone of Windows XP security is the ability to identify each user uniquely. The
computer administrator creates a user account for each user. The user account is identified
by a username and (optionally) a password, which the user provides when logging into the
system. Windows then controls, monitors, and restricts access to system resources based on
the permissions and rights associated with each user account by the resource owners and
the administrator.

In addition to such “normal” user accounts, Windows provides two special accounts that
have predefined sets of permission and rights associated with them: the Administrator
account and the Guest account.

• Administrator account. Every computer running Windows XP has a special account

named Administrator. This account has full rights over the entire computer. It can
create other user accounts and is generally responsible for managing the computer.
Many system features and rights are off-limits to accounts other than Administrator (or
another account that belongs to the Administrator group).
• Guest account. The guest account resides at the other end of the privilege spectrum. It
is designed to allow an infrequent or temporary user, such as a visitor, to log on to the
system without providing a password and use it in a restricted manner. By default, the
Guest account is disabled on a clean install of Windows XP; no one can use an account
that’s disabled. The Guest account is also used to access shared network resources on
the computer when Simple File Sharing is enabled.

6.3. Account Type

Account type is a simplified way of describing membership In a security group, a collection

of user accounts. Groups allow a system administrator to create classes of users who share
common privileges. For example, if everyone in the accounting department needs access to
the Payables folder, the administrator can create an accounting group and grant the entire
group access to that folder. If the administrator then adds all user accounts belonging to

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employees in the accounting department to the Payables folder. A user account can belong
to one group or no group at all.

Groups are a valuable administrative tool. They simplify the job of ensuring that all members
with common access needs have an identical set of privileges. Although administrators can
grant privileges to each user account individually, doing so is tedious and prone to errors-
and-usually considered poor practice. It is better to assign permissions and rights to groups
and then add user accounts to the group with the appropriate privileges.

Permissions and rights for group members are cumulative. That means that if a user account
belongs to more than one group, the user enjoys all the privileges accorded to all groups of
which the user account is a member.

Windows XP classifies each user account as one of the four account types:

Computer administrator

Members of the Administrators group are classified as computer administrator accounts.

The Administrators group, which by default includes the Administrator account and all
accounts you create during Windows XP setup, has more control over the system than any
other group. Computer administrators can:

• Create, change, and delete user accounts and groups.

• Install programs.
• Share folders
• Set permissions
• Access all files
• Take ownership of files
• Grant rights to other user accounts and themselves
• Install or remove hardware devices.
• Log on in Safe Mode

Limited Members of the Users group are classified as limited accounts. By their own user
account

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• Use programs that have been installed on the computer ∙

• View permissions (if Simple File Sharing is the default, limited accounts can ∙
• Change the password, picture, and associated. NET Passport disabled) ∙
• Create, change, and delete files in their document folders ∙ View files in shared
document folders.

Guest. Members of the Guests group are shown as guest accounts. Guest accounts have
privileges similar to limited accounts. A user logged on with the Guest account (but not any
other account member of the Guest group) cannot create a password for the account.

Unknown. The account type for a user account not a member of the Administrators, Users,
or Guests group is shown as Unknown. This Unknown account type is automatically created
if the computer is upgraded from an earlier version of Windows or if used, the Local Users
And Groups console or the Net Local group command to manage group membership.

6.4. User Profile

Windows limits access to information using user profiles. A user profile contains all the
desktop settings for a user’s work environment. In addition to storing the user’s personal
registry settings for everything from desktop background to the author initials used in
Microsoft Word, the profile contains several files that are specific to a user, such as cookies
the user receives while using Microsoft Internet Explorer, documents in the My Documents
folder and its subfolders, and shortcuts to network places.

By default, each user who logs on to a computer has a local user profile created when the
user logs on for the first time. Local user profiles are stored in System Drive Documents and
Settings. Each user’s profile is stored in a subfolder with the username as the folder name.

In general, each user account has full access to its own user profile and can create, change,
and delete files within the profile and make stored settings. Non-administrative accounts
have limited access to profiles belonging to other users; by default, they can view files but
not make any changes to another user’s profile.

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The user profile includes the following folders:

• Application Data. This hidden folder contains application-specific data, such as a

custom dictionary for word processing programs, junk sender lists for an e-mail
program, a CD database for a program that plays music CDs, and so on. Application
vendors decide what information to put in this folder.
• Cookies. This folder contains Internet Explorer cookies. ∙ Desktop. This folder
contains all items stored on the user’s desktop, including files and shortcuts.
• Favourites. This folder contains Internet Explorer favorites. ∙ Local Settings. This
folder contains settings and files that don’t roam with the profile, either because
they’re machine-specific or because they’re so large that it’s not worthwhile to
include them in a roaming user profile, which must be copied from and to a network
server at each logon and logoff.
o Application Data. This hidden folder contains machine-specific application data.
o History. This folder contains the user’s Internet Explorer browsing history.
o Temp. This folder contains temporary files created by applications.
o Temporary Internet Files. This folder contains the offline cache for Internet
Explorer.
• My Documents. This folder is the default target for the My Documents shortcut on the
Start menu, in the Windows Explorer task pane (under Other Places), and elsewhere.
My document is the default location for storing user documents in most applications.
When anyone view the profile folders for another user, the user’s name replaces My
Documents, although the actual folder name for all users is My Documents.
• NetHood. This hidden folder contains the shortcuts that appear in My Network places.
• PrintHood.This seldom-used hidden folder can contain shortcuts to items in the
Printers and Faxes folder.

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• Recent. This hidden folder contains shortcuts to the recently used documents; the
most recent of these can appear on the Start menu. Although it appears in Windows
Explorer as My Recent Documents, the actual folder name is Recent.
• SendTo: This hidden folder contains shortcuts to the folders and applications that
appear on the Send To submenu. Send To is a command that appears on the File menu
in Windows Explorer after selecting a file or folder; it also appears on the shortcut
menu on you right-clicking a file or folder.
• Start Menu: This folder contains the items that appear on the Start menu’s All
Programs submenu.
• Templates: This hidden folder contains shortcuts top document templates. These
templates are typically used by the New command in Windows Explorer and are
referenced by the FileName value in the HKCR\class\ ShellNew key, where class
refers to the extension and file type.

Types of Profiles

Windows XP Professional supports three types of profiles:

• Local user profiles: A local user profile is stored on the local hard disk in the
Documents And Settings (or Profiles) folder. Windows creates a local user profile the
first time a user logs on to the computer. If the user changes the profile, the changes
affect only the computer where the changes are made.
• Roaming user profiles: A roaming user profile is stored on a network server, which
makes it available when a user logs on to any computer on the network. Windows
creates a local copy of the user profile the first time a user logs on to the computer. If
the user changes the profile, Windows merges the changes into the server copy when
the user logs off; therefore, the revised profile is available the next time the user logs
on to any computer. Roaming profiles are easily managed by an area ideally suited to
Windows. NET Server and Windows 2000 Server.

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• Mandatory user profiles: A mandatory user profile can be changed only by an

administrator. Like a roaming user profile, a mandatory profile is stored on a network
server, and Windows creates a local copy when a user who has been assigned a
mandatory profile logs on for the first time. Unlike a roami9ng user profile, a
mandatory profile is not updated when the user logs off. This makes mandatory
profiles useful for individual users to whom the administrator wants to severely
restrict and for multiple to apply consistent job-specific settings. Multiple users can
share a mandatory user profile without affecting others. Users assigned a mandatory
profile can make profile changes while logged on, but the network copy remains
unchanged. Although a copy of the profile- changes and all remains on the computer
after a user logs off, at the next logon, Windows recopies the original profile from the
network share.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4

10. Windows assigns __________________ to each user account.

11. Which is the simplified way of describing membership in a security group, a
collection of user accounts?
12. Permissions and rights for group members are _________________.

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7. ACCESSING USER ACCOUNT

Through User Account in the Control Panel, Windows XP provides a simple method for
creating new accounts, making routine changes to existing accounts, and deleting accounts.
If the computer is not a member of a domain, then launching User Accounts in the Control
Panel will show a window similar to the one shown in

Figure 4.8: User Accounts on Workgroup compute

Fig. 4.8

7.1. Creating User Account

User Accounts in Control panel allows a convenient Create A New Account link on its home
page and it lets to create a new. The only thing required is to supply a name for the account
and decide whether the account would be a computer administrator account or a limited
account.

7.2. Changing Account Settings

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Making routine changes is easy with User Accounts. Don’t bother clicking the Change an
Account link, which leads to a window that shows all the accounts that can be changed.
Instead, at the bottom of the User Accounts home page, simply click the name of the account
(figure 4.8) to make changes. A window like the one shown in Figure 4.9 will appear.

Figure 4.9: User accounts with change account option Fig. 4.9

• Name: Changing the name after creating a short username without spaces allows the
user to create a friendly name that appears on the screen and starts the bar.
• Password: The user can create a password and store a hint that will provide a reminder
for a forgotten password. If the account is already password-protected. User Accounts
allow changing the password or removing the password.
• Picture: The user can change the picture associated with the account name at the top
of the Start menu and in User Accounts. Clicking the change-picture link shows all the
pictures stored in All Users Profile Application Data\Microsoft\User Account
Pictures\Default Pictures. Click Browse for More Pictures. Users can select any picture
in bitmap format (.bmp extension), Graphics Interchange Format (GIF), Joint
Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) format.\, or Portable Network Graphics (PNG)

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format, such as a picture of a favourite scene. Windows reduces the picture to fit the
picture box and stores the resulting file in All Users Profile Application
Data\Microsoft\User Account Pictures with the account’s user name as the file name.

Figure 4.10: User account with change picture option

Fig. 4.10

• Account Type: With User Accounts, one can change the account type to Computer
Administrator (which adds the account to the Administrators group) or Limited (which
adds the account to the Users group\). Use Local Users and Groups or the Net Local
group command to add the account to other groups.
• NET Passport: One can set up his own account to use a .NET Passport or to change the
Passport currently associated with his account.

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NET Password, launched in 1999, is a suite of Web-based services that help make using the
Internet and purchasing online easier and faster. .NET make Passport provides users with a
single sign-in(SSI) and fast purchasing capability at a growing number of participating sites,
reducing the amount of information users must remember or retype. Consumers who use
the free NET Passport service enjoy benefits like Fast sign in and purchasing, Reduced need
to learn new technologies, the online experience across multiple devices, Purchasing online
with Passport, Saved time and money, multiple devices, Purchasing online with Passport,
Saved time and money, Streamlined access for a large user base, Easier, more dependable
personalization, Flexible customization, Benefit from future services.

Users must not sign up with a .NET Passport to use Microsoft Windows XP. Windows XP
allows consumers to sign up for a .NET Passport to take advantage of some optional services
offered by Windows XP, such as the Windows Messenger service and some portions of
Windows XP online product support. Using .NET Passport in Windows XP, users can choose
to automatically sign into .NET Passport while logging into Windows XP by selecting the Sign
me in automatically check box when signing into .NET Passport for the first time.
Connections to the Internet using Windows XP do not require a .NET Passport.

7.3. Deleting an Account

Administrators can delete any account except one that is currently logged on. To delete an
account, open the User Account and click the name of the account to delete. Then click Delete
the Account, User Accounts gives a choice, shown in Figure 4.11, about what to do with the
account files:

• Keep Files: Windows copies certain parts of the user’s profile, specifically, files and
folders stored on the desktop and in the MY Documents folder to a folder on the user's
desktop, where they become part of the user's profile and remain under user control.
The rest of the user profile, such as e-mail messages and other data stored in the
Application Data folder, Internet favourites, and settings stored in the registry, will be
deleted after confirmation in the next window that appears.

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Figure 4.11: User Account

Fig. 4.11

Delete Files. On Delete Files selection, Windows deletes the account, its user profile, and all
files associated with the account, including those in its My Documents folder. After delete an
account, of course, those users can no longer log on.

7.4. Logging off and Locking.

• Switch Users: To switch users, press the Windows logo key+L or choose Start, log off
and then click Switch Users. Either method goes to the Welcome screen for Fast User
Switching. With this option, which is available only if Fast User Switching is enabled,
user’s programs. continue to run. The user’s account is still logged on, but (if a password
protects it) only the user can return to the session.

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• Lock the computer: To lock a computer, press the Windows logo key+L or (if the
Welcome screen is disabled) press Ctrl+Alt+Delete and click Lock Computer. If press
Ctrl+Alt+Delete when the Welcome screen is enabled, choose Lock Computer from the
Windows Task Manager Shut Down menu. With this option, available only when Fast
User Switching is disabled, the User’s programs continue to run. However, only the
user or a computer administrator can unlock the computer; he or she can do so only by
closing the user’s programs (without saving any open documents) and logging him/her
off.

Create a shortcut for locking the computer.

1) Right-click the desktop and choose New, Shortcut.

2) On the first page of the Create Shortcut wizard, type rundll32.exeuser32.dll, Lock
WorkStation and click Next.
3) Type a name for the shortcut (like Lock Workstation) and click Finish.
4) Right-click the new shortcut and choose Properties.
5) On the Shortcut tab, click the Change Icon.
6) In the text box, type shell32.dll and press Enter.
7) Select an icon, then click OK.
8) In the shortcut Key box, type the shortcut key (for example, Ctrl+Alt+L).

7.5. Administrator Login

To log on as Administrator, if the Welcome screen is enabled, press Ctrl+Alt+Delete twice to

display the Log On To Windows dialogue box. Type Administrator in the Username box, and
enter the password created for the Administrator account during setup.

7.6. Password Setting

The simplest way to set a password for the user is the User Accounts in the Control Panel.
Click the name of the user, set a password, and then click Create Password. A window like
the one shown in Figure 4.12 appears.

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Figure 4.12: User Account (Set password)

Fig. 4.12

The other account management tools allow the administrator to set a password, but User
Account is the only tool that lets any user specify a password hint. The password hint is
available by clicking the question mark icon that appears after clicking the user's name on
the Welcome screen.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5

13. ___________________ is a suite of web-based services that help make using the Internet
and purchasing online easier and faster.
14. The administrator can delete any account, including the one currently logged on
(True/False?).
15. To lock a computer, the shortcut used is __________ or _____________.

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8. GETTING HELP

To get help, click Start, Help and Support enter. Opening this will show following home page.

Figure 4.13: Help and Support System

Fig. 4.13

The left-hand column lists common Help topics. The links in the two groups on the right, each
identified by a green arrow, lead to tools and support resources. The Did You Know? The list
in the lower right contains headlines provided by Microsoft support.

The toolbar at the top of the Help and Support Center window provides basic browser-style
navigation tools. Back and Forward buttons move through recently viewed topics. Although
the toolbar icons closely resemble those used in Internet Explorer, note that the Home,
Favorites, and History buttons goes to the respective pages within the Help And Support
Center.

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Searching for Help Topics

Follow these steps to search for specific topics:

1. Click a category from the Pick A Help Topic list on the Home page to display its list of
topics.
2. Enter a word or phrase in the Search box.
3. Click the green arrow to the right of the Search box to perform the search.
4. Click a topic title from the list on the left to display its contents in the pane on the right.

Search results are broken down into the following three groups:

Suggested Topics: This group is based on a comparison between the search terms entered
and keywords defined in the Help files. Because the search is performed against a relatively
small index file, this list appears almost immediately; however, the quality of the results
depends on the keywords assigned by the Help file authors.

Full-Text Search Matches: This group displays topics where the content of the Help
information matches the word or phrase entered. Although these files are also indexed, the
search universe is much larger and typically takes longer to display the results.

Microsoft Knowledge Base: This group searches Microsoft’s extensive collection of

documentation for bug fixes and technical explanations that aren’t available in the local Help
files. The list of found articles matches the search terms and uses settings defined in the
Options dialogue box.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 6

16. ______________ groups display topics where the content of the help information
matches the word or phrase entered.
17. The Microsoft Knowledge Base group is based on a comparison between the
search terms entered and keywords defined in the Help files. (True/False?)

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9. SUMMARY

In this unit, you have seen the advantages of Windows XP with respect to the earlier versions
of the Windows operating system. Installation and working with both versions of Windows
XP have been dealt with. Creation of user and groups permissions and rights dealt with

10. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Compare Windows XP with another Microsoft operating system.

2. What is an activation process? Discuss about it.
3. What is a user profile? How can it be created? Discuss how a Roaming User Profile is
different from a Mandatory user profile.
4. Discuss various account types in Windows.
5. What is a user account? Who can create it? Discuss the security provided by the user
account. Illustrate with example.

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11. ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions

1. Megahertz
2. Reliability
3. Versatile
4. DLL hell
5. Hardware abstraction layer
6. True
7. True
8. Windows product activation
9. a. False
10. b. False
11. Security ID
12. Account type
13. Commutative
14. .NET password
15. False
16. Press windows logo key + L or press Ctrl+Alt+Delete and Click lock computer.
17. Full-text search matches
18. False

Terminal Questions

1. Refer to section 4.3, comparison between professional and home edition, google
search.
2. Refer to section 4.5, activating Windows.
3. Refer Section 4.6, user profile.
4. Refer section 4.6, account type.
5. Refer to section 4.7, user account.

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Unit
MS Word
Table of Contents

Fig No /
SL SAQ / Page
Topic Table /
No Activity No
Graph
1 Introduction i -
4
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Microsoft Word Interface 1 -
2.1 Office Button - -
2.2 Quick Access Tool Bar (QAT) 2, 3, 4 -
2.3 Ribbon - - 5-9
2.4 Contextual Tabs - -
2.5 Galleries - -
2.6 Live Previews - 1
3 Customizing the Word Application - -
3.1 Popular Settings 5 -
3.2 Contextual Spelling 6 -
10 - 13
3.3 Show mini-Toolbar on Selection - -
3.4 Enable live Preview - -
3.5 Configuring Smart Tags 6 2
4 Document Views 7 -
4.1 Print Layout - -
4.2 Full-Screen Reading 8 -
14 - 15
4.3 Web Layout - -
4.4 Outline - -
4.5 Draft - 3
5 Basic Formatting in MS Word 9 - 34 4 16 - 35
6 Advanced Formatting 35 - 61 5 36 - 56

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7 Navigating through a Word Document - -

7.1 Navigating with Thumbnails and Document Map - - 57 - 58
7.2 Using Keyboard ii 6
8 Performing a Mail Merge - -
8.1 Using the Mail Merge Wizard 64 - 76 - 59 - 67
8.2 Using Preexisting List - -
9 A Quick Look at Macros 77 - 80 7 68 - 72
10 Printing Documents 81 - 73 - 74
11 Print Preview - - 74
12 Summary - - 74
13 Terminal Questions - - 74
14 Answers - - 75

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1. INTRODUCTION
In unit 4, you have studied the general characteristics of the Windows operating system. You
have also differentiated between the professional and home editions. We have also discussed
activating the operating system and how to install it. In this unit, you will study Microsoft
Word. You will study how to use Microsoft Word for processing the document from the
beginning of entering the data till taking the printout of a document. You will discuss word
processing in detail.

A word processor is a computer application to create, edit, and print documents.

There are many types of word processors. As we all know, the most popular word processing
package is Microsoft Word (MS Word). Microsoft has introduced different versions of MS
Work. The summary of various versions introduced by MS Word is in the following table.

Table 5.1: MS Application versions

Year Version

2003 MS Office 2003. The package included MS Word 2003.

2007 MS Office 2007. The package included MS Word 2007

2010 MS Office 2010. The package included MS Word 2010.

A word processor is a helpful application widely used by all people.

1.1. Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to -

❖ Use Windows Office interface

❖ Perform customisation of word applications
❖ Perform viewing the documents
❖ Perform formatting in ms word
❖ Perform navigation through a word document
❖ Apply mail merge
❖ Describe macros

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2. MICROSOFT WORD INTERFACE

The first task is to understand the various components that make up the Windows 2007
interface. Throughout the remainder of the text, references will be made to these interface
elements.

Unlike its predecessor, Windows 2007 interface has undergone a significant change. Many
new components and features have been introduced. Figure 5.1 is a labelled diagram of the
Word 2007 interface.

Figure 5.1: Labeled word 2007 interface.

Fig. 5.1

2.1. Office Button

The Office button is the circular button located on the top left-hand corner of the document.
It is used to
• Create new documents
• Open old documents
• Save documents
• Print documents etc.

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2.2. Quick Access Tool Bar (QAT)

The QAT is the small list of icons located immediately to the right of the Office Button. It is a
set of commands that a user can customize. It provides a shortcut / quick access to the most
frequently used commands. It is entirely customizable.

Customizing the Word Application. (Figure 2)

Figure 5.2: Drop down menu

Fig. 5.2

Adding frequently used commands to the quick access toolbar

There are two methods:
• First Method:
1. First, click on the Office Button. At the bottom of the menu, there is an option called
Word Option.
2. Click on it. It opens up a dialog box (figure 3).
3. Select the Customize option.

Commands can now be added and removed from the QAT

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Figure 5.3: First method for Adding frequently used commands to the quick access
toolbar.

Fig. 5.3

• Second method
1. Right click the Office Button (figure 4).
2. Select customize QAT. A dialog box opens as shown in figure 3.

To reset the QAT to its default, click the reset button on the customize QAT dialog box and
Click OK.

Figure 5.4: Second method for Adding frequently used commands to the quick access
toolbar

Fig. 5.4

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2.3. Ribbon
The Ribbon is a brand-new interface unique to Word 2007. Each ribbon has a set of tools.
These tasks are grouped into various subgroups.

For example, the Home ribbon has the Font, Paragraph, and Styles subgroup. Each of these
subgroups has specific tools. Thus, the ribbon logically groups commonly used tools and
tasks.

Each ribbon has tabs for navigation purposes. For example, Home, Insert, References, etc.
The bottom right-hand corner of some subgroups has small boxes with arrows. These are
called widgets. Upon clicking, it opens a new dialog box, providing the user with more
options.

Ribbons cannot be hidden or modified by the user. It can be minimised such that only the
ribbon tabs are visible.

To minimize the ribbon quickly, double-click any of the ribbon tabs in quick succession.

2.4. Contextual tabs

Many ribbons are contextual. They appear only when needed. For example, the Format tab
for tables appears only when the table has been inserted into the document and is the active
selection on the screen.

2.5. Galleries
Galleries are predefined templates and options. The gallery option is only available for
selecting elements such as tables, charts, graphics, drawings etc.

Galleries are also contextual menu and appear only when the element is the active selection
on the screen.

2.6. Live previews

Another feature unique only to Windows 2007 is that the live preview allows the user to
observe changes directly on the document as they select different options from the gallery.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. _____________ is a circular button located on the top left corner of the document and
used to create new documents.
2. ________________ is the small list of icons located immediately to the right of the office
button.
3. A ribbon can be hidden or modified by the user. (True/False?)
4. ______________ allows the user to observe changes directly on the document as that
select different option from the gallery.

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3. CUSTOMIZING THE WORD APPLICATION

MS Word provides many customizations to the Word application. Customizing the
application enables a user to configure the application according to his/her preferences. For
example, the user can set:
• Set spelling preferences.
• Control animation and sound effects can be turned on or off here
• Set Auto Recover options
• Hide or show rulers, scrollbars, and other interface elements etc. The following
section will examine some commonly applied customizations.

3.1. Popular settings

Changes made here will span all Office applications. Changes that can be made here include:
• Username
• Initials
• Language
• Interface color
• Set up spell-checking options, etc.
1. Click the Office Button. A drop-down menu appears.
2. From the drop-down menu, select Word Options at the bottom right-hand corner
of the menu. A dialog box opens (figure 5)
3. Select Popular from the right-hand side options.
4. User can now modify and customise the settings.

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Figure 5.5: Changes made in popular settings

Fig. 5.5

3.2. Contextual spelling

A new feature of Office 2007 allows applications to check for errors with words used in the
wrong context. A blue squiggly line appears at the bottom of the word. I.e., we do not want
to lose the game.

Enable / Disable contextual spelling

1. Click the Office Button. A drop-down menu appears.
2. From the drop-down menu, select Word Options at the bottom right-hand corner of the
menu. A dialog box opens (figure 6)
3. Select Proofing option from the right-hand side options.
• To enable contextual spelling, check the Use contextual spelling option (rectangle).
• To disable contextual spelling, uncheck the Use contextual spelling option.

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Figure 5.6: Enabling/ disabling context spelling

Fig. 5.6

3.3. Show Mini-Toolbar on Selection

This feature shows a mini toolbar when the mouse is placed over the highlighted text. This
option is controlled by checking (enable) or unchecking (disable) the Show Mini toolbar on
selection from the popular option [Figure 5].

3.4. Enable live preview

This feature enables live preview. This option is controlled by checking (enable), or
unchecking (disable). Enable live preview from the popular option [Figure 5].

3.5. Configuring smart tags

Smart tags are context-sensitive menus. They appear automatically when a user uses
certain specific functions, i.e., AutoCorrect / Paste.

Enable / Disable Smart tags

1. Click the Office Button. A drop-down menu appears.
2. From the drop-down menu, select Word Options at the bottom right-hand corner of the
menu. A dialog box opens (figure 6)
3. Select advanced option from the right-hand side options.
• To enable Smart tags, check the Smart Tags option (rectangle).
• To disable contextual spelling, uncheck the Smart Tags option

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Figure 5.6: Enable/ disable smart tags

Fig. 5.6

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
5. ___________ is controlled by checking or unchecking.
6. ___________ are context sensitive menus.

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4. DOCUMENT VIEWS
Document views refer to the view the user works when he/she works on a document. There
are 5 main document views in Word 2007. To select any of the above views

Click View tab > Document views (subgroup). Select view type.

Fig. 5.7: Document view toolbar

4.1. Print layout

It shows the document precisely as it will be printed, with page breaks, headers, footers, and
pictures arranged correctly onscreen.

To enable this view, click on View tab > Print Layout (documents view subgroup)

4.2 Full-Screen Reading

It is designed for users to read documents. It utilises the full space of the screen.

To enable this view, Click on View tab > Print Layout (documents view subgroup)

Fig. 5.8: Full screen reading

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In addition, it provides viewers with many different options

• view a single page, 2 pages

• increase font size
• Enable typing
• Enable tracking etc.

4.3. Web Layout

Used to view how pages would appear if published on the web as HTML documents.

4.4. Outline View

The outline view shows the document structure and allows the creator to freely move
document elements (charts, graphs, tables, graphics, paragraphs).

4.5. Draft View

Shows the document structure, including section breaks. It hides certain layout elements,
making it much faster to scroll through complex documents.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
7. ____________ refers to the view the user works when he/she works on a document.
8. ____________ is used to view how pages would appear if published on the web as HTML
documents.

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5. BASIC FORMATTING IN MS WORD

Splitting a document window
A single document window can be split into two windows. For example, let us suppose that
a particular document spans several pages. A user would like to change the same document
but at different locations, such as at the beginning and end. Document split enables a user to
work simultaneously on the same document. Changes made to the document would be
available on both windows in “real-time”. To enable this feature, click View tab> Windows
(subgroup). Click on the Split icon.

Viewing documents side by side

This feature allows a user to view multiple documents simultaneously. Unlike a split window,
the documents are two different documents. Both documents must be open to use this
feature.

Viewing documents side by side

1. To enable this feature, click View tab > Window (subgroup). Click on view Side by
Side. A dialog box opens (figure 5.9). The dialogue box lists all the open documents.
2. Select the two documents you want to view side by side
3. Click OK.

Fig. 5.9: Compare side by side dialog box

Synchronous Scrolling
Once a user has selected documents for side-by-side view, they can select the Synchronous
scrolling option. Upon selecting this option, the user can view multiple documents and scroll

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both documents simultaneously. This is a handy tool for comparing the same documents –
and one is a modified version.

Reset Window Position

Resets the window so that documents appear side by side.

Switch Window
Enables a user to select which document window to work on. It lists all the open Word
documents. The user must select the document title to make it the active document.

Auto Correct
The Autocorrect feature makes automatic corrections for the user. It presupposes what the
user intends and makes the changes accordingly. For example, if a user types in the following
symbols <==, the Autocorrect assumes that the user intends to draw an arrow and replaces
the graphics 🡸. To undo this, press CTRL + Z.

When Word makes an autocorrect, hover the mouse over the autocorrect option. A shortcut
graphic menu materializes. Click the arrow next to the icon and all the options are provided
regarding AutoCorrect.

Fig. 5.10: Auto correct dialog box

For this feature to work, the autocorrect option must be enabled.

Auto text
AutoText suggests commonly used words, particularly for months and days. For example, if
a user typeset a screen tip alert appears over the word. To select the word, hit enter.

For this feature to work, the autocorrect option must be enabled.

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Enabling/disabling AutoCorrect options

To enable or disable this option Click on Office Button > Word options The following dialog
box opens.

Fig. 5.11: Enabling /disabling autocorrect dialogue box.

Click on Proofing and then Click on the AutoCorrect options button. The autocorrect dialogue
box opens.

Paragraph Formats
A paragraph format applies formatting to an entire paragraph. A character format applies
formatting only to a particular word, sentence, or letter within a paragraph.

Each time a user hits ENTER; Word inserts a new paragraph mark. A paragraph mark holds
all the formatting for the paragraph (spacing, font colour, font size, margins etc.).

Paragraph marks can be entered, copied, and deleted.

Click on Home tab> paragraph (subheading) to view paragraph marks. Click the paragraph
icon button. This displays all the paragraph marks in the document.

Removing Formats
1. To remove formats applied to a document, select the element from which you want to
remove the formatting.
2. Click on Home tab > Font (subheading) – Click on the clear format icon (circle) on the
Font grouping.

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Figure 5.12: Removing formats

Fig. 5.12

Alternately,

1. Click on Home tab > Styles (subheading).

2. Click bottom right hand corner styles and select Clear formatting (rectangle).

Figure 5.13: Alternative methods for clearing the formats

Fig. 5.13

Changing text format

This tool is used to edit text in documents. A user can initiate any number of modifications
by using this tool, such as changing the font type, font size, font colour, and even spacing

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between the letters.

1. To enable this feature, Click on Home Tab >Font(subheading) –Click on the bottom right
arrow [widget]. This opens the font dialogue box (figure 15)
2. A user can now make any number of modifications.

In addition, users can also make changes to the font scale, spacing etc.

To enable this feature, click on the Character tab of the font dialogue box (regular - figure
15).

• Scale – controls the scale of the characters

• Spacing – controls spacing between characters
• Position – controls the position of the text from the baseline
• Kerning – Squishes matched pair of letters together (caution).

Figure 5.14 Changing the formatting.

Finding and replacing text & formatting

It is used to find specific text in a document. For example, the word “audit report” appears
throughout the document. Any characters, symbols, numbers, words etc. can be tracked.

In addition to tracking, the user can specify a replacement word which automatically
replaces the specified word wherever it occurs throughout the document. For example,
suppose a user misspelled the city's name as “Malhorteic” instead of “Matotetic.” Using the

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Find and Replace dialogue box, the user can correct the occurrence of all the misspelt words
in one go.

1. To enable this feature, Click on F5 or CTRL + G. it opens a dialog box (figure 16).
2. To locate the occurrences of a particular word or symbol, etc., type it in the Find What
field. The greyed-out buttons will become active then.

Alternately to replace or correct a word, click on the Replace tab (rectangle). Complete the
necessary fields and click Replace. All occurrences of the word will be replaced with the new
term.

Figure 5.15: Searching a text

Working with drop caps

Drop caps are used for emphasis – to emphasize the beginning of a new paragraph. There
are two different types of drop caps:
• Dropped – drops the first letter of the paragraph to a certain number of lines specified
by the user.
• In Margin – drops the first letter outside of the main body.
o To insert drop caps:
Click on insert tab > Text (subheading) – Click on the Drop Cap icon
o To format drop caps:
Click on the drop cap arrow button and select the Drop Cap option listed at the bottom
of the menu.

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Figure 5.16: Drop cap option.

It opens the following dialog box.

Figure 5.17: Drop cap option formatting.

You can Format the Drop Cap as desired.

Align paragraphs.

1. To align paragraphs, Click on Page Layout tab > Paragraph (subheading) –

2. Click on the bottom right-hand arrow [widget]. The Paragraph dialog box opens (figure
19).
3. Adjust as desired.

The following section provides a brief overview of the various options in the dialog
box.

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Figure 5.18: Indentation and line spacing

Indentation and spacing

• Left–line indentation. One of the most important formats. Formats where each new line
indents at.
• Right – usually not formatted.
• Spacing:
• Before – The user can manually input space between lines using the before and after
spacing.
• After – see above.
• Linespacing – Word automatically adjusts spacing based on the user’s selection.

Using rulers
Figure 5.19: Ruler

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The ruler consists of four components:

• Downward downward-pointing triangle on the left-hand side of the ruler – controls

the first line indent. (left circle)
• Upward pointing triangle on the left-hand side of the ruler – controls the indentation
of all other lines except the first in the paragraph. Also called hanging indentation. (left
circle)
• The square component on the left-hand side of the ruler – controls the left indentation.
Moves both the downward and upward indentation components. (left circle)
• Upward pointing triangle on the right-hand side of the ruler – controls the right indent
(right circle)

A user can manually perform adjustments by clicking on and dragging any one of the above
components.

Using bullets, numbering, and multilevel lists

Numbering and bulleting are paragraph properties.

To apply bulleting, click on the any bullet icon. Users have three options:

• Bullet list
• Numbered list
• Multilevel list.

Figure 5. 20: Bullets, numbering, and multilevel lists

• Removing a bullet.
To remove a bullet but retain the line, place the cursor before the first line of the alphabet
and hit backspace. The bullet icon is removed. To remove the entire bulleted line, select the
entire line and hit the Delete key.

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• Using custom bullets.

Allows users to use special characters and graphics as bullets.

Click on the drop-down menu arrow of the Home tab >Bullet icon (paragraph subgroup).
From the drop-down menu, select the last option: Define New Bullet.

This opens up a new dialogue box.

Figure 5.21: Defining new bullet dialogue box.

Users can now define their bullet by selecting special characters, images they would like to
use, etc.

• Defining a multilevel List.

Click on the multilevel list icon. A drop-down menu appears.
Figure 5.22: Multilevel listing

Fig 5.22

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• Select Define new multilevel list. This opens up a new dialog box (figure 24).
• A user can now customize the appearance of the multilevel list. Customization can be
performed for each level.
• By default the first level is preselected. This is also shown on the white preview screen
listed in the middle of the dialog box. The thick black lines next to number 1) indicate that
this is the active level.
• Name: A user can give this customized list any name.
• Start at: Refers to the numbering sequence. By changing this user can manually specify
from which number a list should begin. By default, all lists begin from number 1.

Figure 5.23: Defining multilevel lists

• Apply formatting to refers to the level of the list. In the example above, the first level is
selected.
• Format button: can be used to specify additional format criteria.

Renumbering Lists
Renumbering Lists in numbered list
1. Place the cursor before the first character in the sentence on the line/bullet you would
like to renumber (the cursor has to be placed at the very beginning of the line).
2. Right click and from the shortcut menu, select set Number Level.

Renumbering Lists in multilevel list

1. Place the cursor before the first character in the sentence on the line/bullet you would
like to renumber (the cursor has to be placed at the very beginning of the line).

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2. Select Define new list style. A dialog box opens up.

3. Select the number you want the list to begin from.

Using Multiple Column Format

Multiple column formats can be used to list information in rows and cols. This is particularly
useful when the content is a list of things.
1. Select the content to be formatted into multiple columns.
2. Click on Page Layout tab > Page Setup (subheading).
3. Click the Columns drop down icon.
4. From the Columns select the number of desired columns. Content is automatically
aligned accordingly.

Once the column format is changed, Word uses the same format. To revert back to original
format, place the cursor on the document from where you would like to start a single column
format as earlier.

1. Click on Page Layout > Page Setup (subheading)

2. Click the Columns drop down icon.
3. From the Columns select the more columns option. A dialog box opens.

Figure 5.24: Page layout tab

4. Select the first icon – One

5. From the drop-down menu from Apply to menu, select this point forward. The columns
will be single columns from this point forward.

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Inserting pictures
Formatting pictures
In Word 2007, the picture format menu appears only after a picture is inserted into the
document. It is a context sensitive menu.

The format ribbon consists of four groupings:

• Adjust – enables adjustments to be made to the picture.
• Picture styles – This is a new feature available in Word 2007. Borders and frames can
be added to the picture. Pictures can also be shaped into different shapes.
• Arrange – controls the alignment of the picture
• Size – allows the pictures to be resized, cropped etc.

Figure 5.25: Formatting pictures

Cropping pictures
• Select the picture first. The Format tab appears on the ribbon.
• Click on Format >Size (subgroup). Click on the Crop icon. Border markings appear
around the picture.
• To crop a picture vertically without changing its width, place the cursor over the
bottom right / left hand marking of the picture.
• Click and drag vertically upwards until the desired size is achieved.
• Release the mouse. The picture is cropped accordingly.

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Figure 5.26: Cropping pictures

Insert Clip Art

• The clipart's are managed via a clip art organizer.
• Click the clip art icon. A task pane opens on the right-hand margin of the window. This
is the clip art organizer.

Figure 5.27: Insert clip art

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Clip arts can be searched using the search options listed in the top of the task pane.

• To organize clip art, click on Organize clipslink listed at the bottom of the page.
• The clip organizer dialog box opens.
• Users can create their own collection, browse collections etc. from here.

Inserting Shapes
• Click on Insert tab > illustrations (subheading). Click on the shape icon.
• A drop-down menu of shapes appears.
• Click on the desired shape. The cursor changes shape to a cross hair.
• On the document click and drag where you want to place the shape. Word draws the
picture.

Figure 5.28: Inserting shapes

NOTE: as soon as a picture is listed on the page, a new context sensitive menu, Format,
appears under drawing tools heading.

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If you deselect the picture, the menu disappears. Upon reselecting the picture, the menu
reappears.

From the Format ribbon, new shapes can be inserted, formatted as to color shape, size,
alignment etc.

Figure 5.29: Formatting the inserted pictures

Inserting headers & footers

Headers and footers are elements that appear on top and bottom of the entire document.
They usually contain information such as page no., date, filename and location etc.

• To insert headers & footers, Click on Insert > Header & Footer (subgroup).
• Click on the Header icon. A drop down menu appears (figure 31).

Figure 5.30: Formatting headers and footers

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• Select the Edit Header option listed at the bottom of the menu.

Figure 5.31: Formatting header

• The document appearance changes and a header section opens on the top.
• Various elements can now be inputted in the header.

To insert Footers, follow the same steps, except this time select the Footer icon next to the
Header icon. The rest of the steps are the exact same.

Inserting date and time

• Refer to figure 5.32. Click on Design > insert (subgroup). Click on Date &Time icon. A
dialog box opens (figure 5. 33)
• Select the date & time format and click OK. The date & time information is entered in
the header.

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Figure 5.32: Inserting date and time

Inserting Page, no
• Refer to figure 5.32. Click on Design > Header & Footer (subgroup). Click on the Page
Number icon. A drop-down menu appears (figure 5. 34).
• Select the desired option.

Figure 5.33: Dialog box for page number

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Inserting filename and path

• Filename and path are usually inserted in the footer. A filename refers to the
document name. For example, the name of this document is unit five MS Word. The
file path tells the reader where the file is stored. A filepath usually takes the following
form. C:\Users\Public\Pictures\Sample Pictures
• To insert a filename, refer to figure 5.32. Click on Design > Insert (subgroup).

Figure 5.34: Adding the path to the file

• Click on the Quick parts icon. A dialog box opens (figure 5.34).
• Scroll down the Fieldname box and select Filename (rectangle). From the properties
fieField nameld select desired format.
• To addfile path to file name, check mark the Add path to filename checkbox located
on the upper right hand corner (circle).
• Click OK. The filename and filepath is inserted in the footer.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
9. Borders and frames can be added to the picture using _____________ groupings of
format ribbon.
10. _____________ are elements that appear on the top and bottom of the entire
documents.
11. _____________ refers to the document name.

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6. ADVANCED FORMATTING
Working with tables
Tables consist of rows and columns. Tables can be used for many different purposes. It can
be used to store data, pictures, text, etc.

There are 2 ways of drawing tables in Word:

• Use table menu

• Manually draw the table

Creating a Table using the menu

Place the cursor on the document where you want to insert a table. Click on Insert tab >
tables (subheading) It opens up a drop down menu.

Figure 5.35

There are three options available:

Select rows and columns

Highlight the desired number of rows and cols in the graph. While this option is the quickest
way to create a table, a user can only create a table with 10 cols and 8 rows.

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Insert table command

Select the insert table command. This option opens up a table dialog box. User must specify
the number of rows and columns to input.

Figure 5.36: Insert table dialog box

AutoFit behavior section allows a user to specify the width of each column. By default it is
always set to auto.

NOTE: it is recommended that a user always use leave this option. Columns can be resized
manually very easily by the user once the table is drawn.

Select the draw table option (Manual process)

This is the most complicated option available to a user. Generally, all tables required by a
user can be drawn using one of the above methods. It is recommended that you use one of
the other methods to draw a table.

Formatting a table
Word 2007 consists of context sensitive menus. The design and layout table menu is one
such menu that appears only when a table has been drawn.

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Figure 5.37: Formatting a table

On the main menu, locate the Design Tab and Layout Tab. These tabs automatically appear
only when a table has been drawn and is the active (selected) item on the screen.

From the design gallery, select any preformatted design.

Note: The table changes in design. This is because Windows 2007 contains Live Preview
feature.

Table style options

On the Design Tab, the extreme left hand of the ribbon consists of a number of style options.

• Header Row – On by default. Tells the table style that the first row of the table is
unique and is therefore formatted differently from the rest of the table.
• Total Row – Tells the table style that the Last row of the table is unique and is
therefore formatted differently from the rest of the table. Sed in tables that contains
Totals in the last row.
• Banded Rows – On by default. Tells the table style to band alternate rows in different
color.
• First Col – Tells the table style that the First Col of the table is unique and is therefore
formatted differently from the rest of the table
• Last Col – Tells the table style that the Last col of the table is unique and is therefore
formatted differently from the rest of the table
• Banded Col – Tells the table style to band alternate Cols in different color.

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Creating and Modifying Styles

Allows users to modify and create their own styles.
1. Click on Design tab > Table Styles (subheading).
2. Click on the bottom scroll bar of the style gallery box. It opens a drop down menu.

Figure 5.38: Creating and modifying table styles

3. Click on the Modify Table style to make changes to predefined style 4. Click on New
Table Style to create a new style and add it to the style gallery.

The Layout tab controls the physical formatting of the table.

Selecting Cells, Rows, Columns

To select a single cell in the table, place the cursor slightly inside the left boundary of the cell
you want to select. The cursor turns into a black arrow. Click the mouse. The cell is selected.

NOTE: the cursor must be placed slightly inside the left boundary of the cell to be selected

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Figure 5.39: Selecting cells, rows and columns

To select the entire row, place the cursor slightly outside of the extreme left hand
boundary of the row. The cursor is just outside of the table. Click the mouse. The entire
row is selected.

Figure 5.40: Selecting rows

To select the entire column, place the cursor slightly inside the top cell of the column. The
cursor turns to a thick black arrow. Click the mouse. The entire column is selected.

Figure 5.41: Selecting column

• To select the entire table, place the cursor inside any of the cell.
• A box with a cross hair appears to the on the top right corner of the table, just outside
the cell.
• Place the cursor over it. The cursor turns into a cross hair.
• Click the mouse. The entire table is selected.

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Figure 5.42: Selecting entire table

Alternately, Click on the Layout tab > select option

Figure 5.43: Layout tab

Inserting rows and cols

The layout tab makes it very easy to insert rows and cols. simply click on the desired option
listed under Rows & Columns subheading.

Delete Cells, Rows, Cols, Table

The layout tab again makes it very easy to delete, cells, rows, cols and tables.

Changing Col Width and Row Heights

Manually
1. Place the cursor near the right boundary of the col whose width you want to change. The
cursor changes to double headed arrow.
2. Click and drag the line to the desired width.

Using table properties

1. Right click inside the col you want to change and then chose table properties. A dialog
box opens.

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Figure 5.44: Table properties

2. Select the columns tab. specify the precise width you want the column to have.

AutoFit
Autofit automatically adjusts the width of the column to fit the contents of the column.
1. Right click inside the table.
2. From the shortcut menu, select Autofit>autofit to contents. The table width automatically
adjusts according to the content of the cells.

Figure 5.45: Selecting Auto fit property

Distribute the column width and row height equally

1. Click anywhere inside the table.
2. Click Lay out tab > cell size (subheading).
3. Click on distribute row / distribute col icons. The table automatically gets readjusted
equally.

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Figure 5.46: Table tools for distributing column width and row height equally

Cell split
1. Select the cell or range of cells
2. Click on layout tab > merge (subheading)

Figure 5.47: Split cells

1. Click on split cell icon. A dialog box opens.

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Figure 5.48: Split cells icon

Specify the number of calls and rows you want to split the cell/cells into and click OK. Word
automatically splits the cells.

Cell merge
1. Select the cells to be merged (click and drag).
2. Click on layout tab > merge (subheading)
3. Click on merge cell icon. Word automatically merges the cells.

NOTE: You can also copy and paste entire columns and rows from the table. To split a table
by the column, select the column and click on the cut icon on the home tab. Word remove
the column/s from the table. Move the cursor anywhere on the page where you want to
paste the column and click paste. Word pastes the entire column as a new table.

Positioning Tables within a Page

1. Click anywhere inside the table
2. Right click and select table properties. The tables dialog box appears.
3. Click on the table tab.
4. Select the desired alignment.

Figure 5.49: Table properties

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Working with large tables

Row headers
Many times tables extend to several pages. To include table headers on each page, do the
following
1. Click inside any cell on the first row / table header of the table.
2. Right click and select table properties.
3. Click on rows tab and select repeat as header row at the top of each page.

Figure 5.50: Selecting row headers in the table properties

The header row is repeated on each page.

Alternate method.
1. Click on the Layout tab > Data (subheading)
2. Click on Repeat Header Rows option.

Styles
Are shortcuts to formatting. Styles enable a group of formatting to be stored as a single style
and applied across document. Styles can be modified and all sections in the document where
the style is applied is modified automatically as well – a very very useful feature of style.

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To enable styles
1. Click on Home tab > Styles (subheading).
2. Click on the small arrow box/widget in the bottom right hand corner. A style task bar
opens on the right-hand corner.

Figure 5.51: Creating new style from formatting

Create new style

Click on the New Style iconlisted at the bottom left hand corner of the styles task pane. A
new stylesdialog box appears (figure 38).

• Name
Name of the new style.

• Style Types
There are several types of styles:

• Paragraph styles
Formats that are applied to an entire paragraph.All the formatting in the paragraph
dialog box is available for formatting.

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• Character styles
Formats that apply only to individual charactersand string of characters. For example,
individual letters, words, sentences, characters etc. Allows user to define format for
tables.
Allow users to define format for lists, including multilevel lists.

• Styles for the following paragraph

Enables the user to tell Word which style to use in the next paragraph when the user
presses enter.

• Automatically update

Enables any changes made to be automatically updated so that all occurrences of the
style will exhibit the same style.

NOTE: It is recommended that you leave the automatically update unchecked.

• Only in this Document

Applies a style to the existing document only. When the user opens a new document,
that particular style will not exist

• New document based on this template

Saves the style to that particular document template and is available for reuse when
new documents are created based on this template.

NOTE: Generally always set the style typeto paragraph. It covers most formatting
requirements.

Click OK to close the dialog box. The new style name appears on the task pane located
on the right hand of the window.

Style Inspector Dialog Box

The style inspector box provides details on formatting used in a document wherever the
cursor is present.

Click on the style inspector icon. A dialog box opens up.

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The box consists of two areas:

• Paragraph formatting

Exhibits formatting applied to a paragraph

• Text level formatting

Exhibits formatting applied to a text.

Thus depending upon where the cursor is pointing, the style inspector informs the user
whether the formatting is at a text level or paragraph level.

Figure 5.52: Style inspector dialog box

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Managing Styles

The manage styles dialog box enables a user to manage all the styles. To enable this option,
click on Home tab > Styles (sub heading) > Manage styles icon. This opens up the manage
styles dialog box.

The dialog box consists of four tabs.

• Edit tab: A user can modify predefined styles. Before modifying styles, user has the
option of sorting out style displays by selecting one of the options from Sort Order drop
down menu. It is recommended that user use the default choice As recommended. A user
can also select Show recommended Styles only option and quickly access those styles
that are commonly used in the document.

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Figure 5.54: Edit tab in managing styles

• Recommend tab: A user can define the styles task pane. It allows a user to control which
styles get displayed on the task pane. Users can automatically provide high priority to
styles by using the up |down button. Users can manually assign priority. Users can hide
styles and more.

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Figure 5.55: Recommend tab

• Restrict tab: A user can restrict changes that made to a document. Users can restrict
certain type of styles from being changed, for example, Heading 1 etc.

Users can also restrict application of Quick Styles and changes to theme of the document by
checking on

• Block Theme or Scheme Switching

• Block Quick Style Set Switching
• Limit format to permitted styles.

Enables a user to restrict any manual formatting except for those specified in the styles task
pane.

Upon selecting this option, the entire formatting ribbon is grayed out. Users will have to
provide password to apply the restriction and to remove the restriction.

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Figure 5.56: Restrict tab

• Set Defaults tab: A user can define the default settings.

Figure 5.57: Set default settings

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Templates
Templates are preformatted documents. All predefined themes and styles can be stored in
a template. The user than simply opens a document based on the template and all the themes
and styles defined are applied to the document.All word documents are based on a template.

Applying Templates
• Click on Office Button > NewA dialog box opens up (figure 45).
• From the dialog box, click on installed templates listed at the very top left hand corner
of the dialog box. This displays the various preinstalled templates in the middle
section of the dialog box.
• Select the desiredtemplate and click on the create button.
• A new document based on the selected template is opened.

Figure 5.58: Applying templates

Building templates from Scratch

Users can create their own custom templates.

• Open up a new document

• Format the document as desired – change fonts, margins, spacing, add styles etc.
• When saving the document, select Save document as. The save document as dialog
box opens.

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• Name the template and from the Save as type drop down menu, select Word Template
or Word 97 & 2003 Template.
• Click Save. The document is saved as a template.

NOTE: You can specify where the templates should be saved. To save a template you created
in the default area of Word, select Trusted Templatesoption at the very top right hand corner
of the Save As dialog box for Windows XP.

Alternately you can specify manually where to save the template by browsing and selecting
the appropriate location.

A template document is represented with the following icon

NOTE: Only those templates that are stored in the default location of Word can be accessed
via the Office Button > New - installed templates or My templates.

Apply a template that you have saved elsewhere

• Navigate to the location using explorer not Word application.
• Right click the Template and from the short cut menu, select New.
• A new document based on the template will open up as shown in the diagram below.

Figure 5.59: Template Application

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Footnotes and End notes

Footnotes are references on a document. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page.

End notes are the same as the footnote, except, it appears at the end of the document rather
than at the bottom of the page.

Inserting footnotes & end notes.

Both footnotes. /End notes can be inserted immediately via a shortcut.
• Place the cursor where you want to insert a footnote
• Click on References tab > footnotes (subheading )
• Click on insert footnote or endnote. Depending upon which option was clicked, the
cursor moves to the end of the document or to the bottom of the page (footnote).

Alternately, click the widget (rectangle box) on the bottom right hand corner of the footnotes
subheading. A dialog box opens.

Figure 5.60: Inserting footnotes

The dialog box provides the user with greater control on formatting.

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Figure 5.61: footnote and end note dialog box

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5
9. To insert table click on ______________________.
10. __________ section allows a user to specify the width of each column.
11. ______ tells the table style to band alternate columns in different color.
12. _________________ are preformatted documents.
13. User can create their own custom templates. (True/false?)

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7. NAVIGATING THROUGH A WORD DOCUMENT

This section explores the various methods available for navigating through a word
document.

7.1. Navigating with Thumbnails and Document Map

• Thumbnails and document map enable a user to easily navigate documents.

• To enable Thumbnail / Document map navigation, Click on View tab> Show/Hide
(subgroup).
• Check the document map and thumbnails checkbox.
• A task pane opens to the left of the document.

NOTE: For document maps to work, built in heading styles must be applied to the headings
within the document.

7.2. Using Keyboards

Key board shortcuts offer a user one of the fastest ways of navigating a document. The
keyboard shortcuts have remained the same as in the earlier version. The following table
lists some of the most commonly used keyboard shortcuts.

Table 5.2: Commonly used keyboard shortcuts

To Move Press

Next Word to right CTRL + RIGHT ARROW

Next Word to left CTRL + Left ARROW

One Paragraph Up CTRL + Up ARROW

One Paragraph Down CTRL + Down ARROW

Beginning of line HOME

End of line END

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Up one screen PAGE UP

Down one screen PAGE DOWN

To beginning of first line of current screen CTRL + ALT + Page UP

To end of last line of current screen CTRL + ALT + Page DOWN

To beginning of document CTRL + HOME

To end of document CTRL + END

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS – 6

14. To move one paragraph up we need to press _________________.

15. _________ and ________ enable a user to easily navigate documents.

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8. PERFORMING A MAIL MERGE

Used for:
• Creation of letters
• Documents
• Labels

8.1. Using the mail merge wizard.

The mail merge wizard provides the easiest method for creating a mail merge. It provides
step by step instruction to users.

• To start mail merge wizard, Click onMailings tab> Start mail Merge (subheading).
• Click on Start Mail Merge icon and from the drop down menu select Step by Step
MailMerge Wizard option listed at the ends of the menu.

Figure 5.64: Mail merge wizard

• A task pane opens on the right hand corner of the window.

• In Select document type, select letter option. (rectangle box).

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• Click on Next: Select starting document _________ link at the bottom of the task pane
(rectangle box).
• The task pane changes. On this new task pane, select Use current document option.
• Click on Select recipients links ___________ at the bottom of the task pane
• The task pane changes again. In the Select recipients option, select Type a new list
• Click the create link right below the top section. A dialog box opens.

Figure 5.65: Second step in mail merge wizard

• Click the customize columns icon. Another dialog box opens.

• Select Phone numbers, Email address and click Delete.
• Since we are creating a letter, we do not need the phone numbers and email
addresses.

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• Each time you click on Delete, a dialog box opens and asks for confirmation.

Figure 5.66: Customizing icon in mail merge (third step)

After deleting all the unnecessary columns, Click OK. The modified dialog box closes. On the
previous dialog box, enter data in the respective columns.

Figure 5.67: Data entry columns (fourth step)

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• Use any data. Enter about seven records.

• After completing the entries click OK.
• Widows will prompt you to save your newly created address list as a temporary db.

Specify where you want to save the data and click save (the new data is saved as a DS_STORE
File (.DS_Store)).
• The following dialog box opens next
• The name of the data source is listed on the Data Source column.
• The links at the bottom of the dialog box enables a user to check, modify, edit and
delete unwanted records.
• Click OK.

You will be taken back to the task pane.

Figure 5.68: Data source Column

• Click the Next: write your letter link at the bottom of the task pane. A new task pane
opens. Here, the user specifies the layout of the letter.

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Figure 5.69: Task pane.

• Address block – Enters all addresses in a pre-formatted form. Upon clicking it, a new
dialogue box opens as shown below

Figure 5.70

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Figure 5.71: Address book insertion

In the insert recipient's name in this format box, select any option. An address preview will
be provided to the user in the preview area located on the right-hand side of the window.

• the arrows on the top of the preview box enable a user to navigate through the
addresses.
• Click OK.
• on the document page, place the cursor where you want the address to appear and
click on address block.
• Next, place the cursor on the document where you want to enter a greeting and click
on the greeting line option. The following dialog box opens

Figure 5.72: Greeting line option.

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• Adjust if required in the dialogue box and Click OK. The dialog closes.
• You will be taken back to the task pane.
• Click the Next: Preview your letters link at the bottom of the task pane.

Figure 5.73: Preview letters link

The actual letter and addresses appear on the page. The task pane content also changes.

Figure 5.74, 5.75 preview page

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The arrow buttons listed at the top of the task pane enable a user to navigate and preview
each letter address.

The Find a Recipient link enables a user to locate an individual address. It opens a find
dialogue box.

Edit recipient list link opens the same dialog box as in Figure 4. User can than make edits.

Exclude this recipient excludes the highlighted recipient from the list.

Figure 5.76

Next, Click the Complete the merge link listed at the bottom of the task pane.

Users have two options; one is to directly print the letter by clicking on the print link.

The other is to click on Edit individual letters. Word automatically creates a new document
of all the letters. The user can now save these individual letters as a separate document.

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8.2. Using preexisting list – from Excel.

You must have an Excel list of recipients ready.

1. Use the following address headers

• Title
• Last Name
• First Name
• Address 1
• Address 2
• City
• State
• Zip
2. Repeat steps 1 to 3
3. Select the More Items option for custom lists. Makes for easy manipulation and layout of
the document.
4. Complete the rest of the steps….

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9. A QUICK LOOK AT MACROS

If you perform a task repeatedly in Microsoft Word, you can automate it by using a macro. A
macro is a series of Word and Excel commands and instructions that you group together as
a single command to accomplish a task automatically.

Here are some typical uses for macros:

• To speed up routine editing and formatting
• To combine multiple commands; for example, inserting a table with a specific size and
borders, and with a specific number of rows and columns
• to make an option in a dialog box more accessible
• To automate a complex series of tasks

Create a macro.
You can create a macro by using the macro recorder to record a sequence of actions, or you
can create a macro from scratch by entering Visual Basic for Applications (VBA: A macro-
language version of Microsoft Visual Basic that is used to program Windows applications
and is included with several Microsoft applications.) Code in the Visual Basic Editor (Visual
Basic Editor: An environment in which you write new and edit existing Visual Basic for
Applications code and procedures. The Visual Basic Editor contains a complete debugging
toolset for finding syntax, run-time, and logic problems in your code.).

You can also use both methods. You can record some steps, and then enhance them with
additional code.

By recording steps
1. On the Tools menu, point to Macro, and then click Record New Macro.
2. In the Macro name box, type a name for the macro.

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Figure 5.77: Macro creation

3. In the Store macro in box, click the template (Template: A file or files that contain the
structure and tools for shaping such elements as the style and page layout of finished
files. For example, Word and Excel templates can shape a single document, and
FrontPage templates can shape an entire Web site.) Or document in which you want to
store the macro.
4. In the Description box, type a description for the macro. 5. If you don't want to assign
the macro to a toolbar (Toolbar: A bar with buttons and options that you use to carry out
commands. To display a toolbar, use the Customize dialogue box (point to Toolbars on
the View menu and click Customize). To see more buttons, click Toolbar Options at the
end of the toolbar.), a menu (menu: A list of commands that is displayed when you click
a menu name on a menu bar or other toolbar.), or shortcut keys (Shortcut key: A function
key or key combination, such as F5 or CTRL+A, that you use to carry out a menu
command. In contrast, an access key is a key combination, such as ALT+F, that moves the
focus to a menu, command, or control.), click OK to begin recording the macro.

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Figure 5.78: Record Macro dialog box

5. To assign the macro to a toolbar or menu, click Toolbars, and then click the Commands
tab. In the Commands box, click the macro you are recording, and drag it to the toolbar
or menu you want to assign it to. Click Close to begin recording the macro.

Figure 5.79

To assign the macro to shortcut keys, click Keyboard. In the Commands box, click the

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macro you are recording. In the Press new shortcut key box, type the key sequence,
and then click Assign. Click Close to begin recording the macro.

6. Perform the actions you want to include in your macro. You can use the mouse to click
commands and options, but the macro recorder cannot record mouse actions in a
document window. To move the insertion, point select, copy, or move text, for example,
you must use shortcut keys.
7. To stop recording your macro, click Stop Recording. Using Visual Basic for
Applications
1. On the Tools menu, point to Macro, and then click Macros.
2. In the Macros in the list, click the template (Template: A file or files that contain the
structure and tools for shaping such elements as the style and page layout of finished
files. For example, Word and Excel templates can shape a single document, and
FrontPage templates can shape an entire Web site.) or document in which you want
to store the macro.
3. In the Macro name box, type a name for the macro.
4. Click Create to open the Visual Basic Editor.

Note: If you give a new macro the same name as an existing built-in command in Microsoft
Word and Excel, the new macro actions will replace the existing actions. To view a list of
built-in macros in Word and Excel, point to Macro on the Tools menu, and then click Macros.
In the Macros in list, click Word Commands.

Run a macro.
1. On the Tools menu, point to Macro, and then click Macros.
2. In the Macro name box, click the name of the macro you want to run.

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Figure 5.80: Macro Name box

Fig. 5.80

If the macro doesn't appear in the list, select a different document or template in the
Macros box.

3. Click Run.

Pause and restart recording a macro.

1. To suspend recording, click Pause Recording on the Stop Recording toolbar that
appears when you are recording a macro.
2. Perform any actions you don't want to record.

To resume recording, click Resume Recorder.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 7
16. _________________ _ is an environment in which you write new and edit existing visual
basics for applications code and procedures.
17. ________________ is a file that contains the structure and tools for shaping the
elements as the style and page layout of finished files.

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10. PRINTING DOCUMENTS

To print a document
Click on the Office button > print option. This opens a print dialogue box.

Figure 5.81: Print dialog box.

Fig. 5.81

The top-most drop-down menu under the heading printer allows the user to select a printer
when multiple printers are available.

The find Printer button opens a wizard that enables a user to locate a printer either in the
network or attached to the computer.

The Page Range option enables a user to select which pages to print. A user has three options
available:

• All - when a user selects this option, Word prints all the pages in the document
• Current Page - when a user selects this option, Word prints ONLY that page that is
open on the screen
• Pages – Allows a user to specify a range of pages to print. For example, if a document
consists of 10 pages and the user wants to print pages 3 to 8, the user must select this
option and enter 3-8 in the text field next to the option. Alternately, if the user wants

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to page a single page, the user types in the exact number of the page. For example, to
print page 3 only, the user types in 3-3.

11. PRINT PREVIEW

The print preview button enables a user to preview how the document looks prior to
printing. This is a particularly useful feature when the document consists of many pages.

12. SUMMARY

In this unit, you studied the basic functions of MS Excel. You also studied to perform
operations in MS Excel. You learnt how to create a file, edit, and delete in MS Excel. You learnt
to perform formatting in MS Excel and work on a worksheet. Finally, you learn to print an
Excel document after all the data has been entered into it.

13. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. How do you customize a Word document?

2. Describe the different layout in the document view
3. Explain the navigation through MS Word in detail.
4. What is mail merge? How do you mail merge in a word document?
5. List the steps in printing a document.

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3.14.
HowANSWERS
do you format an Excel sheet

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Office button
2. Quick access toolbar
3. False
4. Live preview
5. Mini toolbar
6. Smart tags
7. Document views
8. Web layout
9. Picture styles
10. Header and footer
11. Filename
12. Insert tab → tables (subheading)
13. Auto-fit behavior
14. Banded col
15. Template
16. True
17. Ctrl+Up arrow
18. Editor
19. Template

Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 3, customizing word document.
2. Refer Section 4, document view.
3. Refer Section 7, navigating through word document.
4. Refer Section 8, performing Mail merge.
5. Refer Section 9, Printing a document.

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Unit 6
Excel
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table / SAQ / Page

Topic
No Graph Activity No
1 Introduction 1 -
3-4
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Workbook - -
2.1 Cell Reference - -
5-7
2.2 Contiguous &Noncontiguous Cell Range 2-3 -
2.3 Absolute and Relative Cell References (i) 1
3 Worksheet 4-5 -
3.1 Navigating a Workbook 6-7, (ii) -
3.2 Creating, opening, and saving files 8-15 - 8 - 23
3.3 Working with charts 16-23, (iii-v) -
3.4 Sort & Auto filter 24-25, (vi) 2
4 Formatting in Excel 26-34, (vii-xii) 3 24 - 32
5 Advanced formatting in Excel 35-51, (xiii-xiv) 4 33 - 43
6 Working with formulas 52-59, (xv-xviii) 5 44 - 51
7 Printing worksheets 60-61 6 52 - 53
8 Summary - - 54
9 Terminal Questions - - 55
10 Answers - - 56

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1. INTRODUCTION
Excel is a spreadsheet application developed by Microsoft. It is one of the most popular
spreadsheet applications in the market. An Excel program can organise the data as rows and
columns. It allows you to enter data into individual cells. Each cell in Excel has a unique cell
address. When you enter data in Excel, it can be saved and stored in the hard drive and/or
removable disk. You can also export and import data into and out of Excel.

You can use Excel applications for multiple purposes. It allows you to store both numeric and
non-numeric data. Excel is particularly well suited to work with numeric data. It offers
numerous functionalities that enable you to easily manipulate, control, analyse, evaluate, and
represent data.

You can find the following commonly used functionalities offered by Excel are as follows:

• Sort – Excel can sort all types of data: numeric, nonnumeric, and alphanumeric. Sorts
can be performed using multiple conditions.
• Filter – The filter feature organizes data quickly using filters. It provides users with a
customized view of the data. It makes data manipulation very easy.
• Conditional formatting – Conditional formatting highlights data using various criteria.
It makes data reading easy and accessible.
• Data validation – Data validation controls data entry according to specific conditions.
• Charts – Charts enable a user to represent data as charts. User can select from a
multitude of chart types.
• Pictures, photos, drawings, & clipart - Pictures, photos, drawings, & clipart can all be
inserted, edited, and presented easily in Excel.
• Formulas & functions – Perhaps the most useful of all the tools, formulas and
functions enable easy calculation of numeric data. Excel provides various predefined
functions that users can use to perform calculations. Functions are organized into
multiple categories.

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Figure 6.1: Provides is a labeled Excel interface.

Fig. 6.1: Excel 2007 interface

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to -

❖ Create, open, edit, and save workbooks.

❖ Organise and present data using sort and auto filters
❖ Ensure data reliability and accuracy using data validation ∙ evaluate and analyse using
conditional formatting.
❖ Create different types of charts to present data
❖ Use formulas and functions

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2. WORKBOOK
We can generally call an excellent workbook. A workbook consists of worksheets. By default,
when you first open a workbook, it will have three worksheets.
The worksheet tabs at the bottom of the worksheet help you to navigate through the
workbook. The fourth tab lets you insert a new worksheet by clicking on it.

2.1. Cell reference

A cell reference is a cell address. A cell address is listed in the following format - col name
row number, for example, In the cell H15, where H is the column name and 15 is the row
number.

Cell references can also refer to a range of cells. A cell range is a group of cells.

2.2. Contiguous &non-contiguous cell ranges

Cell ranges can be contiguous or noncontiguous.

Figure 6.2: A contiguous cell range

Fig. 6.2
Figure 6.3: A noncontiguous cell range

Fig. 6.3

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• A contiguous cell reference is a group of cells lying adjacent to one another. Click the
cell at any corner of the range and drag the mouse pointer to the opposite corner.
• A noncontiguous cell range is a group of cells not adjacent to one another. Hold down
the CTRL key and select another group of cells in the worksheet.

2.3. Absolute and relative cell references

You can classify cell references as either absolute cell references or relative cell
references, or a hybrid cell reference.

• Relative cell references in Excel change automatically. They are the default reference
used by Excel. They enable you to quickly copy formulas from one location to the next
(usually rows or columns).
• For example, A5 for a single cell (relative address) and A5:A10 for a range of cells
(relative address).
• Absolute cell references in Excel are represented by using a $ sign. Unlike relative cell
references, absolute cell references do not change when you copy a formula to a new
location. Absolute cell references refer to either a column of a row or both.

Table 6.1: Cell reference types

Type of absolute cell reference Format

Absolute row cell reference: A$5

In this reference, the column number changes, but the row

reference stays fixed.

Absolute col cell reference: $A5

The row value changes in this reference, but the col reference stays
fixed.

Absolute cell reference: $A$5

In this case, the cell reference stays fixed.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1

Fill in the blanks with suitable words/words:

1. ________________ is the default reference used by Excel.
2. ________________ is also a cell address.
3. _________________is a group of cells lying adjacent to one another.

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3. WORKSHEETS
The worksheet is the actual work area. An Excel worksheet is composed of columns and
rows. The columns are identified with letters, e.g., A, B, C, D, etc., and the rows are identified
with whole numbers, e.g., 1,2,3,4, etc.

Delete / Insert Worksheet

To delete the worksheet, do the following:
Figure 6.4

Fig. 6.4

1. Place the mouse cursor over the worksheet tab.

2. Right Click.
3. From the shortcut menu, select the delete option
4. To insert a worksheet, repeat the same steps.
5. From the shortcut menu, select Insert option
Or
6. Simply click on the new worksheet tab (rectangle-fig.6.4 )

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Move/Copy Worksheet
Figure 6.5

Fig. 6.5

1. Place the mouse cursor over the worksheet tab.

2. Right Click. From the context menu, select the Move option as depicted in Fig. 6. When
you select the Move or Copy option, a dialog box opens (Fig.6.5)
3. To Move a worksheet, select the (move to end) option. It moves the worksheet to the
end.
4. Alternatively, you can click on the tab and drag the tab to the location desired.
5. Create a copy of the worksheet
6. Copying a worksheet creates an exact duplicate of the worksheet. You can duplicate
the worksheet in the same workbook (file) or copy it to a new workbook (file).
7. Check mark the Create a copy option (rectangle – fig.6.5)

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3.1. Navigating a Workbook

Cell References & range names
Figure 6.6

Fig. 6.6

In the Name box, type in the cell reference and hit enter. The cell is automatically selected.

If you have named cell ranges, click on the drop-down arrow in the Name box and select
the cell range's name.

The entire cell range is selected.

For example, in fig. 6.6, the DEMO cell range is available for selection.

Navigating with the Go To option

Figure 6.7

Fig. 6.7
1. Press CTRL + G or F5. This opens up the Go To dialogue box. The list of references in
the Go To box includes any named ranges in the current workbook.

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2. Select the range name and click OK

Keyboard shortcuts
Excel offers several shortcuts to navigate through the workbook.

Table 6.2: Keyboard shortcut descriptions

Keys Description

Ctrl + Home Makes Cell A1 the active cell

Home Moves to the beginning of the current row

Page Up/Page Down Scrolls one window screen at a time

Ctrl + End Jumps to the bottom right hand corner

Ctrl + Page Up / Down Enables navigating a workbook – sheet by sheet

F4 Repeats the previous action

F2 Makes the active cell ready for editing by inserting the

cursor into the cell.

3.2. Creating, opening, and saving a file

Creating a new Excel workbook

Figure 6.8

Fig. 6.8

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1. Open Excel application

2. Click on the Office button > Open. A dialog box opens (fig.6.8)
3. Click on New option. A dialog box opens (fig.6.9)

Figure 6.9

Fig. 6.9
1. Users can create blank workbooks or workbooks based on installed templates.
2. To create a blank workbook, click on the Blank Workbook option.
3. Click the Create button located in the bottom right-hand corner of the dialog box. A
blank workbook is created.

Alternately users can create a workbook based on installed template. A template is a

preformatted document.

Figure 6.10

Fig. 6.10

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1. Click on the Installed Templates option on Fig. 6.10. Various installed templates are
displayed in the middle display box
2. Select the desired template
3. Click the Create button. A workbook based on the template is created.

Opening an Excel file

Users have two options in opening old files.
1. Open file using Excel application
2. Open file using the explorer

Figure 6.11

Fig. 6.11
1. Open the excel application
2. Click on Office button > Open. A dialog box opens (fig.6.11)
Figure 6.12

Fig. 6.12
1. Using the Look in: drop down menu, navigate to the location where the file is stored.
2. Select the file and click open. The file is opened.

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Alternately a user can use the window explorer to open the file.
Figure 6.13

Fig. 6.13

1. To open an Excel file, Click on the start menu (rectangle) listed at the bottom left-hand
corner of the Task bar. The start menu opens (fig. 6.13).
2. Select the My Computer option and right-click. A context menu appears. 3. Select the
Explore or Open option. The Windows Explorer opens (fig. 6.14). Explorer enables a
user to quickly and easily access files located in the computer.

Figure 6.14

Fig. 6.14

Saving an Excel File

Excel 2007 enables you to save a file in many different formats. Excel files saved in earlier
versions can be opened by Excel 2007. However, files saved as 2007 cannot be opened by
earlier versions of Excel.

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1. Click on Office Button > Save or Save As. A dialog box opens (fig.6.15).

Figure 6.15

Fig. 6.15
2. In the Save in the field, navigate to where you want to save the file.
3. In the File name field, type in the file name.

4. In the Save as type field, click on the drop-down menu arrow located to the extreme
right.

5. Scroll and select Excel 97-2003 Workbook to save the document in an earlier version.

Alternatively, select Excel Workbook to save it in 2007 format. 6. Clicks save. The document
is saved in the specified format.

3.3. Working with Charts

In creating a chart, a user must pay particular attention to the following items:

• Data points: refers to individual points on a chart. (fig.6.16)

• Data Series: refers to a series of data that is used to create a chart

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Fig. 6.16

Excel uses data series to create chart legends

Data points are individual points on the charts.

Chart Types
Charts enable you to depict information, i.e., numbers, visually. You can use any number of
different types of charts. Some of the commonly used charts are pie charts, bar charts, area
charts, cone charts, scatter charts, etc. Charts vary in their ability to display data series and
data points.

Creating charts
Select the range of cells in the worksheet containing plotting data.

Figure 6.17

Fig. 6.17
1. Click on Insert tab > charts (subgroup) – select the type of chart desired. The chart
is inserted into the document.

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Figure 6.18

Fig. 6.18
Alternately a user can click on the widget (marked with a green circle) and it opens a dialog
box providing all the possible options.

Once a chart is inserted, three context menus – Design, Format, & Layout appears on the
Ribbon (rectangle - fig.6.19).

Figure 6.19

Fig. 6.19
1. To select the data area for a chart, simply click on the margins of the chart. A thick
margin will be formed across the chart.
2. The data area will be highlighted with a blue and green boundary.

Figure 6.20

Fig 6.20

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Formatting Charts
Design Tab
Charts can be formatted in a number of ways. The design tab provides the following
formatting option.
Figure 6.21

Fig. 6.21
Table 6.3: Design tab subgroup functions

Subgroup Function

Change Chart Type Selecting this option enables a user to change the
chart type. A dialog box opens.

Save As Template Opens the Save As dialog box

Switch Row/Column Changes the Data Series on the chart.

Select Data / Change Data See below

Chart Layouts Provides different layout options for the charts.

Styles Provides a gallery of the Chart Styles

(preformatted).

Move Chart Moves the chart to new location.

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Layout Tab
Figure 6.22

Fig. 6.22
The layout feature enables a user to modify the layout of a chart.
Table 6.4: Layout tab subgroup functions

Sub Group Function

Current You perform the following tasks:

Selection Fields - select individual fields in the chart i.e. axis, title etc. Format
Selection - Format individual items in the chart by first clicking the
item on the chart and then clicking format selection.

Insert Allows you to insert pictures, texts, and shapes onto the chart

Labels Enables you to insert, modify specific labels.

Axes Enables you to modify the labels on the chart

Gridlines Enables you to modify specific gridlines (both major and minor)

Format tab
The format feature enables a user to modify the layout of a chart.
Figure 6.23

Fig. 6.23

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Table 6.5: format tab subgroup functions

Feature Description

Shape Enables you to modify the chart outline, fill color, shape outline etc. Select
the chart item you want to modify from the chart i.e. chart columns etc.
Styles
From the Shape Styles select desired format.

Word Enables a user to modify text formats i.e. using special word arts etc.
Select the text you want to modify from the chart i.e. legends, axis labels,
Art
title etc.
Styles
Click on the Word Art Styles outline and select desired format.

Arrange Enables a user to work with multiple objects on the sheet. i.e. shapes,
text boxes etc.

Size Enables resizing of the chart.

Clicking on the widget at the bottom of the subgroup opens up a new
dialog box.

3.4. Sorting & auto-filter

Excel provides you with multiple options for sorting and auto-filter. You can define custom
sorting and auto-filter rules and options.

Performing simple sorts

1. Click on the column within a table you want to sort by.
2. Home > editing (subgroup), click on Sort Icon. A drop-down menu appears.
3. Select the desired sort. Excel performs the sort.

Sorting selects sections of a table.

Occasionally, you may want to perform a selected sort within a table. To do so, select those
columns and details you want sorted and repeat the previous steps. Only the selected portion
is sorted.

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Using Custom Sort / Multiple Column Sort

Custom sort enables you to specify additional parameters for performing sorts (using
multiple columns to perform sort).

Figure 6.24

Fig. 6.24

1. Click the Home tab > editing (subgroup), and click on the sort icon. A drop-down
menu appears.
2. Select the Custom Sort option. A dialog box opens (fig.6.25).

Figure 6.25

Fig. 6.25

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Table 6 provides a summary description of the options listed in the dialogue box
Table 6.6: Sort dialog box options description

Feature Description

My Data Has Located on the extreme top right-hand corner (green circle),
Check this option if the table has col headers. If this is unchecked,
Headers –
Excel uses the Column A, and Column B headers….
check box

Sort By you must specify the column to base the sort on

Sort On you have to select what type of sort to perform. Four options are
available:

Values – refers to cell values (numbers, letters etc.) Cell Color – if

the cells are color-coded, sort can be performed based on color-
coding

Font Color – if the fonts are color-coded, sort can be performed

based on color coding

Order Enables you to specify how to perform a sort.

Add Level Adds additional parameters to perform sort by

Delete Level Removes any selected additional parameter levels

Copy Level Copies the exact parameter levels

Arrow icons The arrow icons (marked with an orange rectangle) are used to
arrange the levels of the parameters. It is active when more than
one level exists.

1. You can sort a document using multiple columns. To add an additional column for
sorting, click on the Add level button (fig.6.25). A new level is added below the first
level.

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2. From the drop-down menu of the newly listed level, select the additional column to
sort by.
3. Once all the sort columns have been specified, click OK. Excel sorts the table in the
specified format.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
4. The cell is automatically selected when you type cell reference and hit enter in the
name box. (True/ False?)
5. ______________ is the shortcut key to jump the cursor to the bottom right-hand corner.
6. The function of ____________ is to enable the user to change the chart type.

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4. FORMATTING IN EXCEL
You can perform the same formats on Excel as in Word, but formatting in Excel is much more
complicated than in Word. You can format Row / Col content, Entire rows/Cols, Fonts,
Row/Col height-width, and more.

Formatting cells
Figure 6.26: Formatting cells dialog box

Fig. 6.26

1. Click on Home tab > Font (Subgroup) - Click the widget at the bottom right-hand
corner.
2. A Format cells dialog box opens (fig.6.26). The dialog box consists of several tabs.
Each tab enables a user to format a particular aspect of the worksheet.

Number tab
Allows you to format entries (usually numbers) in each cell. Row/col/table etc. All the
various available formats are listed under the category display box. User simply must click
on the category. Based on the selection, available options change.

The following table provides a list of the most used formats.

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Table 6.8: Excel format number category options

Category Description

It is the default category. It can display up to 11 digits. A decimal point is

regarded as a digit. If numbers to the left of the decimal exceed 11 digits, Excel,
displays number using scientific notation. For example. In excel, Date is
General written in the following format.
Month/Day/Year. Thus, if you enter 2/22(Fraction), Excel will read this as a
Date and display 22-Feb.
To overcome this, first type in 0, then a single space, and then the fraction.
Excel stores the result but displays the fraction.

Number Allows you to specify the number of decimals to display and whether or not
to use separators such as comma to group large numbers.

Allows you to specify the number of decimals to display. In addition, you can
Currency specify a currency symbol that you want to use. For Indian Rupees, the
available symbol is INR. Soon this will be substituted with the new rupee
symbol.

It allows you to format how the dates are displayed. Users can select the
country for date format. Dates can also be written in native languages.
Date NOTE: Excel follows the date format as used in the US – MONTH / DAY / YR.
This is the default setting for Excel. To use DATE / MONTH/YR format, select
any of the other countries from the given options

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Alignment Tab
Figure 6.27: Alignment tab in format cells

Fig. 6.27
1. The alignment tab allows a user to format the text layout.
Table 6.9: Excel alignment format options

Labels Definition

Horizontal Controls horizontal spacing of text within a cell

Vertical Controls vertical spacing of text within a cell

Orientation Controls orientation. Text can be aligned in a completely vertical

manner Users can either drag around the handle or manually input
the numbers.

Wrap Text Wraps the text to the same cell by increasing the cell height not the
column width.

Indent Inserts indentation within cells

Text Control Allows you to control how text will be displayed when text overflows
a cell.

Shrink to Fit Shrinks the contents to fit the cell

Merge Cells To use this option, you must first select the contiguous cells to be
merged. This option can then be applied. A shortcut is to select the
cells, right click and select merged cells.

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Font Tab
Figure 6.28: Font tabs in alignment cells

Fig. 6.28
1. Allows you to format the font style.

Table 6.10: Excel font format options

Labels Definition

Font Select the font face type

Font Style Selects the format for each font style

Size Select the Size of the font

Underline Select underlining format – single, double, accounting, etc.

Colour Selects font color

Effects Strikethrough – cuts a line across the text.

Superscript – superscripts the text
Subscript – subscripts the text

Preview Provides a live preview of each of the formats in the display area.

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Border tab
Formats borders of the cell / range of cells
Figure 6.29: Border tab in format cells

Fig. 6.29

Table 6.11: Format cells border tab option descriptions.

Labels Definitions

Style Formats the line style

Presets Enables you to apply one of the three presets.

Border Allows you to design custom borders

Color Formats colors of lines

Fill: Enables you to format a cell/range of cells as to the fill Fig. 6.30: Fill tab

Fig. 6.30

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Table 6.12: Fill options descriptions of format cells dialog box

Labels Definition

Background color Selects a background color

Pattern color Selects a pattern color

Pattern Style Selects a pattern style. The patterns available are shown in
the fig. 6.30

Fill Effects Opens up a dialog box that enables a user to specify the
gradient color and style.

More Colors Opens a new dialog box that enables a user to select more
colors.

Sample Displays how the above formats will appear

Page Setup
The page set up option enables you to do many different types of format. Essentially it is
focused on formatting a page prior to printing the page. For example, you can do all of the
following from the page set up dialog box:
1. Insert headers and footers into a document
2. Format page margins
3. Specify row and column headers to print on each page and more.
Figure 6.31

Fig. 6.31

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1. To access the page set up dialog box, Click on PageLayout> Page Setup (subgroup) –
Click on the right hand side widget (circle). A Page Setup dialog box opens.

Page tab options

• Orientation – allows you to specify whether to print in Portrait format (default
format) or landscape format.
• Scaling – scales the contents of the worksheet. Enlarging it or reducing it.
• Paper size – allow you to specify the print paper size.
• Prints Quality – can specify the dpi (dots per inch). The higher the dpi, the higher the
quality.
• The print preview button – provides a preview of the worksheet as to how it would
print.

Figure 6.32

Fig. 6.32

Margin tab options

Enables you to set the margins manually.
All of the following fields control the spacing on the margins:
• Top
• Left
• Right
• Bottom

Note: The header and Footer options relate to spacing for the header and footer elements of

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the page.
By clicking on horizontal and vertical options, you can center the contents at the centre of
the page. Alternately the user can center the contents vertically or only horizontally.

Figure 6.33

Fig. 6.33

Sheet tab options

The sheet tab provides some of the most important format options available.

1. Prints Area – enables a user to specify the range of the print area.
2. Click on the square icon (circle) located on the extreme right of the Print area: field.
The Page Setup dialog box disappears and the following dialog box appears (Fig.6.34).

Figure.6.34

Fig. 6.34

• Click, drag and select the print range in the worksheet. Excel automatically types in
the range in the space.
• Once the range has been selected, re-click the square icon on the right. The Page Setup
dialog box reappears with the range specified.
• Rows to Repeat at Top – allows you to specify which rows to repeat at the top of all
pages. This is a handy feature if the table is a long table with headers that needs to be
repeated on each new page.

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• Columns to repeat – allows you to specify columns to repeat on every page.

• Gridlines – by checking this print option, Excel will print the sheet along with the
gridlines.
• Comments – if the worksheet has comments, checking this option will print the
comments as well.
• Row and Column heading- will print the row headers (1,2,3 etc…) and col headers (A,
B, C etc..)

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
7. ___________ tab allows you to formats entries in each cell/row/col, etc
8. _____________ effect cuts a line across the text.

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5. ADVANCED FORMATTING IN EXCEL

Splitting the Worksheet

Excel 2007 enables you to split a worksheet vertically as well as horizontally. You can work
on the same worksheet in two different areas simultaneously. Changes made in each window
will be viewable immediately in both screens.

Figure 6.35

Fig. 6.35

1. Click on a cell to the right of which you want to split the window or above which you
want to split the window
2. Click on View tab > Window (subgroup) –click the split icon. Excel splits the screen
into the appropriate areas.

Remove Split
1. To remove the split, simply click on the Split Bar twice rapidly.

Inserting Page Breaks

Page breaks enables you to specify the contents of each page manually.

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Figure 6.36

Fig. 6.36
1. Click the cell which will act as the last cell on a page (rectangle – fig.6.36). This cell must
be outside the data area.
2. Click on Page Layout > Page Setup (subgroup) – Click on the Page Breaks icon and select
Insert Page Break. A page break is inserted in the worksheet.

Modifying Page Breaks

You can manually drag and organise Page breaks across the worksheet.

Figure 6.37

Fig. 6.37

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1. Click on View tab > Workbook Views (Subgroup) – Click on Page Break View option.
2. The workbook appears as shown in Fig.6.37. The Dark Blue lines represent Page
breaks. The pages that would print are not shaded and a Watermark indicates the
page number.
3. To adjust the page breaks, click and drag the blue lines.

Autocomplete
1. With this feature enabled, Excel automatically fills out cell contents based on past
entries. When a user types in contents in a new cell and if the first initial alphabets
match previous entries, Excel suggests the prior word.
2. To select the option provided, click Enter any of the arrow keys.
3. To ignore, simply continue typing.

Figure 6.38

Fig. 6.38
To Enable / Disable AutoComplete

1. Click Office Button > Excel Options. This opens up the dialog box (fig.6.38).
2. Select Advanced option and
• Check to enable AutoComplete
• Uncheck to disable AutoComplete

Entering same data in multiple cells simultaneously

Figure 6.39

Fig. 6.39

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1. Select a range of cells. While the cells remain selected, type in the text/formulae etc.
into the first cell of the range (fig.6.39)
2. Once everything has been entered, press CTRL + ENTER Data is automatically
entered into all the various individual cells

Using the Go To Special dialogue box: Enables you to work with complex data.
To Apply the Custom AutoFill
1. Click anywhere in the Excel worksheet where you want to input the custom list
using the AutoFill feature.
2. Type in the first item of the custom list in its entirety.
3. Now, use the AutoFill feature. The custom list will fill the adjacent cells Auto Fill
option button.

Figure 6.40

Fig. 6.40

1. AutoFill provides aAutoFill option button that enables a user to manipulate the
results if the AutoFill does not perform the required task as desired.
2. After using the AutoFill feature, a drop down smart menu appears at the bottom of
the list (circle).
3. Click on it to display the options available

Find and Replace Dialog Box

The Find and Replace Dialog box is capable of finding specified items in a worksheet either
by value alone or by value and format. Finding items by formats is a new capability of Excel
2007. Only those items that match the value and the format will be selected. Additionally,
this feature can be used with the Replace feature that enables a user to specify the format to
replace the prior format.

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Figure 6.41

Fig. 6.41
1. To enable this feature, click on Home > Editing (Subgroup). Select the Find Icon in
the top-hand corner.
2. Alternately press F5 or CTRL + F. The find and replace dialog box opens (fig.6.41). If
you want to use find using the formatting criteria, click on the format button and
perform the formats. Excel shows the results in the preview dialog box (rectangle –
fig.6.41).

The Replace dialog box

Click on the replace tab (rectangle). The Replace dialog box enables a user to replace an
existing value with a new value. Users can also specify the format of the new value.

Paste Special Option

Another option available to users is the paste special option. This option enables users to
format the paste in several ways.

Figure 6.42

Fig. 6.42

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1. Select and copy any content to the clipboard. To view the clipboard, Click on Home >
clipboard.
2. On the worksheet, place the cursor where you want to paste the details
3. Right Click and from the listed options, select paste special option

This opens a dialog box (fig.6.42)

Figure 6.43

Fig. 6.43
The paste section in fig.6.43 lists several paste options:

1. All: this option pastes the exact content in the new location. Everything will be copied
and pasted just as in the original i.e. the values, formulas, formatting etc.
2. Formulas: Pastes the formulas from the cells. If the cells only contain a value, then it
pastes the values only.
3. Values: pastes the values of cells. If the values are the result of some formula, it
disregards the formula and only pastes the values.

Using conditional formatting

Conditional formatting lets you set font attributes, colours, and other formatting options that
cause data to appear differently based on the values displayed in a cell. It is a useful tool to
indicate alerts when values exceed specified limits.

1. Select a range of cells to which you want to apply conditional formatting.

2. Home > Styles (subgroup) – click on the conditional formatting icon. A drop-down
menu appears.

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Figure 6.44

Fig. 6.44
‘You can now specify specific conditional formatting options.

Cell Rules
The following table provides a summary of the various options for conditional formatting
available in the cell rule.

Table 6.14: Conditional formatting cell rules

Conditional Definition
Formatting
Value

Greater than Specify greater than values. For example, Greater Than 100 will
highlight only those cells that exceed 100

Less Than Specify less than values. For example, Less than 100 will highlight
only those cells that are below 100

Equal to Specify equal to values. For example, Equal To 100 will highlight
only those cells that are exactly 100

Between Specify values between two numbers. For example, between 100 and
1000. It will highlight only those cells with values between 100 and
1000

Text that Specify text values. For example, EASTERN REGION. It will select
contains only those cells with the matching text.

Date occurring Specify date values

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Duplicate Highlight all duplicate values (repeat values) or unique values.

values

Figure 6.45

Fig. 6.45
1. All the previous rules are presented here. In addition, the Format Button is available
that enables you to specify formatting criteria..

Top bottom rules

Enables you to highlight the top 10, top 10% or the bottom 10, bottom 10% of all the
values in the worksheet.
Figure 6.46

Fig. 6.46

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Using data bars

You can display a colored bar graph based on the values of data in a selected range.

Figure 6.47

Fig. 6.47
1. Select a range of cells with the values.
2. Click on Home tab > styles (subgroup). Click on Conditional Formatting. A drop
down menu is presented
3. Select Colored Data Bars – a list of colored data bars appears next to the cells with
the values

Using Color Scales

Figure 6.48

Fig. 6.48
1. Color scales and data bars are more or less one and the same thing. Only in color
scales multiple colors are used.

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Using Icon Sets

Figure 6.49

Fig. 6.49
1. In icon sets symbols are used to graphically represent the values of the cells.

Removing Conditional Rules

Figure 6.50

Fig. 6.50
1. Click on Home tab > Styles (subgroup) – Click on conditional formatting icon.
2. From the drop down menu, select clear rules options. You have the option of
removing the conditional formatting rules from the selected cells or from the entire
worksheet.

Using the Format Painter

The format painter enables you to quickly copy only the formats from a cell and apply it to
other cells.

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Figure 6.51

Fig. 6.51
1. The format painter tool is (circled) in the diagram.
2. To apply a format multiple times to different areas in the worksheet, click the
format painter tool twice in quick succession. You can now apply the format any
number of times.
3. To apply the format only once, click once on the format painter icon and apply to the
cell.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
9. __________ allows you to manually specify contents of the each page.
10. _______________dialog box enables you to work with complex data.
11. _______________ enables you to set font attributes that cause data to appear
differently based on the values display in a cell.

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6. WORKING WITH FORMULA

All formula must start with a “=” sign. Formulas are based on cell reference. In Excel cell
reference consists of [COL REF][ROW REF] i.e. A5 where A is column A and 5 is row 5.

Terminology
Operands: Refers to the values upon which calculations will be performed.
Arithmetic Operators
There are six arithmetic operators:
• Addition (+)
• Subtraction (-)
• Multiplication (*)
• Division (/)
• Percent (%)
• Exponentiation (^)

Logical operators:
• Equal to ( = )
• Greater than (>)
• Less than( < )
• Greater than or equal to (>=)
• Less than or equal to(<=)
• Not equal to(<>)
• Concatenate (join) string (&)

Order of operations:
If a formula contains more than one operator, Excel performs the operation in the following
order:
1) Percent (%)
2) Exponentiation (^)
3) Multiplication (*) and division (/)
4) Addition (+) and subtraction (-)
5) Concatenation(&)
6) Comparison (=,<,>,<=,>=,<>)

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Parenthesis can be used to prioritize the operations. Excel performs those operations first
that are listed within the parenthesis.

Functions
Functions are predefined formulas. They are capable of handling simple arithmetic
operations to complex operations. Example: AVG(), SUM(), IPMT() etc.

Inserting functions
Figure 6.52

Fig. 6.52
• Click on the insert function icon on the formula bar. It opens up a dialog box (fig. 6.52).
• Search for a function: enables a user to type in the name of the function and that
particular function is selected.
• Select a category: Excel has grouped all functions into various categories. For
example, Financial, Date & Time, Logical etc. It allows a user to easily locate the
function they are looking for. Alternately a user can select the
• The All option displays all the functions in the display area below.
To use a function, select the desired function from the display area and click OK. A dialog
box opens for that particular function.
Excel has more than 300 functions. The following section examines some commonly used
categories of functions.

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Math and trigonometry functions

Some of the most widely used functions fall under this category, such as:
Table 6.15: Math and trigonometry functions

Function Description

SUM Automatically adds values within the specified range i.e. SUM (A2:A15)

AVERAGE Automatically averages values within a specified range i.e. AVERAGE

(A2:A15)

COUNT Automatically returns occupied numeric values within a specified range

i.e. COUNT (A2:A15)

COUNTA Automatically returns occupied numeric and alphanumeric values within

a specified range i.e. COUNT (A2:A15)

MIN Automatically returns lowest numeric value within a specified range i.e.
MIN (A2:A15)

MAX Automatically returns the numeric values within a specified range i.e. MAX
(A2:A15)

Table 6.16: Logical functions

Function Description

IF Used to perform, IFlogical tests. A user can include additional

parameters and perform nested IF logical tests.

Table 6.17: Lookup & references

Function Description

VLOOKUP Allows user to lookup and copy values based on a select identifier
specified by the user. VLOOKUP function only works vertically i.e.
based on values of a single column.

HLOOKUP Allows user to lookup and copy values based on a select identifier
specified by the user. HLOOKUP function only works horizontally i.e.
based on values of a single row.

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Table 6.18 Statistical functions

Function Description

MEDIAN() Returns the middle values in a list

MODE() Return the most frequently appearing values

Nested function
Many times a function can have several nested functions, such as, when a user is working
with IF statements /logic.
For example, when assigning grades to students based on their marks, a teacher might use
the following formula
=IF(A2>89,"A",IF(A2>79,"B", IF(A2>69,"C",IF(A2>59,"D","F"))))
Excel allows a user to create up to 64 levels of nested functions.

Displaying formula
At times a user may want to hide the formulas used in cells from users A user can prevent
formulas from displaying in the bar.
Figure 6.53

Fig. 6.53
1. Select all the cells containing the formula
2. Right click and select Format cell. A dialog box opens. 3. Select the Protection Tab and
checkmark both hidden and locked options.
3. Click OK
4. Click on Review tab > changes (subgroup) click on protect worksheet icon.

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Figure 6.54

Fig. 6.54

Figure 6.55

Fig. 6.55

1. Make sure that the protect worksheet and contents of locked cells option located at
the top of the dialog box is checked. By default it is always checked.
2. Click OK. The formulas will no longer be displayed on the formula bars. To display the
formulas again
• Select all cells with the hidden formula.
• Click on Review tab > changes (subgroup) click on protect worksheet icon.
• The formulas are redisplayed

Using Range Names and Labels in Formulas

Range names offer an easy alternative for users to work with cell references. Instead of
typing in the cell references i.e. A10: A24, a user can simply use a assigned name to refer to
the range i.e. daily_sales.Users can use this assigned name in the formulas as well.

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Name a cell range

Figure 6.56

Fig. 6.56

1. Select the cells within the range.

2. Click on the Name box and type in the name for the cell range. 3. Hit enter. The range
has been created and named. To verify, click anywhere in the worksheet. Navigate to
the name box and click on the drop down arrow. From the list of options, select the
range name. The range is highlighted / selected in the worksheet.

Name Manager
Users can also use the Name manager to manage range names.

Figure 6.57

Fig. 6.57

To use this feature

1. Click on Formula tab > defined names (subgroup) – click on Name Manager. A dialog
box opens (fig.6.58)

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Figure 6.58

Fig. 6.58

• The user can now add, modify, delete range name.

Checking formula
Check error feature
Click on Formula > Formula Editing (subgroup) – click on the Error checking icon.
Figure 6.59

Fig. 6.59

Figure 6.59

Fig. 6.59
A dialog box opens up
• Ignore error button. – allows a user to ignore an error by clicking the ignore error
button
• Edit in formula Bar – for simple errors where the user can simply correct the error.
• Show Calculation Steps – for complex error, this option is available. Clicking it allows

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a user to evaluate the formula in the display area within the dialog box.
• The Error Check dialog box enables a user to check for errors in a formula within a
worksheet. Excel automatically checks for errors in formulas.
• Previous / Next – navigates to the next or the previous errors in the worksheet.
• Options – Enables a user to specify which type of errors to look for and which type to
ignore.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5
12. ___________ refers to the values upon which calculations will be performed.
13. Excel has more than _____________ functions.
14. _____________ Function automatically returns occupied numeric and alphanumeric
values within a specified range.

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7. PRINTING WORK SHEETS

Defining Print Area
Defining print area means specifying what to print from a worksheet. The user specifies the
boundaries of the page to be printed.

Figure 6.60

Fig. 6.60

1. Select the range you want to print. (The range need not be contiguous. If you have
selected non-contiguous areas in the worksheet, each area will print on a new page.)
2. In fig.6.70, the selected range is highlighted with a black border.
3. Click on Page Layout tab > Page Setup (subgroup) – Click on Set Print Area icon.
4. Select Set Print Area option. The selected range has been identified as the print area
i.e. the portion of the document that will print.

Remove Print Area

1. Click anywhere in the worksheet
2. Click on Page Layout tab > Page Setup (subgroup) – Click on Clear Print Area icon. The
prior print areas are cleared.

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Print a document
Figure 6.61

Fig. 6.61

1. To print a document, simply Click on Office Button > Print. A dialog box opens
(fig.6.71).
2. The Print dialogue box allows a user to specify various print options
3. Alternately, the user can use the QAT

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS – 6

15. _______________ means specifying what to print from a worksheet.

16. To remove the print area you need to click on ______________

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8. SUMMARY

In this unit, you studied the basic functions of MS Excel. You also studied to perform
operations in MS Excel. You learnt how to create a file, edit, and delete in MS Excel. You learnt
to perform formatting in MS Excel and work on a worksheet. Finally, you learn to print an
Excel document after all the data has been entered into it.

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9. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the basic functions of MS Excel
2. Describe navigation in a workbook

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3.10.
HowANSWERS
do you format an Excel sheet

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Relative cell references
2. Cell references
3. Contiguous cells
4. True
5. Ctrl+end
6. Change chart type
7. Number
8. Strikethrough
9. Page breaks
10. Goto special dialog box
11. Conditional formatting
12. Operands
13. 300
14. CountA
15. Defining print area
16. Page layout tab → page setup → clear print area icon

Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 1, Introduction
2. Refer section 3.1, navigating in a workbook
3. Refer section 4, Formatting in a Excel

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Unit 7: MS PowerPoint 1
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Unit 7
MS PowerPoint
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ / Page

Topic
No / Graph Activity No
1 Introduction 1 -
4
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Creating a Presentation - -
2.1 Opening a blank presentation 2 -
2.2 Understanding title slide 3 -
5-9
2.3 Inserting a new slide 4-5, (i) -
2.4 Deleting a slide 6-7 -
2.5 Applying design to a slide 8 1
3 Basic Formatting in PowerPoint - -
3.1 Adding, modifying, and deleting text 9 -
3.2 Changing a slide layout - -
3.3 Adjusting tabs and indentation 10-11 -
3.4 Sorting the slides using the slider sorter 12 - 10 - 15
3.5 Viewing a slide show 13-14, (ii) -
3.6 Viewing individual a slide show 15-16 -
3.7 Hide slide 17 -
3.8 Unhide a hidden slide - 2
4 Advanced Formatting - -
4.1 Using the slide master 18-23 -
16 - 26
4.2 Using transitions 24-25 -
4.3 Using animations 26-31, (iii-iv) 3
5 Using Templates - -
5.1 Applying templates 32 - 27 - 28
5.2 Creating custom templates 33-34 -

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6 Inserting charts 35-36 - 29 - 30

7 Inserting tables 37-38 - 31 - 32
8 Printing presentations 39 4 33 - 34
9 Summary - - 35
10 Terminal Questions - - 36
11 Answers - - 37

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1. INTRODUCTION
MS PowerPoint is primarily a presentation tool. It is used to make presentations.
Presentations are designed as slides. A slide can consist of text, pictures, charts, drawings,
photos, cliparts and even movies and video clippings. In addition, a user can animate items
on the slide, add sound and much more. Presentations are saved electronically. It can be
stored in the hard drive of a computer or removable disk.

You can see the PowerPoint 2007 interface as shown in Figure 7.1

Figure 7.1: PowerPoint 2007 Interface

Fig. 7.1

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to -

❖ Create, edit, and run new presentation
❖ Add transitions and animation effects to a presentation
❖ Use slide master to create presentations
❖ Perform insertion of charts, tables, pictures, and shapes to presentation
❖ Perform printing the slides or handouts

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2. CREATING A PRESENTATION

2.1. Opening a blank presentation

There are two ways to create a blank presentation. One is to simply open the PowerPoint
application. By default, PowerPoint opens a blank presentation the first time the application
is opened.

Figure 7.2: Open a new presentation wizard

Fig. 7.2
1. Alternately, open the PowerPoint application.
2. Once it is open, Click on Office Button > New. A dialog box opens (fig 2).
3. To open a blank presentation, click on Blank Presentation.
4. Click the Create button at the bottom right-hand corner (rectangle). A blank
presentation is opened.
This feature also allows a user to open a presentation based on a template.

2.2. Understanding Title Slide

By default, the first time a blank presentation is opened, PowerPoint opens a title slide. A
title slide is the first slide of the presentation. It is primarily used to announce the topic of
the presentation along with other details. There is only one title slide for each presentation.
Users have the option of inserting additional title slides.

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Figure 7.3: Inserting title slide

Fig. 7.3
2.3. Inserting a slide

Figure 7.4: Inserting a slide wizard.

Fig. 7.4
1. To insert a new slide, Click on Home tab > Slides (subgroup), and Click on the New
Slide icon. A drop-down menu appears (fig 7.4).
2. Select and click the desired slide format. A new slide of the specified format is
inserted.

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Table 7.1: New slide options descriptions

Feature Description

Duplicate Duplicates those slides that are selected on the slide panel.
Selected styles

Reuse Slides It is a new feature of PowerPoint 2007. It enables a user to open

another PowerPoint and reuse slides from that powerpoint.

Figure 7.5

Fig. 7.5
Using the short cut option
1. Alternately, a user can right click the title slide or any other slide.
2. From the menu options, select new slide.
A new slide is inserted.

2.4. Deleting a Slide

To delete a slide, a user has two options.

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Figure 7.6: Right-click option for deleting a slide

Fig. 7.6

Right Click option.

1. On the slides panelright click the slide you want to delete and select delete slide (Fig
7.6). The slide is deleted.

Menu option
1. On the slide panel, select the slide to delete.
2. Click on Home tab > Slides (subgroup) – click on Delete icon. The slide is deleted.

Figure 7.7: Menu option for deleting a slide

Fig. 7.7

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2.5. Applying design to a slide

PowerPoint 2007 provides several predesigned templates that a user can apply. A
predesigned template has pre-designed background, font styles, bullets, text box layouts and
more.

1. Click on the Design tab > themes (subgroup) to apply a design to a slide.
2. Click the bottom right-hand arrow of the gallery A drop-down menu appears

Figure 7.8: Design view wizard

Fig. 7.8

3. From the drop-down menu, select the desired theme. The theme is automatically
applied to all the slides.

NOTE: As you mouse over the various themes, PowerPoint provides a live preview of the
applied design.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. When the blank presentation is opened for the first time, by default, ______________ slide
is opened.
2. ____________ & _____________ are the two options for deleting a slide.

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3. BASIC FORMATTING IN POWERPOINT

3.1. Adding, modifying, and deleting text

1. Select the slide you want to modify from the slide panel.
2. The slide appears on the slide window.
3. Click inside the slide title placeholder to add content to the slide title placeholder.
4. Click inside the text placeholder to add content to the text placeholder.

Figure 7.9

Fig. 7.9
1. PowerPoint 2007 provides a user with several options regarding content for each
slide (fig 7.9).

A user can insert a chart, table, picture, video clip, etc., simply by clicking on the
appropriate icon on the text placeholder.

3.2. Changing a Slide Layout

By default, PowerPoint inserts the Title and Content layout style for every new slide.
However, a user can change the layout of a slide.

1. Click on Home tab > Slides (subgroup)-Click the Layout icon.

2. A drop down menu appears with all the various formats available. Select the desired
layout.
NOTE: content changes to suit the layout. To undo changes, simply click on CTRL + Z (undo
shortcut)

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3.3. Adjusting Tabs and Indentation

Adjusting tabs and indentation in PowerPoint is possible only via the ruler. The ruler must
first be displayed.

Figure 7.10

Fig. 7.1 0
1. Click on View tab > show hide (subgroup)
2. Select the ruler check box. The ruler is displayed below the ribbon.

Figure 7.11

Fig. 7.11
1. The top triangle controls the position of the bullet
2. The bottom triangle moves the text
3. The lower square moves both the top and bottom triangles in unison.

3.4. Sorting the slides using the Slider Sorter

Slide sorter enables a user to quickly sort/rearrange various slides. A user can perform the
following list of tasks:

1. Rearrange slides by clicking and dragging slides

2. Apply and preview transition effects. Animation effects cannot be applied via the
slide sorter; the user must be in normal view.
3. Add/delete slides

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Figure 7.12

Fig. 7.12
1. Click on View tab > presentation views (subgroup) – Click on the Slide sorter icon.
2. To rearrange slides, simply click on the slide and drag it to the desired position.
3. To insert/delete a slide, right-click the slide next to which the new slide is to be
inserted.

Select the insert new slide option.

1. To revert to the original view, click on the Normal view icon.

3.5. Viewing a slide show

View entire slideshow.

Figure 7.3

Fig. 7.13
1. Click on View tab > Presentation views (subgroup) – Click on the Slide Show (orange
box) icon.

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Figure 7.14 Navigation aids

Fig. 7.14
1. The entire screen converts to a presentation slide (fig 7.14)
2. At the bottom left-hand corner of the screen are navigation aids.

Table 7.2: Slide show navigation aids

Navigation Aid Description

Left pointing arrow Moves one slide before the current slide

Right pointing arrow Moves to the next slide

Markings Enables a user to draw on a slide

Menu Provides a user with navigation options. For example option to

view individual slideshow, or end show etc.

3.6. View individual slideshow

Figure 7.15

Fig. 7.15
1. Click on the slide show icon (circle) located at the bottom right-hand corner of the
pane.
2. The slide show begins from the current slide.

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End slide show

Figure 7.16

Fig. 7.16
1. Right-click anywhere inside the slide show
2. Select the end show option at the very bottom of the menu. This ends the slide show.
3. Alternately, hit the escape button on the keyboard.

3.7. Hide Slide

PowerPoint enables user to hide certain slides. Hidden slides appear on all the views except
during the slide show. Slides can be hidden to hide details from the audience.
Figure 7.17

Fig. 7.17
1. Right-click the slide to be hidden on the slide panel.
2. From the context menu, select the hide slide option listed at the bottom of the menu

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(fig 7.17).

The hidden slide is slightly greyed out, and the slide number of the hidden slide
appears in a black box.
NOTE: on running a slide show, the hidden slide will not appear.

3.8. Unhiding a Hidden Slide

1. To unhide a hidden slide, simply right-click the hidden slide and select the Hide
Slide option. The slide is no longer hidden.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
3. To undo changes to the slide layout what should be done?
4. Adjusting tabs and indentation in PowerPoint is possible only via __________.
5. ___________ enables a user to sort/rearrange various slides quickly.
6. Which navigation aid enables a user to draw into a slide?

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4. ADVANCED FORMATTING
4.1. Using the Master Slide

A slide master functions much like the styles dialogue box in Word. Changes and
modifications made to the slide master are applied to all slides. Every presentation contains
one slide master. A slide master consists of one slide master (the topmost slide) and many
layout masters. The slide master is the default slide format for new slides. Changes to the
slide master are applied to all the layout masters, whereas changes made to the layout
masters are not applied to the slide master.

A slide master can make changes to the theme, slide layouts of a presentation, background
settings, color, fonts, placeholder, and more.

Figure 7.18

Fig 7.18
1. Click on View tab > Master Layout (Subgroup) – Click on Master Slide icon (fig 7.18).

This opens up a new tab on the ribbon – the Slide Master tab (fig 7.19).

Figure 7.19

Fig. 7.19

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1. Slide Master: Includes placeholder for the titles and bullet text, date, footer, slide
number, background. A user can click inside the slide master and make the
appropriate changes.

Note: Any text a user types in the Text placeholders of the slide master will not appear on
the presentation slide.

Figure 7.20

Fig. 7.20

Note: In case a user accidentally deletes a placeholder from the slide master, the user can
reinstate the placeholder by clicking on Slide Master Tab > Master Layout (subgroup) – click
on Master Layout icon (rectangle). A Master Layout dialog box opens (fig 7.20). The dialogue
box lists all the placeholders.

1. Checkmark the missing placeholder. (In Fig 7.20, the title placeholder has been
deleted from the sliding window and is therefore available for reinsertion).
2. Click OK. The placeholder is reinserted.

Inserting background into the slide master

Figure 7.21

Fig. 7.21

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A user can add logos, images, pictures, and standard text to all slides. For example, to put
identical text on all slides, do the following:
1. Select the Slide Master
2. Click on Insert tab > Text (subgroup) – Click on the text icon
3. Place the text icon on the Slide Master and format it (fig 7.21)
4. Type in the desired text. This text will appear on all the slides of the presentation.

Inserting headers & footers

Figure 7.22

Fig. 7.22
1. Click on Insert tab > text (Subgroup) – Click on Header & Footer icon. The following
dialog box opens (fig 7.22).

Date and Time

• Insert the date and time into the slide master. To display the current date, select the
Update Automatically radio button. Alternatively, the user can input a Fixed date by
selecting the Fixed option.

Slide Number
The slide number checkbox ensures that the slide number appears in the Slide. If the Slide
Number placeholder was deleted in the Slide Master, the Slide Number will not show on the
slide even if the user checks the box here.

Footer
• Allows a user to input any footer text. The user must input the footer text manually.

NOTE: the preview section (orange box) displays how each placeholder will be displayed
on the slide.

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Applying the Slide Master

Click on Slide Master Tab> Close (subgroup) – Click on Close Master View Icon.
Figure 7.23

Fig. 7.23
This closes the slide master view. The actual presentation will now be displayed with all
the changes made to the slide master.

4.2. Transitions & Animations

A user can apply transitions and animation to individual slides.

• Transitions: Slide transitions are the animation-like effects that occur in a slide
show when transitions occur from one slide to the next. Slide transition effects can
be controlled. Slide transitions are applied to an entire slide.
• Animations: Slide animations are applied to individual elements within the slides,
such as text boxes, charts, pictures, drawings, etc. Like slide transitions, slide
animations can also be controlled.

Applying transitions
There are five broad transition categories:
• Fades and dissolves
• Wipes
• Push and Cover
• Stripes and bars
• Random

To apply slide transitions

1. Click on View tab > presentation views (subgroup) - Click on the Slide Sorter icon.
2. Slides will be displayed in the slide sorter view. This view makes it easy to select,
organise and manipulate individual slides

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Figure 7.24

Fig. 7.24
3. Select the slide you want to apply the transitions to from the slide sorter view.
4. Click on the Animations tab > transition to this slide (subgroup). Click on the gallery's
drop-down arrow (green circle—fig7. 24). A drop-down menu appears with all the
various types of transitions.
5. Select the desired transitions. The transitions are applied to the selected slides. A
live preview is available each time a transition is selected.

NOTE: to apply transitions to all the slides, click Apply to all icons on the Transition to this
slide subgroup.

A user also has the option of customizing the slide transitions. For example, a user can add
the following effects to each transition:

• Transition sounds: A user can apply various sounds.

• Transition speed: A user can specify the transition speed for each slide. Three
speeds are available:
o Fast
o Medium and
o Slow.
• Advance slide. Users can specify how slide transitions occur. Two options are
available:
o On mouse click transition – transitions only occur when the user clicks the
mouse or hits the right or left arrow on the keyboard.
o Automated transitions based on specific time intervals specified by the user –

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transitions occur automatically after the elapse of the specified time interval.
• Finally, the user can at any time preview the effects of the transition by clicking on
the preview button located at the top left-hand corner (rectangle fig7.24).

Removing transition effects from slides

1. Switch to slide sorter view Click view tab > presentation views (subgroup), click on
slide sorter icon.
2. Select the slide or slides you want to remove transitions from.

Figure 7.25

Fig. 7.25
3. Click on Animations tab > transition to this slide (subgroup)
4. From the gallery, select the No Transition option.
If the No Transition option is not viewable in the gallery, click on the drop-down
arrow in the gallery, navigate to the very top of the menu, and select the very first
option (fig 7.25).

4.3. Using Animation

In addition to transitions, animations can be added to the slide. However, animations are not
added to a slide, as are transitions. Instead, animations are added to individual elements
within a slide, such as text boxes, pictures, text placeholders, drawings, etc.

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Figure 7.26

Fig. 7.26
1. Since an individual slide can consist of multiple animations, animations are listed in
the order of occurrence. For example, in fig 7.26, several animations have been
applied to the same slide. This is depicted in the task pane (big rectangle). Numbers
at the beginning of each animation indicate the order of the animation.
2. The Re-Order buttons (small rectangle) at the bottom allow users to control and
reorder the animations.

Applying animations
Figure 7.27

Fig. 7.27
1. Click on View tab > Presentation views (subgroup) – select normal view.
2. Click on the Animations tab on the ribbon
3. On the slide, click on the element to which you would like to apply animation (fig 7.
27). The selected element is enclosed in a rectangular box.

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Figure 7.28

Fig. 7.28
4. Under the animations (subgroup), click on the Animate: drop down menu. A user
can select from one of the options (fig 7.28).

Figure 7.29

Fig. 7.29
5. Alternatively, users can define their own animation by clicking on the custom
animation icon in the animation’s subgroup.
6. When a user clicks on the custom animation icon, a task pane appears on the right-
hand side of the window.
7. Click on the Add Effect button. A user is presented with multiple options:

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Figure 7.30

Fig. 7.30
Table 7.3: Custom animation options explained

Option Description

Entrance This option controls the entry of the element in a slide presentation.

Emphasis This option changes the fonts in a textbox

Exit This option controls the exit of the element in a slide presentation.

Motion This option controls the animation path of an element, which means it
path controls the movement of an element across the window.

Figure 7.31

Fig. 7.31
An element can be moved diagonally across the window (bottom left, bottom right, top left,
top right) or vertically across the windows (up, down, left, and right).

In addition, a user can specify a custom animation path by selecting the draw custom path
option.

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8. Next, the user must specify additional parameters. Table 7.4 provides a detailed
explanation of the various parameters.

Table 7.4: Animation options

Option Effect

Start Option This option controls how each animation begins. On Click – triggers the
animation when the user clicks the mouse of the left or right arrows on
the keyboard. With Previous – triggers the animation synchronously
with the animation before it.
After previous – triggers animation after the prior one when the user
clicks the mouse.

Direction Controls the direction of the animation. Depending upon the type of
animation applied, direction can vary to:
❖ Horizontal or vertical – blind effect
❖ In or Outbox effect ...etc.

Speed Controls the speed of the animation. Options include:

❖ Very Slow
❖ Slow
❖ Medium
❖ Fast
❖ Very Fast

9. Select the element to remove the animation effect after applying it.
10. Click on the remove button. The applied animation is removed.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
7. ____________ is the default slide format for new slides.
8. ____________ are the animation effects that occur in a slide show when transitions
occur from one slide to the next.
9. ____________are applied to individual elements within the slides.
10. State whether the following statements are true or false:
a. A user can apply various sounds with each transition
b. Transition speed for each slide is taken by default, and the user cannot specify it.
c. User can specify how slide transitions occur
11. ___________ Option in custom animation changes the fonts in a text box.

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5. USING TEMPLATES
Templates are predesigned slides. PowerPoint provides several templates that a user can
use. In addition, a user can create their own template. Templates enable a user to create
slides quickly.

5.1. Applying templates

1. Click on Office Button > New. A dialog box opens (fig7.32).

Figure 7.32

Fig. 7.32
2. Click on the installed templates section located on the left-hand margin. The window
displays all the installed templates on the display (middle and right side sections) of
the window.
3. Select the desired template
4. Click create button located at the bottom left-hand corner of the dialog box. A new
presentation is created based on the selected template.

5.2. Creating custom templates

Often users want to create their own template and reuse it.

To create a custom template

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Figure 7.33

Fig. 7.33
1. First, create the template.
2. Once the template has been created, click on the office button > Save or Save as. A
dialog box opens (fig 7.33)
3. select the PowerPoint Template (*.potx) option from the Save as type option box. This
is the PowerPoint 2007 template file
Navigate to the location where you would like to save the template (rectangle box) at
the top of the dialogue box. By default, all templates are stored by PowerPoint at
another specified location.
4. Clicks save. The new template is created.

Figure 7.34

Fig. 7.34
1. Navigate to the location using Explorer, not PowerPoint application.
2. Right-click the Template, and from the shortcut menu, select New. A new document
based on the template will be created.

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6. INSERTING CHARTS
Charts are a handy tool to present information. PowerPoint provides a very easy method to
work with charts.

Figure 7.35

Fig. 7.35
Users can insert charts in two ways:
Using the insert option
1. Click on Insert tab > Illustrations (subgroup) and click on the Chart icon. A chart
dialog box opens.

Using the shortcut option

On a new slide, click on the chart icon (circle) on the main text field box. A chart dialog box
opens.

Figure 7.36

Fig. 7.36

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1. From the dialogue box, select a chart type and click OK. The left-hand column of the
dialogue box lists all the major chart categories.
2. Select the desired chart category and the specific chart type from the category.
3. Click OK. The selected chart is inserted into the slide, and an Excel workbook opens
simultaneously. The Excel workbook contains the data series and points for the chart.
4. Users must modify the data series and points to create a customized chart.

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7. INSERTING TABLES
There are four ways to insert a table in PowerPoint.
Figure 7.37

Fig. 7.37
1. Using the insert table option
2. Insert > Tables (subgroup) - Click on the insert table icon. A drop-down menu
appears. Users have three additional options to choose from.
3. A user can select the desired number of rows and columns. This only allows a user to
create a maximum of ten columns and eight rows.
4. Alternately, a user can select the Insert Table option from the bottom of the menu
(rectangle). This opens up a dialogue box.

Figure 7.38

Fig. 7.38
1. Specify the number of columns and rows and click OK. The table is inserted.
2. The third alternative is to select the draw table option (rectangle). This is the most

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complicated of the various options. It is recommended that a user refrain from using
this option.
3. Finally the user can use the shortcut menu on the new slide. This option also opens
the dialogue box in fig7.38.

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8. PRINTING PRESENTATIONS
1. PowerPoint allows a user to customise the printing formats and options.
2. To print a presentation.
3. Click on Office Button > Print > Print. A dialog box opens (fig7.38).

Figure 7.39

Fig. 7.39
• There are several options listed on the dialog box. Some options are unique to
PowerPoint, while others are common to all Office applications.
• The topmost drop-down menu under the heading printer allows users to select a printer
when multiple printers are available.
• The Find Printer button opens up a wizard that enables a user to locate a printer in the
network or attached to the computer.
• The Print Range option enables a user to select which pages to print. A user has three
options available:
o All -when a user selects this option, PowerPoint prints all the pages in the document.
o Current Slide - when a user selects this option, PowerPoint prints only that slide that
is open on the screen.
o Custom shows—This option will be available if the presentation consists of custom
shows. In the diagram above, it is grayed out since this presentation does not have
custom shows.
o Slides – Allows a user to specify a range of slides to print. For example, if a document
consists of 10 slides and the user wants to print slides 3 to 8 only, the user must select
this option and enter 3-8 in the text field next to the option. Alternately, if the user

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wants to page a single slide, the user types in the exact number of the slide. For
example, to print slide 3 only, the user types in 3-3.
• Under the Copies section, there is a field Number of Copies. Users can select the number
of copies, and Word will automatically print that number of copies.
• Print what option: It provides multiple options to a user. ⮚ Slides – prints out each slide
on a single page
o Handouts – prints out individual slides on a page. The Handouts (yellow box) options
become active when the user selects this option. A user can print anywhere from 1 to
9 slides per page. By clicking on the drop-down menu and selecting an option.
o Notes – Print out only the notes from each slide
o Outline View – Print slides in outline format. In outline format, individual slides are
not shown. Only the contents of the slides are shown. Printing in this format will print
only content from each slide.

NOTE: pictures and graphics will not print in this format. Only text content will print in this
format.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
12. _______________ are predesigned slides.
13. The maximum number of columns and rows that can be created using the insert table
option is _____________ and _____________, respectively.
14. _____________option enables a user to select which pages to print.

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9. SUMMARY

In this unit, you studied the basic knowledge of creating PowerPoint presentations. You
studied creating, editing, and modifying a PowerPoint, deleting, opening, and modifying a
presentation slide. You also studied the basic and advanced formatting tools in PowerPoint.
In this unit, we discussed how to apply templates in a presentation where we saw that
templates are predesigned slides. We learnt to insert charts and tables in PowerPoint
presentations. Finally, we studied how to print the slides or handouts.

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10. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain briefly all the steps involved in creating a powerpoint presentation.

2. Perform the basic formatting in PowerPoint by creating a small presentation of your

choice, applying all formatting tools, and listing the steps for each tool.

3. Give the steps to apply the template in a powerpoint

4. How do you insert a chart in a slide?

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3.11.
HowANSWERS
do you format an Excel sheet

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Title
2. Right-click option, menu option
3. Simply click on Ctrl+Z
4. Ruler
5. Slide sorter
6. Markings
7. Slide master
8. Transitions
9. Animations
10. a. True
b. False
c. True
11. Emphasis
12. Templates
13. Ten, eight
14. Print range

Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 2, creating a power point presentation
2. Refer section 3, basic formatting in power point
3. Refer section 5, applying a template
4. Refer section 6, inserting chart

Unit 7: MS PowerPoint 37
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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Unit 8: Storage Devices 1

Computer Fundamentals Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Unit 8
Storage Devices
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ / Page

Topic
No / Graph Activity No
1 Introduction - -
4
1.1 Objectives - -
2 The Hard Drive - -
2.1 Construction 1 -
5 - 11
2.2 IDE drive standard and features - -
2.3 Troubleshooting - 1, i
3 CD-ROM Drive - -
3.1 Basics of CD-ROM drive - -
12 - 16
3.2 Construction 2 -
3.3 Troubleshooting - 2, ii
4 The DVD Drive - -
4.1 DVD media - -
17 - 21
4.2 The DVD drive and decoder 3, 4 -
4.3 Troubleshooting - 3, iii
5 Blue-Ray disc drive - -
5.1 Physical Media 5 -
22 - 26
5.2 Software standards - -
5.3 Troubleshooting - 4
6 Flash Memory Drive 6 -
6.1 Essential components of the flash drive - -
27 - 29
6.2 Size and style of packaging - -
6.3 Troubleshooting - 5
7 Summary - - 30
8 Glossary - - 31
9 Terminal Questions - - 32

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10 Answers - - 33
11 Reference - - 34

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1. INTRODUCTION
In unit 2, we discussed Memory and its features, which are used to store data in the
computer. We got to know that memory is divided into primary memory as well as secondary
memory. Both the memory devices require an engine which helps work the storage devices.
During the evolution of computers, we have depended on storage devices for storing data
and information. Earlier computers used floppy discs to store the data. With the
improvement in technology, the type of devices transformed towards Compact discs and
DVDs. Now, blue-ray discs and flash memory are becoming famous. With every introduction
of different types of discs, the drive structure also saw a prominent change.

Disk Drives are machines that read and write data into the respective disks. A disk drive
makes the disk rotate and has a head that reads or writes the data onto the disk.

In unit 8, you will study the different types of disk drives used to read and write data into the
disk and identify the different features of all the drives. This unit presents you with the
essential principles of hard disk drives and file systems. We will discuss the basics of CD-
ROM technologies. Here, we will throw light on the DVD background and explain its typical
working. We can learn about the new technologies in the disk drives like Blu-ray disks and
flash memory. We will learn some guidelines to install and troubleshoot these different kinds
of disk drives.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to -

❖ Identify the different types of disk drives and their use.
❖ Elaborate on the working of hard disk drive and its features
❖ Explain the concepts of CD-ROM drive and its construction.
❖ Describe DVD drive
❖ Describe Blu-ray disk drive
❖ Elaborate flash memory
❖ Resolve the problems of various types of disk drives through troubleshooting.

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2. THE HARD DRIVE

The hard drive is also known as a hard or fixed disk drive. It is the main and largest storage
device on the computer. It is usually referred to in the computer by C: drive. This consists of
all the important programs and applications of the computer. Hard Drive is a non-volatile
memory, random access device for electronic data in the computer. Hard drives are very
similar to video tapes. Therefore, the data is stored on the long, thin tape coated with some
magnetic material on its surface.

2.1. Construction
A hard drive consists of magnetic read/write heads that read the data from the rotating
discs.

It consists of the different parts that serve the hard disc's functions. A hard disc consists of
one or more rough and solid substrates called Platters. Platters are made from aluminum as
it is a light material. They are circular in shape, and magnetic substances are coated on both
sides of the platters for reading/writing the data. Two or more magnetic heads are
connected to the platter to read/write the data into the disc. Platters move on the common
axis and heads are allowed to move on the radius on the platter. Therefore, it allows the
heads to read all parts of the surface.

The information of each division of the platter is formed to represent a specific location. This
forms a design of a set of concentric circles, which is used to record the data. Each concentric
circle on a platter is called a track, and these tracks are further divided into sections. When
the head of one surface is on one track, the head of the corresponding other surface is also
on the respective track. All the tracks are together called cylinders. Sometimes track and
cylinder are used interchangeably. You can see a typical assembly of the platter and its data
organization in figure 8.1.

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Figure 8.1: Data Organization on a hard disk drive

A platter contains thousands of tracks. Tracks are further divided into a smaller segment
called a sector. Each sector holds 512 bytes of data, including error checking and
housekeeping data used to identify sector, track and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy check) results.
CRC is

Also called a polynomial code checksum, it is a function designed to detect accidental

changes to computer data. The hard disk must be manufactured with high priority due to
the extremely small versions of the components. The main part of the hard disk is separated
from external air so that no dust should enter the platter and avoid damage to the
read/write head.

Data Density Characteristics: We should ensure that all information is factual in the hard
drive platter. The area density of the media can give us the maximum capacity in megabytes
per square inch (MBSI). The following are the factors that affect the real density.

The size of the magnetic particle is a barrier to areal density. Areal density is higher if the
coercivity (the magnetic field applied during magnetization of any Ferro magnetic material)
of the hard drive is large, and a tighter magnetization field with a smaller read/write head
allows higher areal density.

The altitude of a read/write head over the platter surface (also called head height) affects
density. The areal densities will be higher if the read/write head passes closer to the hard
drive. If the read/write head passes away from the media, areal densities will be reduced

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due to the magnetic field.

Another major limiting factor is surface smoothness because a smoother surface allows the
read/write head to fly closer to the media.

Latency and Seek: Latency is the time delay that exists between the moment that the
read/write command is initiated over the physical interface of the drive and the moment
when the desired information is placed. Latency also refers to the time taken to pass the
needed byte under a read/write head. If the read/write head has not quite reached the
desired location, there will be short latency. If the head has just missed the desired location
then the head must wait for one full rotation. Therefore, latency can be very long. Seek time
is the time taken to step the read/write head between another delay added by the track to
the hard drive performance. There are several ways to seek time listing. They are track-to-
tack seek, full stroke seek, and average seek.

Track-to-track seek is the time required to step between two adjacent tracks on the
platter.

Full stroke is the time to step from the innermost to the outermost tracks. It is relatively
longer. The average seek time is half the full stroke seek time.

Seek and latency are needed together to load and save files. For example, while loading a
file, a certain amount of seek time is taken to locate the track that contains the file's start.
There is some latency during the platter's rotation around the necessary sector.

The major parts of the hard disk are the frame, platters, read/write heads, head actuators,
spindle motor and electronics package.

Frame: The frame, called the chassis, is an important part of the hard drive. It affects the
drive's structural, thermal, and electrical integrity. The frame must be strong and provide a
steady platform for mounting the other components. Therefore, cast aluminium is used in
larger drives, and the smaller drive in the laptop computer uses a plastic chassis.

Read/Write Heads: Read/write head form the interface between the hard drive's
electronic circuitry and magnetic media. While writing, electronic signals are translated into
magnetic flux transitions with the help of a head, which saturates points on the media where
the transition occurs. The read operation works almost reverse to this process. Here, flux

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transitions induce electrical signals in the head that are amplified, filtered, and translated
into respective logic signals.

Head Actuators: Hard drives use voice coil motors, also called rotary coil motors, which
actuate head moment. Voice coil motors work with the principle of analogue meter
moments. That is, a permanent magnet is enclosed within two opposing coils. When there is
a current flow in the coil, it produces a magnetic field which opposes the permanent magnet.
To cause a deflection directly proportional to the amount of driving current, a force of
opposition is maintained by attaching the head arms to the rotating magnet. The greater
opposition and deflection is obtained by increasing current signals. You can choose the
cylinder by incrementing the servo signal and maintaining the signal at the desired level.

Voice coil motors are tiny, light assemblies well suited to fast access times and small hard
drive assemblies. The process of track following is called serving the heads.

Spindle motors: The speed at which the media passes under the read/write heads is one of
the major factors responsible for the drive's performance. Media is passed under the
read/write heads by spinning the platter at a high rate of speed.

The spindle motor is a brushless, low-profile DC motor (Direct Current) responsible for
spinning the platter. An index sensor provides feedback pulse signals that detect the spindle
as it rotates. The drive's control electronics use index signals to regulate spindle speed as
precisely as possible.

Drive electronics: hard drives are made up of sophisticated circuitry. The drive electronics
board, which is mounted below the chassis, contains all the necessary circuitry to
communicate data and control signals with the particular physical interface, the read/write
heads and spinning the platter

2.2. IDE drive standards

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) is a standard electronic interface used between a

computer bus and the mass storage devices in which the controller is integrated into the
disk or CD-ROM drive. It is also called intelligent drive electronics.

Binary Megabytes Vs Decimal Megabytes: there is a huge confusion between the different
meanings of megabytes. Since the computer uses electronic signals, the data will be

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converted into 0’s and 1’s, which we called it as binary digits. Therefore, all the data,
addresses, programs, and calculations will be in the form of binary numbers. As the
computer works in the form of binary numbers, it is measured as the collections of bits, i.e.
1 byte = 8 bits, and in the power of 2.

Therefore,
• 1 Kilobyte = 210 = 1024 bytes
• 1 Megabyte = 220 = 1,048,576 bytes
• 1 Gigabyte = 230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes

IDE/ATA: ATA stands for advanced technology attachment. IDE and ATA are typically the
same and are developed to interface the controller to the hard drive mechanism. This avoids
relying on standalone computer boards, reduces interface costs and makes the drive easier
for firmware implementation. IDE has been proven to be a low-cost and easily configured
system, revolutionizing the disc drive industry. IDE/ATA is used synonymously sometimes.
But ATA is the standard that defines the drive and its operations, whereas IDE is the
trademark, which refers to the 40-pin interface and drive controller technology, which is
designed to implement the ATA standard.

The original IDE/ATA standard defines the following features and transfer modes.

The two devices that are configured as master and slave share a single channel that is
called by a specification.

It includes support for PIO modes 0, 1 and 2. PIO is a programmed Input/output mode of
transferring data between the peripherals. The different modes are used to transfer data
between the CPU and a peripheral, such as a network adapter. Mode 0 takes longer to
transfer the data, and the transfer rate increases gradually with a decrease in the time taken
by the modes.

It includes support for single-word DMA modes 0, 1 and 2 and multi-word DMA mode 0.
With the introduction of this mode, PIO mode is not used.

It does not support enhancements for non-hard disk IDE/ATA devices, block mode
transfers or any other advanced features.

Data transfer modes: There are two measures of data transfer. The internal data transfer

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is the rate at which data is taken from the platters.

The external data transfer: The rate at which data is passed between the drive and the
controller.

The modern standards of external data transfer are listed as PIO and DMA modes. The DMA
data transfers mean that the data is transferred directly between the drive and the memory
without using the CPU as an intermediary, whereas PIO data transfers use the CPU between
the drive and the memory.

Drive Caching: The hard disk contains an integrated cache, which is also called a buffer. The
purpose of the buffer is like other caches. It is not a part of the PC cache hierarchy. Cache
acts as a buffer between a fast device and a slow device. The results of the recent disk are
read or stored in the cache, and whenever it is requested, it fetches the information.

Cache improves the performance of hard drives by reducing the number of physical
accesses to the disk.

2.3. Troubleshooting

The problems related to hard drives are very important to resolve because if you lose some
programs and data, it is a major loss for the user. Still, many drive problems are recoverable
without replacing the drive.

You can follow the below guidelines for troubleshooting the problem in the hard drive.

Be careful of power and static discharge: Before changing the jumpers or unplugging the
cables and cards, make sure that you have turned off the computer. Wear an antistatic wrist
strap when working on your computer or handling the drive.

Verify compatibly: The drive controller and the drive must be verified so that they are
matched to each other.

Check all cards: You must ensure that all expansion cards are placed in their respective
slots on the motherboard and securely mounted with screws.

Check all connectors and cables: All the ribbons and power cables must be securely
connected. The ribbon cables are prone to damage at the connectors. You need to try with a
new cable, which is good. You must ensure that no connector pins are bent. Pin one on the

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interface cable must be aligned with pin one on the drive and the controller.

Verify drive jumper settings: You must ensure that you have installed all the necessary
jumpers and removed the incorrect and duplicated jumper settings by reviewing the
instructions in the manual.

Check your power supply capacity: Whenever you add a new device to your computer,
you must ensure that it has sufficient power for that device.

Verify the drive settings in the CMOS setup: The drive settings in the CMOS setup must
not exceed the drive's physical specification or the limitations set by the operating system
and the BIOS.

Check for viruses: your system must be periodically scanned for viruses. Before using an
unknown device in the computer for the first time scan it for viruses.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. IDE standards for _________________________.
2. The two devices that are configured as master and save share a single channel that is
called by a _________________.
3. ____________________ is an adapter of the CD that is designed to store computer data in
the form of text, graphics, and stereo sound.

Activity 1
How do you troubleshoot a hardware problem when you encounter an invalid
command line error when using any kind of Nuts and Bolts.

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3. CD-ROM DRIVE

3.1. Basics of CD-ROM drive

CD-ROM (Compact Disc, read-only-memory) is an adaptation of the CD designed to store

computer data in text, graphics, and stereo sound. The digital approach allowed excellent
stereo sound quality which does not degrade the quality when the disk is played each time.
A CD-ROM drive originated from a digital audio recording. CD-ROM drive can only read data
and it cannot write. It is known for its low cost, reliability, and broad media compatibility.

CD Media: CDs are produced by stamping the pattern of pits and land onto a moulded
polycarbonate disc, also known as a substrate. The substrate is covered with a silvered
coating that allows the laser light to be reflected. After silvering, a tough, scratch-resistant
coating is coated on the disc. The finished disc is labelled through silk screen printing (it is a
printing technique in which artwork is converted onto films to create fine mesh screens).

CD data: CDs are recorded as a single continuous spiral track running from the spindle area.
Fig 8.4 shows an example of a spiral pattern recorded on the CD. The inside dots show the
relationship between the pits and lands. CDs use a highly focused laser beam and laser
detector to sense the presence or absence of pits. When laser light strikes the land, it reflects
light towards the detector, which produces a very strong output signal. The light is slightly
out of focus when the laser light strikes a pit.

EFM Basics: EFM stands for eight to fourteen modulations and is a complex decoding
process that converts a sequence of pits and lands into meaningful binary information. EFM
is used by CD to obtain the ability to place a large number of bits into a limited number of
flux transitions, user data, error-correcting information, address information and
synchronisation patterns are contained in the form of a bit’s stream, which is represented by
pit and land. Flux transition is the bits encoded by magnetic media, and it is not the discreet
orientation of any magnetic area. The EFM encoding technique equates each byte (8 bits)
with a fourteen-bit sequence called a symbol. In this technique, each binary one must be
separated by at least two binary zeros.

Data storage: A CD-ROM contains twenty-four synchronization bits, fourteen control bits,
twenty-four data symbols and eight complete error correction symbols (EC). You must

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always remember that three merged additional bit separates each symbol by bringing the
total number of bits in the frame to 588. Therefore, 588 bits on the CD-ROM represent 24
bytes of data, which can be expressed as several pits and land. There are ninety-eight frames
in a data block. Therefore, each block carries 98x24, which is equal to 2048 bytes. The data
delivered by the basic CD-ROM to its host computer equals 153.6KB (75 blocks) of data per
second.

As you know, the CD-ROM disc is recorded as one continuous spiral track around the disk.
The ordinary sector and track ID information we attach to the magnetic disc does not apply
well. Rather, the information can be divided into 0-59 minutes recorded initially at the
beginning of each block. The CD-ROM, carrying a compact disc, runs between 553 to 650 MB
in normal production. The CD is a reliable data storage medium for the long term. The life of
the CD is affected by its physical storage and handling. You can follow some of the following
tips to protect and maintain the disc.

• Avoid bending the disc.

• Never heat the disc
• Avoid scratching the disc
• Keep away chemicals from the disc

Excessive dust and fingerprint interference with the laser beam can cause disc read errors.
When this happens, it can be cleaned with a dry, soft linen cloth. Do not wipe the circular
motion with your hand fingers. Always store the disc in a cradle during storage or travel.

3.2. Construction

All the drives must be able to accept the standard size disc from various surfaces. Even then,
the drive must spin the disc at the constant linear velocity (CLV). CLV is a qualifier for the
rated speed of an optical disc drive, and the writing speed of a recordable disc, which means
disc speed varies inversely with the tracking radius. Whenever the tracking comes almost
near to the disc edge, the disc speed slows down and vice versa. Typical working of the CD
ROM can be shown with the help of an exploded diagram of the CD drive as in figure 8.2.

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Figure 8.2: Exploded figure of a basic CD drive

Working of CD-ROM

CD-ROM is organized with cast aluminum or rigid stainless steel at the center of the drive
Similar to other drives, this drive also has a single primary structure for mounting the
mechanical and electronic components of the drive. All together forms the frame of the hard
disk. The frame is attached to the lid, front bezel, eject button and volume controller button
to provide an extreme and beautiful appearance for the drive. It offers a fixed reference slot
for CD insertion and removal. The electronic package of the disc drive is further divided into
several PC board assemblies. They are the main PCB, which handles drive control and
interfacing and the headphone PCB, which provides the headphones with an audio amplifier
and a jack. The main CD subassembly performs the actual physical of the drive. If the spindle
motor spins and reads a disc, the frame is mounted with a spindle motor and connected to a
spindle motor PC board. The drive's main PC board manages the operations to position the
sled motor.

CD-ROM electronics: The electronics package can be divided into two major areas: the
controller and drive sections. A controller section connects the peripheral interface to the
drive controller board. The drive section electronics manage the physical operations of the
CD-ROM, such as loading or unloading, spinning the disc, moving the sledge, etc. The drive

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circuitry also decodes data and corrects errors, and it converts the analogue output from the
laser diodes into an EFM signal.

CD-ROM software: A low-level device driver allows programs to access the CD-ROM at the
hardware level. The device drivers must also be upgraded if you change or upgrade the
device.

3.3. Troubleshooting

CD-ROM installation is straightforward. However, problems lie in compatibility issues, poor

media quality, outdated drivers, conflicting software applets, and operating system versions.
This section will teach you a few troubleshooting procedures for CD-ROM drives.

Changing the Drive Letters: As you know, windows will assign a specific letter for each CD
drive in the system during the start time; we will initially have default letters for the drives.
Though we may have the initial adjustments automatic we can change the Drive letter as per
our name. but we should take a few measures while changing the drive letter. The following
will give you steps to change the drive letter.

1. you need to click start → settings → control panel

2. Double-click the System icon →, click the Device Manager tab →click the settings tab
in the Reserved Drive Letters section, set the Start Drive Letter and End Drive Letter
to the specific drive letter you wish to use for your CD-ROM → click OK repeatedly till
you return to the control panel.
3. Restart the computer to see you changes effected.

Auto Insert Notification (AIN): sometimes, you may observe that the CD drive blinks every
few seconds even if there is no read/write operation happening. This is due to the Auto Insert
Notification (AIN) feature of Windows that allows the disk to be automatically identified and
set ready when the disk is inserted in the drive. Normally, there is no harm with AIN, but
some programs may be susceptible, which can be affected by AIN. Therefore, you can disable
AIN using the following steps

1. Click start → settings → control panel

2. Double-click the device Manager, double-click CD-ROM and then double-click the
desired CD drive.

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3. Click the settings tab →. Clear the auto-insert notification check box. Click the close
button. Restart your computer to see the update.

CD drive Performance: sometimes, you may observe that it is not performing so well when
you attempt to access the CD drive. This can occur when the cache size is configured
properly. You can use the following steps to optimize the CD drive settings

1. Click start →settings→ control panel → Double-click system icon On the performance
tab, click file system.
2. Click the CD-ROM tab
3. Move the supplemental cache size slider to the right to allocate more system RAM for
caching data from the CD drive.

When reading continuous data, use higher settings in the optimised access pattern for the
box. When reading random data, increase the supplemental cache size setting and decrease
the optimize access pattern for setting

1. Click OK → close. Restart the computer when prompted.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
4. ___________ is a complex decoding process that converts a sequence of pits and lands
into meaningful binary information.
5. __________ Driver allows programs to access the CD-ROM as the hardware level.
6. __________ allows the disk to identify automatically.

Activity 2
Optimize your CD drive settings and give a broad overview of the result.

Hint: Refer to the concept of CD drive performance under section 8.3.3

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4. DVD DRIVE
The compact disc made a way for the world of new evolution in the PC. Since these CDs could
handle only 650MB of computer programs and data or one hour of music, it is found to be
the outdated storage medium for multimedia applications, large databases, and interactive
games. DVD is a high-density storage media that is widely used in computers. DVD stands for
Digital Versatile Disk that can hold programs, data, audio, and video. It can provide up to
17GB of external storage on your computer.

Access Time: the time the drive needs to locate the required information on the disk is called
access time. These prolonged drives can take hundreds of milliseconds (ms) to access
information.

Data transfer rates are defined as the time to read the data from the disk. Once you access
data from the disk it has to be transferred off the disk to the system. There are two ways of
measuring of data rates. They are,

• The speed at which the data is read into the onboard buffer of the drive
• The speed at which the data is transferred across the interface in the drive controller.

4.1. DVD media

The data is recorded in a spiral pattern as a series of pits and lands into a plastic substrate.
DVD looks in size and dimension very similar to compact disks. There are a few key
differences that make DVD more superior than CD. They are,

Data is very concentrated on the disk. The DVD tracks are 0.74µm apart, whereas the CD
tracks are 1.6µm apart. To locate these smaller geometries, DVD uses very short-wavelength
laser light.

Multiple layers of pits and lands are employed in the DVD so that one disk can have several
layers worth of data.

DVD-ROM disks use only one side of the disk for at least a while. Therefore, DVD can offer up
to 8.5GB of data storage for a one-sided disk and up to 17GB for a double-sided double-layer
disk.

You can increase the life of your disk by following some of the rules given below:

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You should not bend the disk.

You should never heat the disk as the material used is plastic.

Avoid scratches on the disk. Circular scratch can entirely wipe the data from the DVD.

Avoid using chemicals to clean the disk.

4.2. The DVD drive and decoder

DVD drive looks very similar to any CD-ROM drive. You can recognize the DVD drive only
with the “DVD” logo on the drive. A typical front view of the DVD drive is as shown in the
figure 8.3

DVD drive of a motorized disk tray that loads and unloads the disk. This tray can be closed
and opened using the drive's load/unload button. The LED lights indicate the activity of the
drive i.e. it shows a light blinking when the data is being read from the disk. It is also called
a busy indicator. There is a headphone jack since the DVD also serves as CD audio, and also
it has volume controller that can be used to adjust volume directly from the front panel.

Figure 8.3: Front view of DVD drive

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The rear view of the DVD drive looks similar to the one given in figure 8.4.

Figure 8.4: Rear view of DVD drive

It used a 4-pin connector to connect to the power. The signal connector may be SCSI that can
be directly connected to an existing drive adapter. You can set a series of small jumpers to
set the drive's identification. There are two audio output connectors. One is a 4-pin
connector that attaches to the sound board, and the other is a 2-pin connector that supplies
sound to a digital recording system.

The MPEG-2 decoder: though DVD can easily provide 4 GB of storage, which is still not
enough space to hold the audio and video data required for an average-length movie. Movie
data are highly compressed during being recorded. This creates problems while playing as
decoding may give broken audio or dropped video frames. Therefore, to ensure smooth real-
time playback of the DVD movie, a hardware-based MPEG-2 decoder card is added to an
available PCI slot and connector directly to the monitor. The decoder decompresses the
MPEG-2 information, relieving a tremendous amount of work from the system processor.
Decoded audio from the movie is also passed from the decoder card to the sound card using
a CD audio connection. Decoding can be finished by using software applications. Not
necessarily all the time, we need to decode hardware components. Software decoding is
much simpler than hardware decoding.

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Decoder board connections: there are five major connections on the MPEG 2 decoder card.
Analog input jack: analogue input is used to mix an auxiliary audio signal to the decoder
card.
Analog output jack: provides the master audio signal fed to the line input of your existing
sound card.
Digital output jack: it is used to drive an external digital device.
Monitor connector: the MPEG-2 decoder card will drive the video graphic adapter (VGA)
through the monitor connector.
Video input connector: the video input is put to the decoder card, so that while decoder
card is idle the video signal is passed through the MPEG-2 card to the monitor.
4.3. Troubleshooting

Here, we will provide you with a series of guidelines to resolve a wide range of problems and
troubleshooting issues.

If you want to set the DVD system configuration to a default state while installing or
correcting problems in DVD-ROM, you can do so using the criteria below.

Video configuration: irrespective of the amount of video RAM your video adapter provides,
try to set the display to 640 X 480 using 16-bit colour. Set the monitor type to standard VGA.

DVD drivers: update your drivers regularly to provide better hardware compatibility. You
should ensure that you have the latest drivers.

Video drivers: video drivers are also updated regularly for better video performance and
compatibility. Check for the webpage for your video card vendor for updated video drivers.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
7. __________ is the time recorded by the drive to locate the required information on the
disk.
8. State whether the following statements are true/false.
a) MPEG-2 decoder is used to compress and decode movie data.
b) Analog output is used for mixing in an auxiliary audio signal to the decoder card.
c) Digital output jack is used to drive an external digital device.

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Activity 3
How to troubleshoot when your DVD drivers refuse to get installed?

Hint: Refer the concept of troubleshooting DVD drive from the book
Troubleshooting, Maintaining and Repairing PC’s by Stephen J. Bigelow

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5. BLU-RAY DISK DRIVE

Blu-Ray Disk is often referred to shortly as BD. BD is the advanced version of DVD which is
made out of smaller pits and lands. Single Layer BD can store about more than five times the
DVD capacity (almost 25 billion bytes), and Double-layer BD can store up to 50 billion bytes.
The name is because it uses blue-violet laser light to read or write the data from the disk.

BD uses a 0.1mm (millimeter) cover layer, which is used to move the data closer to the lens.
Through this, we can achieve higher density. To read the smaller pits requires a blue laser of
wavelength 405 nm (nano-meter). The technology used in BD is HDMV. HDMV (High
Definition Movie) is a technology that is used to provide functionality of high-definition
graphics planes, animated and popup menu buttons and sound effects for the selection of
menu buttons

5.1. Physical Media

The working of the Blu ray disk drive is as shown in the figure 8.5.

Figure 8.5: The block diagram of Blu Ray Disk Drive

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The encoded signal is sent to a write pulse compensator (a device which converts the
analogue pulse into multiple pulses or waves), where the signal is modulated to multi-pulse.
By adjusting the leading edge of the first pulse and the trailing edge of the cooling pulse of
the multi-pulse signal, we can control the accumulation amount in accordance with the Mark
length, enabling the Mark edge position precisely. The pulse waveform thus modulated is
sent to a laser driver circuit, which modulates the power of the laser beam to record
Mark/Space data on a Blu-ray Disc™. The reproduced signal through an Equalizer is fed to
the Phase Locked Loop (PLL) to play-back recorded data. The output signal of the Equalizer
is also fed to the Analog Digital converter (A/D), converted to a digital signal at the clock
timing of PLL, then passed through a PRML channel to correct the initial bit error, and output
as a signal to the subsequent digital signal processing circuit. The modulated binary data is
sent to the Write Pulse Compensator to precisely control the Mark edge position. The output
signal of the Write Pulse Compensator goes through the Laser Driver and Optical Pick-up.
The optical pick-up has a spherical aberration compensator to focus on both layers of the
Dual Layer disc. The reproduced signal was equalised, filtered, and passed through the PRML
decoder to correct the initial bit error.

The standard disk size is 12 cm. The single-layer Blu-ray disk can handle up to 25GB of data,
and the dual-layer disk can handle up to 50GB of data.

Types of Blu-ray disk: the Blu-ray disk can be differentiated based on the storage capacity
of the disk. They are,

Mini Blu-ray Disk: This type of disc has a physical size of 8 cm. The single-layer disc can
handle 7.8 GB of data, and the layer disk can handle 15.6 GB of data. This version has been
designed for compact recording devices like compact camcorders.

Blu-ray disk recordable refers to two types of optical disk format used with an optical disk
recorder: BD-R and BD-RE. A BD-R disk can be written only once, while a BD-RE disk is
recordable and can be reused by erasing the existing data multiple times.

BD9 and BD5 were proposed as cost-effective to 25/50 GB BD-ROM disks. In this type, it used
the same codecs and instructions pattern as the

Blu-ray Disk video to record at a low cost. BD5 is the lower capacity version with the idea of

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using inexpensive DVD media for recording using single layer 4.7 GB DVDs.

Later, multilayered recordable disk in BDAV format (Blu Ray Disk Audio/ Video is a format
that supports Audio and video) with a speed of 2X (72 Mbps) and 4X (144Mbps) that was
capable of 100/128GB called BD-R 3.0 came into existence. (Blu-ray Disc recordable (BD-R)
refers to two optical disc formats that can be recorded with an optical disc recorder. BD-R
discs can be written to once. BD-RE is the ideal format for making sequential backups or
recording video for time-shifting purposes. BD-RE can be erased and re-recorded multiple
times. Along with a multi layered disc rewritable in BDAV with the speed of 2X and 4X,
capable of 100GB called BD-RE 4.0 (upgraded version of BD-RE) also became in use.

5.2. Software standards

File system: The file format used in Blu-Ray disk is UDF. UDF stands for Universal Disk
Format, a convergent friendly format for the computer and other electronic devices like TV,
Music Player, etc. This format is used in the latest versions of Blu-ray disks such as BD-ROM,
BD-RE, and BD-R. The application used for BD is BDAV for recording digital broadcasting.
Blu

Ray Audio/Video application is a consumer-oriented Blu-ray format for audio /video

recording.

Directory and file structure: Blu-ray disk files are stored in a directory called BDMV.
BDMV stands for Blu-ray Disk Movie, and it is a container that stores audio, video, and other
streams in BDAV format, such as MPEG, etc. It also has interactive menus with the help of
Java implementation in Blu-ray disk program instructions. BDMV contains the following,
which must be present in the folder while playing.

BACKUP: stores a copy of the “index.bdmv” file, the “MovieObject.bdmv” file, all the files in
the PLAYLIST directory and all files in the CLIPINF directory.

INDEX.BDM: This file stores information about the contents of the BDMV directory. Each
BDMV directory has only one index.bdm file.

MOVIEOBJ.BDM: This file stores the information of one or more Movie objects. One BDMV
directory has only one Movieobj.bdm file.

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PLAYLIST: Movie Playlists are stored in the database files. The files are stored with an
extension.MPLS.

CLIPINF: contains the Database files for Clips. The clip files are stored with a file name with
an extension.CLPI. these files contain the information about the audio/video clip stream file

STREAM: this directory contains the stream files. It stores the file names with an extension
.M2TS, which supports the MPEG 2 transport stream. They store BDAV MPEG 2 files. The file
name comprises a 5-digit number associated with the Audio/Video stream file and its CLIP
information file.

5.3. Troubleshooting

No Power on the Blu-ray drives: If you find it difficult to power up your Blu-ray player,
check for the secure connection of the power cord. Check the outlet by plugging in any other
device, like a lamp or clock. Even then, if your Blu-ray drive does not turn on, servicing may
be required.

No Picture from the Blu-ray drive: if the power light is on and you can see the picture, then
you need to check to make sure all cables are securely connected to the television and that
they are in the correct ports. Check the input settings on the television to ensure you are set
to the right channel or selection. For example, your TV may need to be on channel 2 or have
the HDMI input option selected. Refer to your television's user manual if you are unsure
which settings apply. You can also check by restarting the TV. If still, the picture doesn’t
appear, then the output video format is not correct. You can hold the stop button for more
than ten seconds so that the settings are reset and may correct the problem.

Some disks are not playing on the drive: If any disk is not playing on the Blu-ray disk drive,
you must remove it and clean it for dirt. Cleaning may sometimes help you solve the problem.
You must be sure that you are placing the disk in the proper direction and not upside down.
You must always use the original disk and the appropriate disk format that the drive is able
to support.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
9. The data layer in the Blu-ray disk is closer to the surface of the disk (true/false).
10. The two types of Blu-ray optical disk recorder are ____________.
11. BDMV stands for ____________.

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6. FLASH MEMORY DRIVE

Flash Memory drive is an external storage device which can be used to read and write the
flash memory. Flash drive is also called as USB flash drive or thumb drive or pen drive. You
can see a typical figure as shown in figure 8.6.

Figure 8.6: Flash Memory disk drive

This device is less expensive and a very reliable and durable source of storage media. Flash
drives are used for the same purpose as CD-ROM and floppy disks.

6.1. Essential component of flash drive

A flash drive consists of four parts. They are,

Male type-A USB connector: This connector connects the flash drive to any computer in the
world. It provides a physical interface to the host computer, like the contact shown in Figure
8.6.

USB mass storage controller: This controller implements the USB host controller. USB
mass storage controller contains a small microcontroller and a small amount of on-chip ROM
and RAM.

NAND flash memory chip is a nonvolatile data storage medium that requires no power to
retain the stored data. It is mostly used in digital cameras, memory cards, USB flash drives,
etc. It is shown in Figure 8.6 labeled as NAND EEPROM and bonding wires.

Crystal oscillator: A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of electric material to create an electrical signal

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with a very precise frequency. It is a very important part of the device.

LEDs: These are small lights that indicate the data transfers.

The other components are jumpers, write-protect switches and USB connector covers or
caps.

6.2. Size and style of packaging

Flash drives come in large numbers of varieties, sizes and shapes. Some drives are big, and
some are very tiny. Some drives are so big in size because the manufacturers use large
housing to cover the drive, making it difficult for the USB device to plug into the port. This
may block the adjacent port from being connected to another device. If such devices have to
be used, they must be connected through an extended cable. The features of smaller size,
robustness and cheaper flash drive price make it very popular among all the case mod.
(Computer case is modified in any nonstandard way and taken as case mod). Heavy
packaging will not work reliably when plugged directly unless you use a USB extension cable.
The format used in the Flash drive is FAT (File Allocation Table) file system

6.3. Troubleshooting

USB flash drives are wonderful tools to store massive amounts of data in small portable
devices and are extremely easy to use. Still few solvable damages can occur in flash drives.
When troubleshooting a USB flash drive, there are a few things you need to follow. They are,

Check that the flash drive lights are activated as they are plugged into the USB port. If it is
not turned on as soon as you plug in, it means your drive is not plugged in properly, or the
device is damaged.

Ensure that you have downloaded the correct and necessary device drivers and installed
them properly. You must enquire with the manufacturer about downloading and installing
the right driver from the manufacturer’s website so that they get the original and complete
drivers.

Ensure that you are identifying the correct drive for your flash drive. Like the hard drive with
“C:” as the default drive, each drives are identified by a specific letter. There may be more
than one flash drive in a computer, and a specific Alphabet differentiates each of them. You

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must ensure that the intended drive's identity is observed in the space of your computer.

Whenever you are unable to recognize your flash drive on your computer, try the drive on
another computer to check whether it is working fine with that computer. If it does, then it
is your computer's problem.

If you observe that your flash drive is seriously damaged and cannot be repaired, then before
discarding it, contact a professional so that they can retrieve the data contained in the flash
drive.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5
12. ______________________ is used to connect the flash drive to the computer.

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7. SUMMARY

Disk Drives are the machine that reads and writes the data into the respective disks. The
different types of disk drives are hard drives, CD drives, DVD drives and the latest Blu-ray
disk drives and Flash memory drives. The hard drive is also known as a hard or fixed disk
drive. It is the main and largest storage device on the computer. It is usually referred to in
the computer by C: drive. CD-ROM (Compact Disc, read-only-memory) is an adaptation of the
CD that is designed to store computer data in the form of text, graphics and stereo sound.
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk that can hold program, data, audio and video. It can
provide up to 17GB of external storage on your computer. Blu-Ray Disk is often referred to
shortly as BD. BD is the advanced version of DVD, which is made out of smaller pits and lands.
Single-layer BD can store more than five times the DVD capacity (almost 25 billion bytes),
and double-layer BD can store up to 50 billion bytes. The standard disk size is of 12 cm in
size. The single-layer Blu-ray disk can handle up to 25GB of data and dual-layer disk can
handle up to 50GB of data. A Flash Memory drive, also called a USB flash, is an external
storage device which can be used to read and write flash memory. This device is the less
expensive and a reliable and durable storage media source. The flash drive is used for the
same purpose as CD-ROM and floppy disks. In this unit, we have discussed on the
troubleshooting tips for various types of disk drives.

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8. GLOSSARY
• C: Drive: It is the default drive in the computer which is basically used to store the
program files.
• Disk Drive: It is a device that holds and spins an optical disk and reads information
from it.
• Floppy Disk: It is a magnetic storage media that is made up of a thin flexible magnetic
storage medium sealed in a square or rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that
removes dust particle.
• Case Mod: The computer case modified in any non-standard way is called a case mod.
• MPEG: Moving Picture Experts Group is an organisation of experts to sets standards
for audio and video compression and transmission.
• MPEG-2: It is a standard used for categorizing moving pictures and related audio
information.

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9. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the working of the hard drive with a neat diagram.
2. Describe the construction of CD-ROM
3. How to troubleshoot CD-ROM?
4. Explain the DVD drive & decoder.
5. Provide the guidelines for DVD drive troubleshooting.
6. Elaborate the flash memory drive.
7. List the guidelines for troubleshooting flash memory drives.

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3.11.
HowANSWERS
do you format an Excel sheet

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Integrated Drive Electronics
2. Specification
3. CD-ROM
4. EFM
5. Low level device
6. Auto Insert
7. Access time
8. a. True
b. False
c. True
9. True
10. BD-R and BD-RE
11. Blu-ray disk movie
12. Male type-A USB connector

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12. REFERENCES
• Trouble shooting, maintaining and repairing PCs, the 1st author in PC hardware, 5th
edition by Stephen J. Bigelow, Tata McGraw Hill Publications, 2001
• Upgrading and repairing PCs, 15th anniversary edition by Scott Mueller, Que
publishing, 2003
• DVD demystified, third edition by Jim H. Taylor, Mark R. Johnson, Charles G. Crawford,
McGraw Hill Publications, 2006
• How to Do Everything with Windows Vista Media Center, By Joli Ballew, Justin
Harrison, McGraw Hill Publications, 2008

E-References:
• http://pcsupport.about.com/od/componentprofiles/p/p_hdd.htm
• http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-hard-drive.htm
• http://www.faqs.org/docs/linux_admin/x1001.html
• http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid5_gci214013,00.html
• http://www.jemisp.com/megabyte.htm

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Unit 9: Input Output Devices 1

Computer Fundamentals Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Unit 9
Input Output Devices
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ / Page

Topic
No / Graph Activity No
1 Introduction - -
4
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Mice - -
2.1 The Mouse 1a, 1b -
2.2 The Trackball 2 - 5 - 10
2.3 Cleaning a Pointing Device - -
2.4 Troubleshooting - 1
3 Keyboards - -
3.1 Basics of Keyboard 3 - 11 - 15
3.2 Maintenance and Troubleshooting - 2
4 Basics of Soundboards - -
4.1 The Recording - -
4.2 The Playback 4 -
16 - 20
4.3 Sampling Concept - -
4.4 The Role of MIDI - -
4.5 An Inside Look of a SoundBoard 5 3
5 Troubleshooting a SoundBoard - -
5.1 Hardware (Resource) Conflicts - -
5.2 Other Sound Card Problems - -
5.3 Other Problems - -
21 - 28
5.4 Full-Duplex Drivers - -
5.5 Soundboard Accelerations - -
5.6 Multiple Codec’s - -
5.7 WAV Playback Problems - 4

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6 Summary - - 29
7 Glossary - - 30
8 Terminal Questions - - 31
9 Answers - - 32
10 Reference - - 33

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1. INTRODUCTION
Many common and easily recognizable input devices like keyboards and mice are used to
give instructions through commands or information to a computer to accomplish a task. The
keyboard allows you to enter a text into word processing software so that you can complete
your assignment or type in a search query on a web browser while the mouse allows you to
navigate around the screen and select options by clicking the button.

Input Devices:
An input device is a piece of equipment that allows users to enter data and instructions into
a computer system. It is part of a computer's hardware and is one of the four main
components of a computer system: keyboards, Computer mice, Scanners, Cameras, Joysticks,
Microphones, Touchpads, Light pens, Touch screens, and Web cameras. Input devices
translate information from users into data that computers can read. The computer then uses
its CPU to process the data and produce output.

Output devices like the computer monitor and the printer enable you to see or obtain
information once the data has been fed into the computer and the computer in turn has
completed its function. The monitor who provides instant feedback on the screen in the form
of an image is referred to as ‘soft copy’ while the printer allows you to create a ‘hard copy’ of
the information. Apart from these, sound cards allow you to record and playback your voice,
about which function you will be learning in this unit.

This unit will enable you to learn about other kinds of device that can be attached to the
computer so that special information can be fed into it and then viewed in a number of ways.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to -

❖ Explain the functions of mouse and ways of troubleshooting it
❖ Discuss the importance of keyboards and their maintenance
❖ Describe the features of sound boards
❖ Troubleshoot the problems associated with sound boards

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2. MICE
Modern PCs come with a pointing device called Mouse which is used to point at a particular
option on the screen and then select that option by clicking it. Although there are varieties
of mouse manufactured by various companies, their basic function remains the same.
Microsoft and Logitech are the top manufacturers of Mice.

2.1. The Mouse

The standard mouse consists of several components: a housing to hold roller ball to move
the cursor on the monitor by moving the device on the flat surface, two Buttons for selection,
a cable to connect the mouse, an interface connector. The outermost housing, made of plastic,
generally has two buttons on the top; some mice may have three buttons requiring special
software to operate. Modern mice come with a scroll wheel in between two buttons, which
will be very much useful to scroll through the pages. The bottom of the housing contains a
small roller ball that rotates as the mouse moves across the tabletop. The movements of this
roller ball are translated into electrical signals transmitted to the computer across the cable.
The connector used with the mouse depends on the type of interface used. Once the mouse
is connected to the computer, a device driver, which can be separately loaded or built into
the system software, helps it to communicate with the system. Figure 9.1a shows a mouse
with two buttons and a scroll wheel.

Housing
Right click button

Figure 9.1a: A modern mouse

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Scroll Wheel Roller ball

Left click button
The cross section of the mouse is as shown in the Figure 9.1b.

Figure 9.1b: Typical opto-mechanical mouse mechanism

The mechanism of the mouse internally is very simple. The rubber ball in it rests against two
rollers, one for translating the X-axis movement and the other for the Y-axis movement.
These rollers are usually connected to small disks with shutters that alternately block and
allow the passage of light. There are small optical sensors which detect movement of the
wheels by noting an internal infrared light blink on and off as the shutter wheel rotates and
"chops" the light. The infrared light blinks are then translated into movement along the axes.
This type of setup is called an opto-mechanical mechanism and is popularly used nowadays.

Microsoft IntelliMouse

Microsoft introduced a new variation of the popular mouse called IntelliMouse in late 1996,
looking exactly like the standard Microsoft mouse except for a miniature gray wheel rising
up between the left and right buttons. The only change in the mouse is the wheel has two
main functions: the primary function is to act as a scrolling device, allowing one to scroll
through documents or Web pages by merely pulling down or pushing it up with the index
finger and the secondary function is to act as a third mouse button when pressed. This is very
useful while browsing Web pages or working with word processing documents or
spreadsheets. The major advantage of IntelliMouse is that, unlike other three-button mice by
other vendors, it does not get in the way while working and there is less likelihood of it being
clicked by mistake. Its only drawback is that the new wheel will work only if the software is
rewritten to support it.

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2.2. The Trackball

If you turn over a traditional mouse, you will observe a stationary device called a track ball
or roller ball. If you move or rotate this roller ball, the cursor will also move in turn.

In the case of a traditional mouse, the user needs to perform three tasks simultaneously, viz.
grasping the mouse, moving it and clicking the button. However, the newer version allows
the user to perform these tasks independently of each other. The trackball comes in various
sizes. If the ball is small, it requires less effort for its movement or rotation. Regarding
trackball buttons, they can be a single click, right-click, double click, or drag-lock. While some
trackballs are of the plug-and-play type, requiring no installation other than connecting a
cable to the computer's port, others have supporting software to be installed in the
computer. This software enables you to customize the acceleration of the mouse and assign
different functions to the trackball's buttons. Below, figure 9.2 shows a sample trackball.

Figure 9.2: The Trackball

The largest trackball available is the 3-inch trackball found in BIG track (a trackball model
from Info Grip, a hardware company). This trackball requires less fine motor control than a
standard trackball. The left and right mouse click buttons located behind the trackball
prevent unwanted mouse clicks.

1. The trackball allows the user to perform each of these tasks separately from one another.
2. The size of a trackball ball will vary from as large as a cue ball to as small as a marble. The
smaller the ball, the less amount of effort or rotation of the ball.
3. Buttons on the trackball can be accessed by single click, right click, double click, or drag-
lock, which helps in selecting various computer features such as selecting an icon on the
desktop, refreshing the PC, choosing a Word file on the desktop, etc.

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2.3. Cleaning the Pointing Device

Cleaning Mouse: Whenever you notice the mouse pointer moving across the screen in a
jerky fashion, it is advisable to clean it. This jerkiness is a result of dirt and dust getting
trapped around the mouse's ball and roller assembly, thereby restricting its free movement.
When you turn over the mouse housing, you will notice the mouse ball surrounding an access
panel that can be opened. Remove the panel and observe the roller ball and the socket in
which it rests. Turning the mouse back over will make the roller ball fall into your hand. You
should ensure that there is no visible dirt or any other contamination or you need to wash it
with soapy water or a mild solvent such as contact cleaner solution or alcohol and dry it off.
Next take a look at the socket in which the roller ball normally rests. You will see two or three
small wheels or bars against which the ball normally rolls. If you see dust or dirt on or around
these wheels or bars, then clean them. It is important to ensure that no dirt or dust remains
because if it is present, the movement of the roller ball is hindered, and the mouse will not
work properly. After thorough cleaning, insert the roller ball into the socket and securely
attach the cover panel thus making the mouse function again.

2.4. Troubleshooting

If you encounter problems with the mouse, it is advisable to look in only two general places-
hardware or software.

Hardware Problems: The hardware problem generally relates to interrupt conflicts and is
more difficult to solve.

• Interrupt Conflicts: A computer uses internal signals called Interrupts to indicate when
something needs to be done. A mouse uses an interrupt whenever it has information to
be sent to the mouse driver. The mouse might not work properly or even might not work
at all if a conflict occurs and a different device uses the same interrupt used by it. If your
system uses a mouse port then interrupt conflicts do not normally occur but they can
occur with the other types of mouse interfaces. Mouse ports built into modern
motherboards are almost always set to IRQ 12. On machines that use a PS/2 mouse (a
type of mouse that plugs into a PS/2 mouse port), this is the IRQ reserved for its use. A
PS/2 mouse frees up the COM1 serial port and the interrupt it uses for other devices. If

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your system has a motherboard mouse port, you should take care that you don't set any
other adapter cards to IRQ 12. Otherwise, a conflict occurs. Whenever you use a serial
mouse (a mouse that connects to a computer via a serial port) there is every likelihood
of interrupt conflicts occurring if you add a third or fourth serial port. This is because in
ISA bus systems, odd-numbered serial ports (1 and 3) are often improperly configured
to use the same interrupts as the even-numbered ports (2 and 4). Therefore, if your
mouse is connected to COM2 and an internal modem uses COM4, both might use the same
interrupt, resulting in a conflict. But if you move either the mouse or the modem to a
different serial port you can use both of them at the same time. For example, if your
mouse uses COM1 and the modem still uses COM4: you can use them both simultaneously
because odd and even ports use different interrupts. The best way to prevent these
interrupt conflicts is to ensure that no two devices use the same interrupt.
• If the driver declines to acknowledge the mouse regardless of its type, try using a
different mouse that works. If you find that the problem is caused by a defective mouse,
the best option is to replace it with a good one.

Software Problems: Software problems, which are trickier than hardware problems
generally manifest as the mouse "just not working." In such instances, you would check the
driver and the software applications before assuming that the mouse is faulty.

• Driver Software: The mouse requires the installation of a device driver to function
properly. You should use default drivers built into the Windows or OS/2 operating
environments. If you want the mouse to work with DOS applications, you should load an
extra driver (via CONFIG.SYS).
• Application Software: It is necessary to check the setup information or configuration
section of the program if your mouse does not work with a specific piece of application
software, Even after indicating to the program that you are using a mouse, and it does
not work, then it is recommended that you contact the technical support department of
the application software company for help.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. The largest manufacturers of mice are ____________and ________.
2. Trackball is a stationary device. (True or False).
3. ___________ in the mouse are very difficult to resolve.

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3. KEYBOARD
The keyboard is a primary input device and one of the basic system components. It is the
friendliest input peripheral used for entering commands and data into the system. You can
not only key in programs and data through it but also give commands to the software from
the keyboard. It is almost impossible to use a computer without a keyboard.

3.1. Basics of Keyboard

The keyboard generally consists of 105 keys. The key switch (a small switch placed under
the keys) is activated when a key is pressed. An electronic circuit in the keyboard determines
which key has been pressed. Then, a standard 8-bit code is generated and sent to the
computer. Detecting which key is pressed and generating the corresponding code is known
as encoding. There are two types of keyboards. One is the serial keyboard, which sends data,
bit by bit, in a serial fashion, and the computer converts the data into parallel bytes. The other
is the parallel keyboard, which sends the data as a byte in a parallel form; all the bits are sent
simultaneously on the different lines (wires). It is essential that the cable between the
keyboard and the computer has more wires in a parallel keyboard.

Figure 9.3: 101-key enhanced keyboard layout.

Keyboard Functions

A matrix of rows and columns connects the key switches; each key switch having a fixed set
of coordinates, namely, row number and column number. The keyboard electronics perform
the following functions:

• Sensing a key depression.

• Encoding
• Sending code to computer

The keyboard electronics follow a standard technique known as scanning. The keyboard

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electronics sends inputs and signals to the matrix through the rows while the outputs are
sent through the columns. The electronic circuit senses the column lines. There are different
types of key switches. Some of the common types are:

• Mechanical keyswitch – These switches will have metal contacts in a momentary

contact arrangement.
• Membrane key switch – These switches are formed on a sheet fixed on a rubber dome
sheet.
• Capacitive key switch - Capacitive switches are non-mechanical switches currently
used.

Key Switch Design

Nowadays, Keyboards come with several types of switches: most use one of several
variations of a mechanical key switch. A mechanical key switch relies on a mechanical
momentary contact type switch to make electrical contact in a circuit, while some high-end
keyboard designs use a totally different non-mechanical design that relies on capacitive
switches. The following are the variations of mechanical type switches:

• Pure mechanical
• Foam element
• Rubber dome
• Membrane

Pure Mechanical: Generally, it has a tactile feedback mechanism with a clip and spring
arrangement to give a "clicky" feel to the keyboard, and a built-in feature offers some
resistance while pressing the key. Mechanical switches, whose lifetime is 20 million
keystrokes, are very durable and usually have self-cleaning contacts.

Foam element: Older keyboards use this technology in which switches are characterized by
a foam element with an electrical contact on the bottom that is mounted on the bottom of a
plunger attached to the key itself. When the switch is pressed, a foil conductor on the bottom
of the foam element closes a circuit on the printed circuit board below and a return spring
pushes the key back up when the pressure is released. The advantage of using foam is that it
reduces the contact, thereby preventing bounce. The disadvantage of using this type of

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switch is that it is prone to corrosion on the foil conductor and the circuit board traces below.

Rubber dome: Rubber dome switches are mechanical switches, which are the improved
versions of the foam element-type switches. These switches, which use a rubber dome
instead of a spring with a carbon button contact on the underside, are straightforward in
design, use fewer parts, are highly reliable and very popular in modern computers. When the
key is pressed, the key plunger presses on the rubber dome, causing it to resist and then
collapse all at once, As the rubber dome collapses, the user feels the tactile feedback, and the
carbon button makes contact between the circuit board traces below. When the key is
released, the rubber dome reforms and pushes the key back up.

Membrane keyboard: Membrane keyboards are very suitable for extremely harsh
environments. When no other type of keyboard can work in certain situations, these sheets
can be bonded together and sealed and protect from the elements. Many industrial
applications use membrane keyboards especially for terminals that do not require extensive
data entry but are used to operate equipment such as cash registers.

Capacitive switches: Although they are expensive, these switches have the advantage of
being resistant to dirt and corrosion and also offering the highest-quality tactile feedback of
any type of switch. A capacitive switch does not work by making contact between
conductors. Instead, two plates usually made of plastic are connected in a switch matrix
designed to detect changes in the capacitance of the circuit. When the key is pressed, the
plunger moves the top plate relative to the fixed bottom plate. These switches have a lifetime
of up to 25 million or more keystrokes.

3.2. Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Although difficult intermittent problems might give rise to keyboard errors, generally two
simple problems are usually faced by users:

• Defective cables
• Stuck keys

Defective cables are easy to spot if the failure is not intermittent. If the keyboard stops
working altogether or every keystroke results in an error or incorrect character, then the
problem lies with the cable. Troubleshooting such a fault is simple, especially if you have a

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spare cable on hand. To do this, replace the suspected cable with a known working keyboard,
and ensure that the problem is set right. However, if the problem still exists, you should look
elsewhere for its source. By using a DMM (Digital Multi-Meter). you can test the cable for
continuity by removing it from the keyboard.

Keyboard stuck key failure.

When you press a key on the keyboard, the processor built into the keyboard (8048- or 6805-
type) reads the key switch location in the keyboard matrix. The processor then sends a serial
packet of data containing the scan code for the key that was pressed to the motherboard.
This is called the Make code. When the key is released, a corresponding Break code is sent,
indicating to the motherboard that the key has been released. The Break code equals the
Make scan code plus 80h (‘h’ stands for hexadecimal). For example, if the Make scan code for
the "A" key is 1Eh, the Break code would be 9Eh. By using both Make and Break scan codes,
the system can determine whether a particular key has been held down and determine
whether multiple keys are being pressed. If you get the message “keyboard struck, key
failure”, you can look up the scan code to determine which key switch is causing the problem.
You can solve the problem by removing the keycap of the offending key and cleaning the
switch.

Many newer systems have a electrical fuse that can be replaced. This protects the
motherboard keyboard and mouse connectors. Locate any type of fuse on the motherboard
in the vicinity of the keyboard or mouse connectors. Some other systems may have a
socketed keyboard controller chip (8042-type), which may be possible to repair the
motherboard keyboard circuit by replacing this chip. As these chips have ROM code in them,
it is advisable to get the replacement from the motherboard or BIOS manufacturer.

Cleaning a Keyboard

Periodical cleaning is a part of maintenance, which is essential to maintain a keyboard in

good condition. Preventive maintenance requires that you vacuum clean the keyboard
weekly or at least monthly. You could also use canned compressed air (available at
electronics supply stores) to blow the dust and dirt out instead of using a vacuum cleaner.
Before you dust a keyboard with compressed air, turn the keyboard upside down so that the
particles of dirt and dust collected inside can fall out. You should avoid pressing the keys

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hardly. You should also avoid playing games for a long time to increase the durability of key
switches.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
4. A standard technique known as _________ is followed by the keyboard electronics.
5. __________ is a keyboard controller chip.
6. One of the best ways to maintain a keyboard in top condition is __________.

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4. BASICS OF SOUNDBOARDS
A sound card is also known as an audio card. It is a computer expansion card that facilitates
the input and output of audio signals to and from a computer under the control of computer
programs. Sound cards are very much useful in providing the audio component for
multimedia applications such as music composition, editing video or audio, presentation,
education, and entertainment (games). Many computers have sound capabilities built in,
while others require additional expansion cards to provide for audio capability.

When the PC standard was first created, it did not have audio capabilities than basic beeping
or tone generation. This was because the PC standard created in 1981, and other computers
of that time had similar rudimentary capabilities. However, systems that were designed
later, such as the Macintosh, which was introduced in 1984, did include high-quality audio
capabilities as an integral part of the system hardware and software. Although there still is
no universal audio hardware and software standard for PC-compatible systems, the inherent
expandability of the PC platform allows audio capability to be easily added, and at least one
genuine standard has emerged.

Sound Card Devices

• Joysticks: Some sound cards may have a joystick or game port. A joystick is ideally
meant for game playing and is best chosen through hands-on experience like
speakers.
• MIDI Connector: To use MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) to create
synthesized music, you have to connect a musical keyboard or other MIDI device to
the sound card. The joystick port on sound cards has unused pins that can be used to
send and receive MIDI data. If you connect a MIDI cable to the joystick port, you can
connect a PC to a MIDI device.
• Synthesiser: If you are considering MIDI and you intend to compose or play music,
then you will need sequencer software, which is a musical application designed to
play back musical notation to record, edit, and play back MIDI files.

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4.1. The Recording

You need to connect a microphone to the sound card to record sound in the computer. Some
of the sound cards may not have options to connect a microphone. While purchasing a sound
card, you should check whether it is having an ‘Audio In’ jack to plug the microphone.

4.2. The Playback

Speakers are used to playback the recorded sound. Successful multimedia presentations,
business applications, and MIDI work require external high-fidelity stereo speakers. Sound
cards offer little or no power to drive external speakers. Although some sound cards have
small 4-watt amplifiers, they are not powerful enough to drive quality speakers essential for
quality sound. A 16-bit sound card may provide better sound to computer speakers.
However, if you have good speakers, then an 8-bit sound card can also provide

better sound. Speakers are measured by the following three criteria:

• Frequency response: This is a measurement of the range of high and low sounds
that a speaker can reproduce. The ideal range is from 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). This expresses the distortion or noise created by
amplifying the signal. The amount of distortion is measured in percentages. An
acceptable level of distortion is below .1 per cent (one-tenth of 1 per cent). For some
CD-quality recording equipment, a common standard is .05 percent. Some speakers
have a distortion of 10 percent or more. Headphones often have a distortion of about
2 percent or less.
• Watts. This is the amount of amplification available to drive the speakers. Many
sound cards have built in amplifiers, providing up to 8 watts per channel. (Most
provide 4 watts.)

Headphones are an option when you can't afford a premium set of speakers. They also
provide privacy and allow you to play your sound card as loud as you like.

4.3. Sampling Concept

A technique called digital sampling helps in the recording and playback of sounds. To record
your voice, you first speak into a microphone. The Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

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translates the analogue waves of your voice into digital data that the computer can
understand. To do this, it samples, or digitizes, the sound by taking precise measurements of
the wave at frequent intervals. Figure 9.3 shows the sampling technique.

Analog Sound Signal

Digital Pulses

Figure 9.4: The sampling technique

The number of measurements per second, called the sampling rate, is measured in kHz. The
faster a card's sampling rate, the more accurate its reconstructed wave is.

In case you want to play back your recording through the speakers, the Digital-to-Analog
Convertor (DAC) will perform the same basic steps in reverse. With accurate measurements
and a fast sampling rate, the restored analog signal can be nearly identical to the original
sound wave.

Some reduction in sound quality can be caused even with high sampling rates. Distortion
may also occur due to the physical process of moving sound through wires. Two
measurements are used by manufacturers to describe this reduction in sound quality:

• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), expressed as a percentage

• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), measured in decibels (dB), a unit of sound.

Smaller values indicate better quality for both THD and SNR. Some cards also support digital
input, allowing people to store digital recordings without converting them to an analog
format.

4.4. The Role of MIDI

The 1980s saw the development of MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) to
communicate between synthesizers. Although it was earlier just a specification, now it has
become a standard, which allows programs to play music through the PC sound card.

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MIDI, a computer-standard music format, is used to write compositions and musical events.
The sounds are found in your sound card, not in the MIDI files. These files only describe how
the music is to be played. For example, a MIDI sequence can describe the hit on a piano key.

The MIDI sequence describes:

• The instrument
• The note
• The strength of the key hit
• How long to maintain the note

4.5. An Inside Look of a SoundBoard

Figure 9.4 shows an inside look at a PCI (Peripheral Computer Interface) sound card. The
sound card may contain many jumpers, which you have to set/reset before connecting other
devices.

Figure 9.5: A PCI sound card

Locate any jumpers on the sound card if used by it and identify what they control. There may
be jumpers that set the MIDI port to use with a joystick, or jumpers that set the IRQ (Interrupt
Request) for the controller for CD ROM. Locate the jumpers for the IRQ setting. When a
bridge is made with a jumper between two adjacent posts, the jumper is said to be ON. When
the jumper is removed, it is OFF.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
7. ____________ is required to record the sound.
8. The number of measurements per second, called the_____________ is measured in kHz.
9. MIDI stands for____________

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5. TROUBLESHOOTING A SOUNDBOARD
To install a sound card, you will have to select IRQ numbers, a base I/O address, or DMA
channels that don't conflict with other devices. Although most cards are already configured
to be used on an otherwise idle set of ports, sometimes problems do occur. Therefore,
troubleshooting may be required, which may mean changing board jumpers or switches or
even reconfiguring other cards.

5.1. Hardware (Resource) Conflicts

A device or hardware conflict occurs when the sound card simply doesn't work (no sound
effects or music). Sometimes, it may repeat the same sounds over and over and cause the PC
to freeze. Sound cards usually clash with other devices installed in the PC. There are
generally three sources of conflict in sound card installation:

• Interrupt Requests (IRQs). IRQs are used to "interrupt" PC and get its attention.
• Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels. DMA channels move information directly to
the PC's memory, bypassing the PC's processor. DMA channels allow sound to play
while the PC is doing other work.
• Input / Output (I/O) Port addresses. An I/O Port address in the PC is used to channel
information between the hardware devices on the sound card and the PC. The
addresses usually mentioned in a sound card manual are the starting or base
addresses. A sound card has several devices on it, each using a range of addresses
starting with a particular base. Most sound cards include installation software that
analyzes PC and attempts to notify any of the standard settings in use by other
devices.

It is advisable to install a sound card using the default settings where possible because poorly
written software cannot work properly with alternate settings, even if they do not cause
conflicts.

Solving Hardware Conflicts

The best way to find a hardware conflict is to locate all of the documentation for the PC and
its various devices, such as a tape backup interface card, CD-ROM drive, and so on. The most
common causes of system resource conflicts are the following:

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• SCSI host adapters

• Network interface cards
• Bus Mouse adapter cards
• Serial Port adapter cards for COM3: or COM4:
• Parallel Port adapter cards for LPT2:
• Internal modems
• Tape drive interface cards
• Scanner interface cards.

You could find out which device is conflicting with the sound card by temporarily removing
all of the expansion cards except the sound card and other essential cards like the video card.
Then add each of the cards removed, one at a time, till you find that the sound card does not
work. When you come to the last card, it is most likely the troublemaker, the card causing
the conflict. Now, either switch the settings for the device that is conflicting with a sound
card or change the settings of the sound card. To do this, set jumpers or DIP (Dual In-line
Package) switches or use the sound card's setup software to change its settings.

5.2. Other Sound Card Problems

No Sound
You could consider the following solutions if you don't hear anything from the sound card,

• Ensure that the sound card is set so that it uses all default resources and that other
devices using these resources are either changed or removed.
• Are the speakers connected? Check that the speakers are plugged into the sound
card's Stereo Line Out or speaker jack.
• Find out whether they are amplified speakers and are powered on. Check the strength
of the batteries or the adapter's connection to the electrical outlet.
• If the speakers are stereo, check that the plug inserted into the jack is a stereo plug,
not mono (a short form of Monaural or Monophonic sound reproduction, which is a
single-channel).
• Make sure that the mixer settings are high enough. Many sound cards include a DOS
and/or Microsoft Windows mixer control. The mixer controls the settings for various

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sound devices, such as a microphone or CD player. There may be controls for both
recording and playback. Increase the master volume or speaker volume when in the
play mode.
• Use sound card setup or diagnostic software to test and adjust the sound card's
volume. Such software usually includes sample sounds that play.
• Turn off the computer for a minute and then turn it back on. A hard reset (as opposed
to pressing the Reset button or pressing Ctrl+Alt+Delete) may clear the problem.
• If the computer game lacks sound, check that it works with a sound card. For example,
some games may require the exact settings of IRQ 7, DMA 1, and address 220 to be
Sound Blaster-compatible.

Scratchy Sound
If there is a scratchy sound then the solution is quite simple. You could solve the problem in
the following ways:

• If the sound card is near other expansion cards could be picking up electrical
interference from other expansion cards inside the PC. Therefore, move the sound
card to an expansion slot as far away as possible from other cards.
• If you find that the speakers are too close to the monitor, move them farther as the
speakers may be picking up electrical noise from the monitor. ∙ Ensure that you are
not using a cheap FM (Frequency Modulation) synthesis sound card because most of
the cards that use FM synthesis instead of wavetable sound generation have very
poor-quality output. It is recommended that you upgrade to a card that has wavetable
synthesis so you can get the full benefit of high-quality sound.

5.3. Other Problems

Sometimes sound problems can be difficult to solve. Due to quirks and problems with how
DMA is implemented in some motherboard chipsets, there can be problems interacting with
certain cards or drivers. Sometimes altering the Chipset Setup options in CMOS settings can
resolve problems. These kinds of problems can take a lot of trial and error to solve.

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5.4. Full-Duplex Drivers

If you can play a wave sound and record it simultaneously (e.g., using Windows Sound
Recorder), your sound card is full-duplex. However, if the program you are trying to use
needs DirectSound. You need full-duplex compatible DirectSound drivers. You might find
this information on your card's manufacturer's website.

Sometimes, sound card drivers become corrupt or conflict after an operating system update
or if additional hardware is installed. To solve this problem, if you have a new sound card,
reinstall the driver that came with the device. If audio support is built into your motherboard
or the sound card is not a newer model, download and install the latest drivers from the
manufacturer's website.

If system conflicts occur after installing additional hardware, try uninstalling the sound card
drivers, reboot the computer a few times, and install the drivers again. If your operating
system has a system restore feature, try restoring the computer to one of the restore points
when the sound card worked.

5.5. Soundboard Accelerations

It is found that soundcards, especially onboard, can cause several problems. More often than
not, you might find that the card is not the real cause of the problem, as you may hear the
sound properly, but the game might be running slower than usual or even crash. A number
of problems could be caused, like distorted/weird sound slowdown, especially on top-of-the-
line PCs. This is especially true if the game reports 30 or higher FPS (frames per second).
This may lead to random crashes of the desktop or hanging.

Blue screen crashes (especially protection faults and similar) are often due to this. You could
prevent this from occurring by ensuring you have the most up-to-date driver for your sound
hardware and disabling Direct X's (Microsoft’s gaming technology) sound optimization.

Follow the below steps to do this:

1. Go to start. Select run. Type in "dxdiag" (an executable file to diagnose direct X) and
hit enter.

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2. The Direct X Diagnostic tool will launch. Wait a couple of seconds while it detects
hardware information.
3. Click on the sound tab.
4. Move the hardware acceleration slider all the way to the left (off or none will be
displayed).
5. OK and exit.

The actual performance hit on your system is variable. Many manufacturers bypass Direct
X's software acceleration in favor of their own hardware or driver-based routines. In most
cases, you won't notice any difference with how the game plays (except less crashes and
more stability). If you do see decreased performance, try moving the slider up a notch and
retest the game. Often you can get basic acceleration or better before the initial problem
reappears.

5.6. Multiple Codecs

If you find several codecs on the same card, you need to call snd_ac97_mixer () (a procedure
to run codecs) multiple times with ac97.num=1 (setting the value of the variable num) or
greater. The num field specifies the codec number. If you set up multiple codecs, you either
need to write different callbacks for each codec or check ac97->num in the callback routines.

5.7. WAV Playback Problems

When you try to play wave sound (.wav) files in Windows you might encounter the following
problems prompting you to troubleshoot them: Program-specific problems such as
improperly configured Playback device, incorrect Mixer settings, incorrect Hardware
configuration, Damaged wave sound files, Compression-related problems

Program-Specific Problems
In case you are not able to play .wav files with a specific program that you use in Windows,
then you should check if the same problem occurs when you play the file with another
program. For example, if you are attempting to play the file from a third-party program not
included with Windows, try to play the file from Media Player or Sound Recorder.

• To start Media Player or Sound Recorder, click Start →Programs→ Accessories→

Multimedia and Multimedia → click Media Player

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If the problem occurs only when you try to play the .wav file with one program, the files
associated with that program may be damaged, or the program may not be configured
correctly, then it is advisable to contact the software manufacturer to solve the problem.
However, if the problem occurs with multiple programs, then it could be caused by any of
the reasons discussed in this unit.

Playback Device Not Configured Properly

If you find that you are unable to play .wav files in Windows, or if .wav files are not played at
the proper volume, then the reason could be that you have not selected a playback device, or
the playback device that you have selected may not have been configured properly.
Therefore, to select and configure a playback device you should:

1. Click Start → Settings → Control Panel.

2. Double-click Multimedia or Sounds and Multimedia.
3. In the Playback box, click the playback device you want to use in the Preferred Device
list, then move the Volume slider to the value you want.
4. In the Recording box, click the playback device you want to use in the Preferred
Device list, then move the Volume slider to the value you want.
5. Verify that your speakers are properly connected to the sound card and that they are
turned on.

Mixer Settings Not Configured Properly

If the mixer control settings are not configured properly then you will not be able to play
.wav files in Windows or .at files (audio files created with Sony's Adaptive Transform
Acoustic Coding (ATRAC) compression algorithm; designed for storage and playback on
portable media devices) in their proper volume. You could use the mixer control program
that is included with Windows to adjust the volume for playback, recording, and voice
commands. If you are using Windows 3.1 drivers with your sound card, you must use the
mixer control program included with the sound card to adjust the volume for playback,
recording, and voice commands. It is sensible to contact the sound card manufacturer if your
sound card does not include a mixer control program or if you need information about how
to use it.

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In order to configure mixer control settings with the mixer control program that is included
with Windows:

1. Click Start → Programs → Accessories → Multimedia or Entertainment → click Volume

Control
2. Verify that the Mute All check box below the Volume Control slider is not selected.
3. Verify that the Mute check box below the Wave slider is not selected.
4. Verify that the Balance sliders for Volume Control and Wave are in the center of the
scale.
5. Move the Volume Control and Wave sliders at least halfway to the top of the scale.

You may need to adjust the current Volume Control or Wave slider settings to play .wav files
at the desired volume level.

Damaged Wave Sound Files

If you cannot play .wav files in Windows, or if .wav files are not played properly, the .wav
files you are attempting to play may be damaged. To determine if a .wav file is damaged,

1. right-click the .wav file

2. click Properties → click the Details tab. The Audio Format box should contain
information about the type of compression that was used to compress the file, the
sound quality of the file, and whether the file is in stereo. If this information is missing,
the .wav file may be damaged.

In case the information in the Audio Format box is not missing, try to play other WAV files
that are compressed by using the same type of compression as the WAV file that you are
attempting to play. If you are successful then it is possible that the first .wav file that you
tried to play may be damaged.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
10. __________, __________, and __________ should not conflict with other devices while
installing a sound card.
11. __________ is the way to move information directly to the PC's memory, bypassing the
PC's processor.
12. The__________ box should contain information about the type of compression used to
compress the file, its sound quality, and whether or not it is in stereo.

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6. SUMMARY

Let’s recapitulate important concepts discussed in this unit:

• A standard mouse consists of several components: A housing that can be held in the
hand and moved around, a roller ball that signals movement to the system, buttons
(usually two) for making selections, a cable for connecting the mouse to the system
and an interface connector to attach the mouse to the system.
• The keyboard is the primary input device. It is used for entering commands and data
into the system. The keyboard is the friendliest input peripheral.
• A sound card has many uses, including adding stereo sound to entertainment (game)
software, increasing the effectiveness of educational software, particularly for young
children, adding sound effects to business presentations and training software,
creating music by using MIDI hardware and software, adding voice notes to files,
adding sound effects to operating system events, enabling a PC to read, enabling PC
use by disabled individuals, playing audio CDs.
• In order to install a sound card, you will have to select IRQ numbers, a base I/O
address, or DMA channels that don't conflict with other devices.

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7. GLOSSARY
• Mouse: A mouse is a pointing device used to point at a particular option on the screen
and then select that option by clicking. Different manufacturers produce different
varieties of mice.
• Trackball: Trackballs are also called as "rollerballs". They are best described if you
turned the traditional mouse over exposing the ball. Trackballs are stationary devices.
Movement or rotation of the ball moves the cursor.
• Keyboard: The keyboard is the primary input device. It is used for entering
commands and data into the system. The keyboard is the friendliest input peripheral.
Both program and data can be keyed in through it.
• Analog-to Digital Convertor (ADC): The Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
translates the analog waves of your voice into digital data that the computer can
understand. It is used while recording sound on a PC.
• Digital-to Analog Convertor (DAC): Digital-to-Analog Converter translates the
digital signals in the computer to analogue waves. Using DAC you can playback the
recorded sound.
• Direct Memory Access (DMA): DMA channels are a way to move information directly
to the PC's memory, bypassing the PC's processor. DMA channels allow sound to play
while the PC is doing other work.

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8. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the features of a mouse and a trackball.
2. How does the keyboard function? How will you determine the Keyboard failure?
3. List out the steps involved in installing a sound card.
4. How will you overcome the IRQ conflict with the sound card?

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3.9.
How do you format an Excel sheet
ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Microsoft, Logitech
2. True
3. Hardware problems
4. Scanning
5. 8042
6. Periodic cleaning
7. Microphone
8. Sampling rate
9. Musical Instrument Digital Interface
10. IRQ numbers, base I/O address, DMA channels
11. DMA channels
12. Audio format

Terminal Questions
Answer 1: Mouse is a pointing device which is used to point a particular option on the screen
and then select that option by clicking. Different manufacturers produce different varieties
of mouse. Trackballs are also called as "rollerballs". Trackballs are stationary devices.
Movement or rotation of the ball moves the cursor. (Refer section 2.1 & 2.2)
Answer 2: When a key is pressed, the keyswitch is activated. The keyboard has an electronic
circuit to determine which key has been pressed. Then a standard 8-bit code is generated
and sent to the computer. (Refer section 3.1)
Answer 3: To install a sound card, you have to select IRQ numbers, a base I/O address, or
DMA channels that don't conflict with other devices. Most cards come already configured to
use on otherwise idle set of ports, but problems occasionally arise. (Refer section 5)
Answer 4: The audio portion of a sound card has a default IRQ setting, but also supports any
of several alternate interrupts. You should try to leave the sound card at the default setting
(usually IRQ 5) and change other adapters where possible. (Refer section 5)

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10. REFERENCES
• Troubleshooting, Maintaining and Repairing PC’s by Stephen J. Bigelow, TMH
• Understanding and Repairing PCs by Mueller, PHI.

E-References:
• http://www.freeopenbook.com/upgrading-repairing-pc/ch18lev1sec2.html
• http://www.fileinfo.com/extension/at3
• http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-sound-card.htm

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Unit 10
Introduction to Computer Software
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ / Page

Topic
No / Graph Activity No
1 Introduction - -
3
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Computer Software - 1 4-6
3 Overview of operating systems - -
3.1 Windows - -
3.2 Linux - -
7 - 12
3.3 Unix - -
3.4 Mac OS - -
3.5 Solaris - 2
4 Overview of application software - -
4.1 Office tools – MS Office, Star Office 1, 2, 3, 4 -
4.2 Graphic application software – CorelDraw 5 -
4.3 Engineering application software 6 - 13 - 20
4.4 Environmental Science application software - -
4.5 Medical Science application software - -
4.6 Software Legal Issues - 3
5 Overview of Proprietary Software - 4 21
6 Overview of open source technology - 5 25
7 Summary - - 26
8 Terminal Questions - - 27
9 Answers - - 28
10 Reference - - 29

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1. INTRODUCTION
As we discussed in the previous unit, computer memory signifies the state information of a
computing system, as it is kept active in some physical structure. The term "memory" is used
for the information in physical systems which are fast, as a distinction from physical systems
which are slow to access (i.e. data storage). In this unit, we will study computer software,
various operating systems, application software, Overview of proprietary software, open
source technology, & Computer software installation. In general, computer software is
created by computer programmers using a programming language. The programmer writes
commands in the programming language related to what someone might use in everyday
speech. These commands are called source code.

A computer program called a compiler is then used to analyze the source code, transforming
the commands into a language that the computer can understand. The result is an executable
computer program, which is another name for software.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to -

❖ Describe the Computer Software
❖ Explain operating systems
❖ Describe application software
❖ Discuss proprietary software

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2. COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer Software is a general term for organized collections of computer data and
instructions, often broken into two major categories: syste software that provides the basic
non-task-specific functions of the computer, and application software used by users to
accomplish specific tasks. A computer program guides a computer to perform some
processing function or combination of functions. For the instructions to be carried out, a
computer must execute a program; that is, the computer reads the program and then follows
the steps encoded in the program in an exact order until completion. A program can be
executed many different times, with each execution yielding a potentially different result
depending on the options and data that the user gives the computer.

Different kinds of computer software are designed to do various tasks including word
processing, number crunching, image and video editing, data storage, and home
entertainment. There are three major types of computer software:

1. System Software
System software is used to run the computer hardware. It includes mainly the Operating
system and device drivers. System software refers to the files and programs that comprise
your computer's operating system. System files include libraries of functions, system
services, drivers for printers and other hardware, system preferences, and other
configuration files. The programs that are part of the system software include assemblers,
compilers, file management tools, system utilities, and debuggers.

The system software is installed on your computer when you install your operating system.
You can also update the software by running programssuch as "Windows Update" for
Windows or "Software Update" for Mac OS X. Unlike application programs, however, system
software is not meant to be run by the end user. For example, while you might use your Web
browser every day, you probably don't have much use for an assembler program (unless you
are a computer programmer).

Subsequently, system software runs at the most basic level of your computer; it is called
"low-level" software. It produces the user interface and allows the operating system to
interact with the hardware. Fortunately, you don't have to worry about what the system
software is doing since it just runs in the background.

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2. Programming Software
Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer
programs and software using different programming languages. Computer programmers are
accountable for teaching computers how to perform tasks and solve computational
problems. They develop the software that runs on computers using special software called a
compiler. A compiler is a computer program that decodes text written in a computer
language into another computer language.

A computer language is the language that a computer understands and can interpret. There
are two main types of computer languages: the High-level language and the Low-level
language or machine language. Since the computer is a machine, it understands the machine
language. Unfortunately, the machine language is challenging for human beings to
understand, hence the need of a compiler. Examples of computer languages include Pascal,
Basic, Java, C-Sharp, and Prolog.

3. Application Software
It allows end users to accomplish one or more specific tasks. Typical applications include
industrial automation, business software, educational software, medical software,
databases, and computer games.

Computer software works in a unique way. First, the program has to be installed onto the
computer using an installer program. The installation process copies all the necessary files
needed to run the program to the computer’s storage and may have to teach the OS how to
run the program by altering or configuring the OS as required. The most common method
ofinstalling Software on a personal computer is by booting from a CD-ROM that contains the
installation program and installable software. Such a CD can be burned.

After installing the program, it can be used by “loading” it into the computer's memory. Once
the software is loaded, the computer can execute the software. Computers operate by
executing the computer program. This involves passing instructions from the application
software through the system software to the hardware that receives the instruction as
machine code. Each instruction causes the computer to operate, including moving data,
carrying out a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions. A program should b
“unloaded” from memory after use to allow other programs to use the memory.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. ______ is technically a set of instructions written in a computer language that solves
a computational task.
2. ______ is used to run the computer hardware.
3. __________ usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer
programs and software using different programming languages.
4. _______ allows end users to accomplish one or more specific tasks.

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3. OVERVIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

An operating system is a computer program that manages a computer's hardware and
software resources. At the foundation of all system software, the OS performs basic tasks
such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input
and output devices, facilitating networking, and managing files. It may also provide a
graphical user interface for higher-level functions.

Examples of operating system are Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 98, Windows ME,
Windows 95 etc, Linux family of operating systems such as, Ubuntu, RedHat, Mandrake,
SuSE, Solaris, and UNIX.

The operating system is the most important software because it is responsible for booting
the computer. Every computer must have an

operating system installed on it. The Windows family of OS’s is the most popular. A survey
says 9 out of every 10 computers run the Windows operating system.

3.1. Windows

The term Windows collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft
operating system products. The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems originated
as a graphical layer on top of the older MS DOS environment for the IBM PC. As of 2004,
Windows held a near monopoly of around 90% of the worldwide desktop market share,
although some predict this to dwindle due to the increased interest in open-source operating
systems.

The first Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released in November 1985, lacked a degree of
functionality and achieved little popularity. Windows 1.0 did not provide a complete
operating system but extended MS-DOS. Modern versions are based on the newer Windows
NT core that first took shape in OS/2 and borrowed from Open Virtual Memory System.
Windows runs on 32-bit and 64-bit Intel and AMD processors, although earlier versions also
ran on the DEC Alpha, MIPS, and PowerPC architectures (some work was done to port it to
the SPARC architecture).

In August 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, which made further changes to the user
interface and was the first Windows version to utilize multitasking. In July 1993, Microsoft

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released Windows NT based on a new kernel. NT was considered to be the professional

operating system. NT and the Windows non-professional line would later be fused together
to create Windows XP.

The next in line was Microsoft Windows 98 released in June 1998. Substantially criticized
for its slowness compared with Windows 95, many of its basic problems were later rectified
with the release of Windows 98 Second Edition in 1999.

As part of its professional line, Microsoft released Windows 2000 in February 2000. The
consumer version following Windows 98 was Windows Me (Windows Millennium Edition).
Released in September 2000, Windows Me attempted to implement several new
technologies for Microsoft: most notably publicized was "Universal Plug and Play." However,
the OSwas substantially criticized for its lack of compatibility and stability.

In October 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, a version built on the Windows NT kernel
that also retained the consumer-oriented usability of Windows 95 and its successors. This
new version was widely praised in computer magazines. It shipped in two distinct editions,
"Home" and "Professional", the former lacking many of the superior security and networking
features of the Professional edition. The "Media Center" edition was released in 2003,
emphasising support for DVD and TV functionality, including program recording and remote
control.

In April 2003, Windows Server 2003 was introduced, replacing the Windows 2000 line of
server products with several new features and a strong focus on security; this was followed
in December 2005 by Windows Server 2003 R2.

Windows Vista, the successor to Windows XP, will be released on January 30, 2007. It was
released to business consumers on November 30, 2006. Windows Vista introduces a
breakthrough user experience and is designed to help you feel confident in your ability to
view, find, and organize information and to control your computing experience.

The visual sophistication of Windows Vista helps streamline your computing experience by
refining common window elements so you can better focus on the content on the screen
rather than on how to access it. The desktop experience is more informative, intuitive, and
helpful. And new tools bring better clarity to the information on your computer, so you can

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see what your files contain without opening them, find applications and files instantly,
navigate efficiently among open windows, and use wizards and dialog boxes more
confidently. Windows Server 2003's successor will be Windows Server "Longhorn", and has
a planned release date in the second half of 2007.

3.2. Linux

Linux operating system is one of the most prominent examples of open source development
and free software; its underlying source code is available for anyone to use, modify, and
redistribute freely. Originally developed and used primarily by individual enthusiasts on
personal computers, Linux has since gained the support of corporations such as IBM, Sun
Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Novell, Inc. have risen to importance as an operating
system for servers; eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies now run Linux
on their web servers.

Linux has been more commonly ported to different computing platforms than any other
operating system. It is used in devices ranging from supercomputers to mobile phones, and
is gaining popularity in the personal computer market. Linux's roots in the Unix operating
system mean that in addition to graphical configuration tools and control panels available
for many system settings and services, plain-text configuration files are still commonly used
to configure the operating system and can readily be made accessible (or not) to users, at
the administrator's will.

3.3. Unix

UNIX is an operating system that coordinates the various parts of the computer the
processor, the on-board memory, the disk drives, keyboards, video monitors, etc. to perform
useful tasks. The operating system is the master controller of the computer, the glue that
holds together all the components of the system, including the administrators,
programmers, and users. When you want the computer to do something for you, like start a
program, copy a file, or display the contents of a directory, it is the operating system that
must perform those tasks for you.

More than anything else, the operating system gives the computer its recognizable
characteristics. It would be difficult to distinguish between two completely different

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computers if they were running the same operating system. Conversely, two identical
computers running different operating systems would appear completely different to the
user. UNIX was created in the late 1960s to provide a multiuser, multitasking system for use
by programmers. The philosophy behind the design of UNIX was to provide simple yet
powerful utilities that could be pieced together in a flexible manner to perform a wide variety
of tasks. The UNIX operating system comprises three parts: The kernel, the standard utility
programs, and the system configuration files.

The kernel is the core of the UNIX operating system. It is a large program loaded into memory
when the machine is turned on, and it controls the allocation of hardware resources from
that point forward. The kernel knows what hardware resources are available (like the
processor(s), the onboard memory, the disk drives, network interfaces, etc.) and has the
necessary programs to talk to all the devices connected to it.

3.4. Mac OS

Mac OS was named by the Apple company as "Mac System Software" in the beginning, a
specially designed operating system only for 68K first Motorola processors with its own
Macintosh hardware; Mac OS takes up a special role in the world of desktop systems. The
first version was "System 1" and appeared bundled with the Mac in 1984. The classic
desktop is designed as a single-user operating system and almost completely hides the full
path to files and directories. The graphic representation is condensed to the essence. Whole
interface is straightforward to use and does not need the right mouse button for user
interaction. Mac OS does not include a command line interface.

Starting with System 3.0, the used file system HFS was used officially, which does not
different between uppercase and lowercase letters. System 5.0 was the first release to run
several programs with the integrated MultiFinder at the same time. The operating system
was programmed up to system 6.0, mostly in assembler and partially in Pascal, and used a
24-bit addressing mode. Cooperative Multi-tasking could optionally be enabled in System
6. System 7.0 first supported 32-bit addressing. This allows the operating system to use
more memory and more powerful programs. Since 1994 System 7.5 supported for the first
time the PowerPC architecture and is optimized with the following Mac OS versions further

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on this architecture. With System software 7.6 the name was changed to Mac OS in January
1997.

The optimization of the operating system to the hardware has the disadvantage that the
system software cannot be installed on every Mac. Application compatibility to the Mac
systems may also vary with each version. 2006 MacOS X was presented for the first time
publicly on x86 hardware, Apple allows the use of Mac OS X only on specific intel

Macintosh systems. According to Steve Jobs Mac OS X have been developed since 2000
internally parallel for Intel and PowerPC processors. The version of Mac OS X 10.6.0 raised
the optimization to Intel-based processors further, the new operating system is no longer
available for PowerPC Macintosh or pure 32-bit Intel processors. In return the user receives
a pure 64-bit operating system optimized for performance on multiple processors. Even the
GPU computing power itself can be used with specific applications. The selection of software
is focused on the creative industry and enables such as professional graphic, audio and video
editing. Office applications such as MacWrite, Microsoft Office, OpenOffice and 3D games are
also available. The choice of browsers is large with iCab, Microsoft Internet Explorer,
Netscape, Opera and Mozilla Firefox.

3.5. Solaris

This is the operating system developed by Sun Microsystems. It is certified against the Single
UNIX Specification as a version of UNIX. Although Solaris Proper is still proprietary software,
the core operating system has been made into an open-source project, Open Solaris. Solaris
is considered to be the SunOS operating system plus a graphical user environment, ONC+,
and other components. Open Solaris was seeded on June 14, 2005, from the then-current
Solaris development code base; both binary and source versions are currently downloadable
and licensed without cost.

The fundamental Solaris codebase has been under continuous development since work
began in the late 1980s on what was eventually released as Solaris 2.0. The Solaris version
under development by Sun is codenamed Nevada, and is derived from what is now the open
Solaris codebase.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
5. An operating system (OS) is a computer program that manages a computer's
hardware and software resources. (True/False)
6. UNIX is an operating system. (True/False)

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4. OVERVIEW OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software is the computer software designed to help the user to perform a
singular or multiple related specific tasks. Typical examples are word processors,
spreadsheets, media players and database applications.

Application software is a subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a

computer directly and thoroughly to a task that the user wishes to perform. This should be
contrasted with system software, which is involved in integrating a computer's various
capabilities but typically does not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that
benefit the user. In this context the term application refers to both the application software
and its implementation. A simple, if imperfect analogy in the world of hardware would be
the relationship of an electric light bulb (an application) to an electric power generation
plant (a system). The power plant merely generates electricity, not itself of any real use until
harnessed to an application like the electric light that performs a service that benefits the
user. Typical examples of software applications are word processors, spreadsheets, and
media players. Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes referred
to as an application suite.

Some might bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several other discrete
applications. The separate applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some
commonality, making it easier for the user to learn and use each application. And often they
may have some capability to interact with each other in ways beneficial to the user. For
example, a spreadsheet might be able to be embedded in a word processor document even
though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet application. User-written software
tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs. User-written software includes
spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics and
animation scripts.

Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and
often overlook how important it is. In some types of embedded systems, the application
software and the operating system software may be indistinguishable to the user, as in the
case of software used to control a VCR, DVD player or Microwave Oven.

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4.1. Office tools – MS Office

Microsoft Office is a software package that consists of different software applications that
complete different activities. Microsoft office is both for home use and for business. Microsoft
Office is by far the most widely recognized software suite in the world, with about 600
million users worldwide. Microsoft Office among many others includes the following:

Word processor: It is a computer application used for the production (including

composition, editing, formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of printable material. A
word processor may also refer to a stand-alone computer unit similar to a typewriter, but
frequently including technological advancements such as a screen, advanced formatting and
printing options, and the ability to save documents onto memory cards or diskettes.

Word processors almost invariably allowed the user to switch between standard typing and
word processing modes. Such word processors should not be confused with an electric
typewriter. Figure 10.1 shows the graphical user interface of Microsoft Word 2007.

Figure 10.1: Microsoft Word 2007

Word processors are descended from early text formatting tools (sometimes called text
justification tools, from their only real capability). Word processing was one of the earliest
applications for the personal computer in office productivity. Microsoft Word is the most
widely used computer word processing system. There are also many other commercial word
processing applications, such as WordPerfect. Open-source applications such as
OpenOffice's Writer and KWord are rapidly gaining in popularity.

Word processing typically refers to text manipulation functions such as automatic

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generation of:
• Batch mailings using a form letter template and an address database (also called mail
merging);
• Directories of keywords and their page numbers;
• Tables of contents with section titles and their page numbers; ∙ Tables of figures with
caption titles and their page numbers; ∙ Cross-referencing with section or page
numbers;
• Footnote numbering

Other word processing functions include "spell checking" (actually checks against wordlists),
"grammar checking" (checks for what seem to be simple grammar errors) and a "thesaurus"
function (finds words with similar or opposite meanings). Since grammar is very complex in
most languages, grammar checkers tend to be unreliable and also require a large amount of
memory.

Spreadsheet: Spreadsheet applications are computer programs that let you create and
manipulate spreadsheets electronically. A spreadsheet is a table of values arranged in rows
and columns. Each value can have a predefined relationship to the other values. If you change
one value, therefore, you may need to change other values as well. In a spreadsheet
application, each value sits in a cell. You can define what type of data is in each cell and how
different cells depend on one another. The relationships between cells are called formulas,
and the names of the cells are called labels.

Once you have defined the cells and the formulas for linking them together, you can enter
your data. You can then modify selected values to see how all the other values change
accordingly, enabling you to study various what-if scenarios.

A simple example of a useful spreadsheet application is one that calculates mortgage

payments for a house. You would define five cells:
• total cost of the house
• down payment
• mortgage rate
• mortgage term
• monthly payment

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Once you had defined how these cells depend on one another, you could enter numbers and
play with various possibilities. For example, keeping all the other values the same, you could
see how different mortgage rates would affect your monthly payments.

There are a number of spreadsheet applications on the market, Excel being among the most
famous. The more powerful spreadsheet applications support graphics features that enable
you to produce charts and graphs from the data.

Most spreadsheet applications are multidimensional, meaning that you can link one
spreadsheet to another. A three-dimensional spreadsheet, for example, is like a stack of
spreadsheets all connected by formulas. A change made in one spreadsheet automatically
affects other spreadsheets.

With Microsoft Excel, you can create detailed spreadsheets for viewing and collaboration.
Create customized formulas for your data and analyze it with easy to construct charts. Figure
10.2 shows the graphical user interface of the Microsoft Excel 2007.

Figure 10.2: Interface of Microsoft Excel 2007

Microsoft PowerPoint: provides a comprehensive set of tools for creating powerful

presentations. Organize and format your material easily, illustrate your points with your
own images or clip art, and even broadcast your presentations over the web. Figure 10.3
shows the graphical user interface of the Microsoft PowerPoint 2007.

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Figure 10.3: Interface of Microsoft Power Point 2007

Microsoft Access: It provides advanced and powerful new tools for managing your
databases. Share your database with co-workers over a network, find and retrieve
information quickly, and take advantage of automated, pre-packaged wizards and solutions
to quickly create databases. Figure 10.4 shows the graphical user interface of the Microsoft
Access 2007.

Figure 10.4: Interface of Microsoft Access 2007

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4.2. Graphic application software – CorelDraw

This is a class of software used for creating and editing images. They are mainly used in
manipulating images and for creating special graphic effects used in making banners, vector
shapes, calendars, T-shirts etc. A general name for graphic and text creation and
manipulation is Desktop Publishing.

Figure 10.5: Corel draw interface

4.3. Engineering application software

This is a class of software used by various specialists in achieving a high degree of accuracy
and precision. They are used for Computer Aided Design (CAD). Popular software that fall
into this category is AutoCAD and Electronic workbench. AutoCAD is a suite of CAD software
products for 2 and 3-dimensional design and drafting. Modern AutoCAD includes a full set of
basic solid modeling and 3D tools.

Electronic workbench is CAD software used in designing, testing, and simulating electronic
circuits.

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Figure 10.6: Screenshot of AutoCAD 2006

4.4. Environmental Science application software

These are software that can be useful to the environment. For example, in the oil industry,
there is software for monitoring oil rigs. The operator does not have to visit the site to
monitor the rigs.

4.5. Medical Science application software

Medical and Agricultural software are used in the field of medicine and agricultural science.
They help to make work easier in the field in which the software is applied. For example in
the medical field during surgery the software has been designed to simulate the operation to
be carried out for surgeons and waits for a confirmation from the computer that he or she is
eligible or ready to perform the operation on the patient. Just like we play our car race games
on a play station. Likewise we also have software programs for agricultural science. The
motive behind this software is to avoid risk that occur during operation in a real life scenario.
Also the software can be used for educative purposes.

4.6. Software Legal Issues

Software is viewed as intellectual property. Just like a book or music, it must be respected
and treated as such. This means that the creator's permission must be required before use
or distribution. The ‘terms and conditions of use’ are usually expressed in a license

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agreement (End User License Agreement, EULA), which is a legal document that is binding
between the creator and the user of software. Different licensing schemes exist for using
software.

Proprietary software is developed for the purpose of making a profit and is usually very
expensive. Open-source software that is normally free but may require a low fee for support
services. Freeware are computer programs given away free of charge. Shareware is
computer software that is distributed free of charge but is usually accompanied by a request
for a small payment from satisfied users to cover costs and registration for documentation
and program updates.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
7. _________ is the computer software designed to help the user to perform a singular or
multiple related specific tasks.
8. Microsoft Access gives you powerful new tools for managing your databases.
(True/False)

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5. OVERVIEW OF PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE

Proprietary software has its own limitations on using and copying it, usually enforced by a
proprietor. The term's literal meaning covers software that has an owner who exercises
control over what users can do with it. The adjective "proprietary" also avoids confusion
with the phrase "commercial software", since free software can also be sold and used for
commercial purposes. The risk involved with proprietary software is that if for any reason
the proprietor ceases, or decides to cease, or limit production or support for a proprietary
software product, previous licensees can be left at a disadvantage and have no recourse if
problems are found with the software. The proprietor uses a temporary monopoly with
copyright and sometimes software patents that can make the software more expensive. A
dependency on future versions and upgrades can make the monopoly permanent without
the emergence of a competing software package.

Well-known examples of proprietary software include Microsoft Windows, RealPlayer,

Adobe Photoshop, Mac OS, WinZip, and some versions of UNIX. Some free software packages
are available under proprietary terms, including MySQL and Send Mail.

Selected proprietary software comes with source code or provides offers to the source code.
Users are free to use and even study and modify the software in these cases but are restricted
by either licenses or non-disclosure agreements from redistributing modifications or
sharing the software. Shareware, like freeware, is proprietary software available at zero
price but differs in that it is free only for a trial period, after which some restriction is
imposed. For example, it is completely disabled.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
9. __________software is that has restrictions on using and copying it, usually enforced by a
proprietor.
10. Some proprietary software comes with source code or provides offers to the source
code. (True/False)

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6. OVERVIEW OF OPEN-SOURCE TECHNOLOGY

It is computer software whose source code is available under a copyright license that allows
the users to study, change, and improve the software, and to redistribute it in modified or
unmodified form. It is the most prominent example of open-source development. In 1998, a
group of individuals advocated that the term free software be replaced by open-source
software (OSS) as an expression less ambiguous and more comfortable for the corporate
world. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license,
so anybody may also develop the same software or understand how it works. Open-source
software generally allows anybody to make a new version of the software, port it to new
operating systems and processor architectures, share it with others or market it. The aim of
open source is to let the product be more understandable, modifiable, duplicable, reliable or
simply accessible, while it is still marketable.

The distribution terms of open-source software must comply with the following criteria:

1. Free Redistribution
The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software as a
component of an aggregate software distribution containing programs from several sources.
The license shall not require a royalty or other fee for such sale.

Reason: By constraining the license to require free redistribution, we eliminate the

temptation to throw away many long-term gains in order to make a few short-term sales
dollars. If we didn't do this, there would be lots of pressure for cooperators to defect.

2. Source Code
The program must include source code and must allow distribution in source code as well as
compiled form. Where some form of a product is not distributed with source code, there must
be a well-publicized means of obtaining the source code for no more than a reasonable
reproduction cost, preferably downloading via the Internet without charge. The source code
must be the preferred form in which a programmer would modify the program. Deliberately
complicated source code is not allowed. Intermediate forms, such as the output of a
preprocessor or translator, are not allowed.

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Reason: We require access to un-complicated source code because you can't evolve
programs without modifying them. Since our purpose is to make evolution easy, we require
that modification to be made easy.

3. Derived Works
The license must allow changes and derived works and must allow them to be distributed
under the same terms as the license of the original software.

Reason: The mere ability to read source isn't enough to support independent peer review
and rapid evolutionary selection. For rapid evolution to happen, people need to be able to
experiment with and redistribute modifications.

4. License Must Be Technology-Neutral

No license provision may be predicated on any individual technology or style of interface.
This provision is aimed specifically at licenses which require an explicit gesture of assent to
establish a contract between licensor and licensee. Provisions mandating so-called "click-
wrap" may conflict with important methods of software distribution such as FTP download,
CD-ROM anthologies, and web mirroring; such provisions may also hinder code re-use.
Conformant licenses must allow for the possibility that (a) redistribution of the software will
take place over non-Web channels that do not support click-wrapping of the download and
that (b) the covered code (or re-used portions of covered code) may run in a non-GUI
environment that cannot support popup dialogues.

5. Integrity of the Author’ Source Code

The license may restrict the distribution of source code in modified form only if it allows the
distribution of "patch files" with the source code to modify the program at build time. The
license must explicitly permit the distribution of software built from modified source code.
The license may require derived works to carry a different name or version number from the
original software.

Reason: Promising lots of improvement is a good thing, but users have a right to know who
is responsible for the software they are using. Authors and maintainers have a reciprocal
right to know what they're being asked to support and protect their reputations.
Accordingly, an open-source license must guarantee that the source is readily available but

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may require that it be distributed as pristine base sources plus patches. This way, "un-
official" changes can be made available but readily distinguished from the base source.

6. No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups

The license must not discriminate against any person or group of persons.

Reason: To get the maximum assistance from the process, the maximum range of persons
and groups should be equally eligible to contribute to open sources. Therefore, we forbid any
open-source license from locking anybody out of the process. Some countries, including the
United States, have export restrictions for certain types of software. An OSD-conformant
license may warn licensees of applicable restrictions and remind them that they are obliged
to obey the law; however, it may not incorporate such restrictions itself.

7. Distribution of License
The rights attached to the program must apply to all to whom the program is redistributed
without the need for execution of an additional license by those parties.

Rationale: This clause is intended to forbid closing up software by indirect means, such as
requiring a non-disclosure agreement.

8. License Must Not Be Specific to a Product

The rights attached to the program must not depend on its being part of a particular software
distribution. If the program is extracted from that distribution and used or distributed within
the terms of the program's license, all parties to whom the program is redistributed should
have the same rights as those granted in conjunction with the original software distribution.

Rationale: This clause forecloses yet another class of license traps.

9. License Must Not Restrict Other Software

The license must not restrict the distribution of other software along with the licensed
software. For example, the license must not insist that all other programs distributed on the
same medium must be open-source software.

Rationale: Distributors of open-source software have the right to make their own choices
about their own software.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5
11. _________ is computer software whose source code is available under a copyright
license that permits users to study, change, and improve the software and to
redistribute it in modified or unmodified form.
12. Open-source software generally allows anybody to make a new version of the
software, port it to new operating systems and processor architectures, share it with
others or market it. (True/False)

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7. SUMMARY

• A computer program directs a computer to perform some processing function or

combination of functions.
• System software is used to run the computer hardware.
• Programming software: usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing
computer programs and software using different programming languages.
• Application software: It allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (non-
computer related) tasks.
• Microsoft Office is a software suite comprising different software applications that
complete different activities.
• Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as spreadsheets) are
computer programs that let you create and manipulate spreadsheets electronically.
• Freeware are computer programs given away free of charge. ∙ Proprietary software
is that has restrictions on using and copying it, usually enforced by a proprietor

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8. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What is computer software?
2. Define operating system.
3. What are the uses of application software’s?
4. Briefly explain proprietary software.

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3.9.
How do you format an Excel sheet
ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Computer software
2. System software
3. Programming software
4. Application software
5. True
6. True
7. Application software
8. True
9. Proprietary
10. True
11. Open-source software
12. True

Terminal Questions

Answer 1: Computer software (also computer program) is technically a set of instructions

written in a computer language that solves a computational task. Refer section 2.

Answer 2: An operating system (OS) is a computer program that manages the hardware and
software resources of a computer. Refer section 3.

Answer 3: Application software is the computer software designed to help the user to
perform a singular or multiple related specific tasks. Refer section 4.

Answer 4: Proprietary software is that has restrictions on using and copying it, usually
enforced by a proprietor. Refer section 5.

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10. REFERENCES
• The Secret Guide to Computers by Russ Walter - Russell Walter Pub , 2003
• Tools and Utilities in Free Software by Jesus Corrius i Llavina - FTA , 2010
• Software Requirements by Karl E. Wiegers

E-References:
• www.opensource.org
• www.techterms.com
• www.lautech.edu
• www.operating-system.org

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Unit 11
Software Development, Design and Testing
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ / Page

Topic
No / Graph Activity No
1 Introduction - -
3-4
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Software Development 1, 2, 3 1 5-8
3 Analysis and Design - 2 9 - 13
4 Coding - - 14
5 Software Testing 4 3 15 - 17
6 Software Paradigms - -
18 - 20
6.1 Classification of Paradigm i -
7 Programming Methods - -
7.1 Structured Programming - - 21 - 23
7.2 Object Oriented Programming - 4
8 Software Applications - 5 24 - 25
9 Summary - - 26 - 27
10 Terminal Questions - - 28
11 Answers - - 29 - 30
12 Reference - - 31

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1. INTRODUCTION
Computer software has become a driving force. It is the engine that drives business decision-
making. It serves as the basis for modern scientific investigation and engineering problem-
solving. It is a key factor that differentiates modern products and services. It is embedded in
systems of all kinds: transportation, medical, telecommunications, military, industrial
processes, entertainment, office products etc. Software is virtually inescapable in the
modern world. As we move into the twenty-first century, it will become the driver for new
advances in everything from elementary education to genetic engineering.

Computer software is the product that software engineers design and build. It encompasses
programs that execute within a computer of any size and architecture, documents that
encompass hard-copy and virtual forms and data that combine numbers and text but also
include representations of pictorial, video and audio information.

Software is a set of application programs that are built by software engineers and are used
by virtually everyone in the industrialized world either directly or indirectly. Software is
important because it affects nearly every aspect of our lives and has become pervasive in our
commerce, our culture and our everyday activities.

Software is generally built like you build any other successful product by applying a process
that leads to a high-quality result that meets the needs of the people who will use the product.
We apply a software engineering approach to develop this product.

From the point of view of a software engineer, the work product is the programs, documents,
and data that make up computer software. But from the user’s point of view, the work
product is the resultant information that somehow makes the user’s world better.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to -

❖ Explain software development methodology and process

❖ Explain the analysis and design of software
❖ Describe various steps involved in software testing
❖ List software paradigms

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❖ Discuss various programming methods

❖ List some software applications

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2. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
Software is a logical rather than a physical system element. Therefore, software has
characteristics that are considerably different from those of hardware:

a) Software is developed or engineered; it is not manufactured in the classical sense.

b) Software doesn’t “wear out”.
c) Although the industry is moving toward component-based assembly, most software
continues to be custom-built.

Software Development Methodology is a series of processes that, if followed, can lead to

the development of an application.

Niklaus Wirth, the inventor of Pascal, says:

Algorithms + Data structures = Programs

‘A software system is a set of mechanisms for performing certain actions on certain

data.’ Traditional development techniques focus on the system's functions.

The software development process: System development can be viewed as a process.

Furthermore, the development itself, in essence, is a process of change, refinement,
transformation, or addition to the existing product.

The process can be divided into small, interacting phases – sub processes. Each sub-process
must have the following:

• A description in terms of how it works

• Specification of the input required for the process
• Specification of the output to be produced

Generally, the software development process can be viewed as a series of transformations,

where the output of one transformation becomes the input of the subsequent
transformation:

• Transformation 1 (analysis) translates user needs into system requirements and

responsibilities.
• Transformation 2 (design) – begins with a problem statement and ends with a detailed
design that can be transformed into an operational system.

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• Transformation 3 (implementation) – refines the detailed design into the system

deployment that will satisfy users’ needs.

An example of the software development process is the waterfall approach, which starts
with deciding what is to be done (what is the problem). Once the requirements have been
determined, we must decide how to accomplish them. This is followed by a step in which we
do whatever “it” has required us to do. We must test the result to see if we have satisfied the
users’ requirements. Finally, we use what we have done.

In the real world, the problems are not always well-defined and that is why the waterfall
model has limited utility.

Figure 11.1: Software process reflecting transformation from needs to a software

product that satisfies those needs

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Figure 11.2: The waterfall software development process

Building quality software: To achieve quality software we need to be able to answer the
following questions:

• How do we determine when the system is ready for delivery?

• Is it now an operational system that satisfies users’ needs?
• Is it correct and operating as we thought it should?
• Does it pass an evaluation process?

Four quality measures are:

• Correspondence – measures how well the delivered system matches the needs of the
operational environment, as described in the original requirements statement.
• Validation – the task of predicting correspondence.
• Correctness – measures the consistency of the product requirements with respect to the
design specification.
• Verification – exercise of determining correctness.

Verification: Am I building the product, right?

Validation: Am I building the right product?

Validation begins as soon as the project starts, but verification can begin only after a
specification has been accepted.

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Figure 11.3: Four quality measures for software evaluation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. A process can be divided into small, interacting phases called ________.
2. ________ measures the consistency of the product requirements with respect to the
design specification.
3. ________ measures how well the delivered system matches the needs of the
operational environment, as described in the original requirements statement.
4. ________ is a series of processes that, if followed, can lead to the development of an
application.
5. Algorithms + Data structures = ________________.

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3. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

This section describes software analysis and design. Structured methods, which are sets of
notations and guidelines for software design, propose a more methodical approach to
software design. Budgen (1993) describes some of the most used methods, such as
structured design and structured systems analysis. He also describes Jackson System
Development and various approaches to object-oriented design.

The use of structured methods involves producing large amounts of diagrammatic design
documentation. CASE tools have been developed to support particular methods. Structured
methods have been applied successfully in many large projects. They can deliver significant
cost reductions by using standard notations and ensuring that standard design
documentation is produced.

A mathematical method (such as the method for long division) is a strategy that will always
lead to the same result irrespective of who applies the method. The term structured methods
suggests that the designers should normally generate similar designs from the same
specification. A structured method includes activities, notations, report formats, rules and
design guidelines. So structured methods often support some of the following models of a
system:

1. A data-flow model where the system is modelled using the data transformations,
which take place as it is processed.
2. An entity-relation model, which is used to describe the logical data, structures being
used.
3. A structural model where the system components and their interactions are
documented.
4. If the method is object-oriented, it will include an inheritance model of the system, a
model of how objects are composed of other objects and, usually, an object-use model,
which shows how other objects use objects.

Methods supplement these with other system models, such as state transition diagrams,
entity life histories that show how each entity is transformed as it is processed, and so on.
Most methods suggest using a centralized repository for system information or a data
dictionary.

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Design description: A software design is a model system with many participating entities
and relationships. This design is used in a number of different ways. It acts as a basis for
detailed implementation; it serves as a communication medium between the designers of
subsystems; it provides information to system maintainers about the original intentions of
the system designers, and so on.

Designs are documented in a set of design documents that describes the design for
programmers and other designers. There are three main types of notation used in design
documents:

1. Graphical notations: These are used to display the relationships between the
components making up the design and relate the design to the real-world system,
which is modeling. A graphical view of a design is an abstract view. It is most useful
for giving an overall picture of the system.
2. Program description languages (PDLs) use control and structuring constructs
based on programming language constructs but also allow explanatory text and
(sometimes) additional types of statements to be used. These languages allow the
designer's intention to be expressed rather than the details of how the design is to be
implemented.
3. Informal text: much of the information associated with a design cannot be expressed
formally. Information about design rationale or non-functional considerations may
be expressed using natural language text.

All of these different notations may be used in describing a system design.

Design strategies: The most used software design strategy involved decomposing the
design into functional components with system state information held in a shared data area.
This alternative, object-oriented design has been widely adopted since the late 1980s.

Two design strategies are summarised as follows:

1. Functional design: The system is designed from a functional viewpoint, starting with
a high-level view and progressively refining this into a more detailed design. The
System State is centralized and shared between the functions operating on that state.
Methods such as Jackson Structured Programming (extension of the Jackson

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Structured Programming (JSP) method. JSP, developed by Michael Jackson) and the
Warnier-Orr method (The technique is based on only a few simple principles of
design that are very easy to learn and to apply) are techniques of functional
decomposition where the structure of the data is used to determine the functional
structure used to process that data.
2. Object-oriented design: The system is viewed as a collection of objects rather than
functions. Object-oriented design is based on the idea of information hiding and has
been described by Meyer, Booch, Jacobsen, and many others. JSD is a design method
that falls somewhere between function-oriented and object-oriented design.

In an object-oriented design, the System State is decentralized and each object manages its
own state information. Objects have a set of attributes defining their state and operations,
which act on these attributes. Objects are usually members of an object class whose
definition defines attributes and operations of class members. These may be inherited from
one or more super-classes, so a class definition must only set out the differences between
that class and its super-classes. Objects communicate by exchanging messages; an object
calling a procedure associated with another object achieves most object communication.

An object-oriented approach to software design seems to be natural at the highest and lowest
levels of system design. Using different approaches to design may require the designer to
convert his or her design from one model to another. Many designers are not trained in
multiple approaches so prefer to use either object-oriented or functional design.

Design quality
A good design might be a design that allows competent code to be produced; it might be a
minimal design where the implementation is as compact as possible; or it might be the most
maintainable design.

A sustainable design can be adapted to modify existing functions and add new functionally.
The design must, therefore, be understandable, and changes should be local in effect. The
design components should be cohesive which means that all parts of the component should
have a close logical relationship. They should be loosely coupled, meaning they should not
be tightly integrated. Coupling is a measure of the independence of components. The looser
the coupling, the easier it is to adapt the design as the effects of change are localized.

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Quality characteristics are equally applicable to object-oriented and function oriented

design. Because of the nature of object-oriented design, which encourages the development
of independent components, it is usually easier to achieve maintainable designs as
information is concealed within objects.

Object-Oriented Design Characteristics:

Object–oriented design is a strategy based on information hiding. It differs from the
functional approach to design in that it views a software system as a set of interacting objects
with their private state rather than as a set of functions that share a global state.

The characteristics of an object-oriented design (OOD) are:

1. Objects are abstraction of system entities responsible for managing their own private
state and offering services to other objects.
2. Objects are independent entities that may readily be changed because state and
representation information is held within the objects. Changes to the representation
may be made without reference to other system objects.
3. System functionality is expressed in terms of operations or services associated with
each object.
4. Shared data areas are eliminated. Objects communicate by calling on services offered
by other objects rather than sharing variables, reducing overall system coupling.
Unexpected modifications to shared information are not possible.
5. Objects may be distributed and executed either sequentially or in parallel. Decisions
on parallelism need not be made at an early stage of the design process.

Object-oriented systems are easier to maintain as the objects are independent. They may be
understood and modified as stand-alone entities. Changing the implementation of an object
or adding services should not affect other system objects. The system has a clear mapping
between real-world entities and their controlling objects. This improves the
understandability and, hence, maintainability of the design.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
6. In which model system is modelled using the data transformations which take place
as it is processed?
7. Which model describes the logical data structures being used?
8. A software design is a model system that has many participating entities and
___________
9. ___________ is easier to maintain as the objects are Independent.

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4. CODING

Once the design is complete, most of the major decisions about the system have been made.
The goal of the coding phase is to translate the design of the system into code in a given
programming language. For a given design, the aim of this phase is to implement the design
in the best possible manner. The coding phase affects both testing and maintenance
profoundly. A well written code reduces the testing and maintenance effort. Since the testing
and maintenance costs of software are much higher than the coding cost, the goal of coding
should be to reduce the testing and maintenance effort. Hence, during coding the focus
should be on developing programs that are easy to write. Simplicity and clarity should be
strived for, during the coding phase.

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5. SOFTWARE TESTING
Software Testing is the process of executing a program or system with the intent of finding
errors. Testing presents a stimulating variance for the software engineer. During earlier
software engineering activities, the engineer attempts to build software from an abstract
concept to a tangible product. Now comes testing. The engineer creates a series of test cases
that are intended to 'demolish' the software that has been built. In fact, Testing is the one
step in the software process that could be viewed (psychologically, at least) as destructive
rather than constructive.

Software engineers are, by their nature, constructive people. Testing requires the developer
to discard preconceived notions of the 'correctness' of software just developed and
overcome a conflict of interest that occurs when errors are uncovered. Beizer describes this
situation effectively when he states:

There's a myth that if we were really good at programming, there would be no bugs to catch.

Testing Objectives
In an excellent book on software testing, Glen Myers states many rules that can serve well as
testing objectives:

1. Testing is a process of executing a program to find an error.

2. A good test case has a high probability of finding an as-yet-undiscovered error.
3. A successful test uncovers an as-yet-undiscovered error.

These objectives imply a dramatic change in viewpoint. They move counter to the commonly
held view that a successful test is one in which no errors are found. Our objective is to design
tests that systematically uncover different classes of errors and to do so with a minimum
amount of time and effort.

If testing is conducted successfully (according to the objectives stated previously), it will

uncover errors in the software. As a secondary benefit, testing demonstrates that software
functions appear to be working according to specification and that behavioral and
performance requirements appear to have been met. In addition, data collected as testing is
conducted provide a good indication of software reliability and some indication of software
quality as a whole. But testing cannot show the absence of errors and defects, it can only that

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software errors and defects are present. It is important to keep this (rather gloomy)
statement in mind as testing is conducted.

Software Testing Strategy

The software testing strategy is explained in Figure 11.4. This strategy defines the role of
software and leads to software requirements analysis, where the information domain,
function, behaviour, performance, constraints, and validation criteria for software- are
established. Moving inward along the spiral, we come to design and finally to coding. To
develop computer software, we spiral inward along streamlines that decrease the level of
abstraction on each turn.

Figure 11.4: Software Testing Strategy

A strategy for software testing may also be viewed in the context of the spiral shown in figure
5.4. Unit testing begins at the vortex of the spiral and concentrates on each unit (i.e.,
component) of the software as implemented in source code. Testing progresses outwards
along the spiral to integration testing, where the focus is on the design and the construction
of the software architecture. Taking another turn outward on the spiral, we encounter
validation testing, where requirements established as part of software requirements
analysis are validated against the software that has been constructed. Finally, we arrive at
system testing, where the software and other system elements are tested as a whole. To test
computer software, we spiral out along stream-lines that broaden the scope of testing with
each turn.

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Considering the process from a procedural point of view, testing within the context of
software engineering is actually a series of four steps that are implemented sequentially. The
steps are shown in Figure 11.4. Initially, tests focus on each component individually,
ensuring that it functions properly as a unit. Hence, the name is unit testing. Unit testing
makes heavy use of white-box testing techniques, exercising specific paths in a module's
control structure to ensure complete coverage and maximum error detection. Next
components must be assembled or integrated to form the complete software package.
Integration testing addresses the issues associated with the dual problems of verification
and program construction. Black-box test case design techniques are the most prevalent
during integration, although a limited amount of white-box testing may be used to ensure
coverage of major control paths. After the software has been integrated (constructed), a set
of high-order tests are conducted. Validation criteria (established during requirements
analysis) must be tested. Validation testing ensures that software meets all functional,
behavioral, and performance requirements. Black-box testing techniques are used
exclusively during validation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
10. _________ begins at the vortex of the spiral and concentrates on each unit (i.e.,
component) of the software as implemented in source code.
11. _____________ addresses the issues associated with the dual problems of verification
and program construction.
12. ___________ provides final assurance that software meets all functional, behavioral,
and performance requirements.

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6. SOFTWARE PARADIGMS
The meaning of Paradigm
Paradigm (a Greek word meaning example) is commonly used to refer to a category of
entities that share a common characteristic. Numerous authors have examined the concept
of a paradigm. Perhaps the foremost user of the word has been Thomas Kuhn (1996), who
wrote the seminal book “the structure of Scientific Revolution’. Kuhn used the notion of
paradigm in the scientific of his assumptions and theories, which affects that view. In his
definition, he included the concepts of law, theory, application, and instrumentation, in
effects, both the theoretical and the practical.

Kuhn saw a “paradigms” as emerging as the result of social processes in which people
develop new ideas and create principles and practices that embody these ideas. Large
software development is a social process, because it is often a team effort. Each new software
application is a unique creation in its own right. Rarely, if ever, does a team of programmers
set out to create a program that exactly mimics the code and structure of some other
program. Kuhn’s definition has been applied beyond his original application to the history of
physical science. Others believe that paradigms are the basis of normal sciences, indeed, the
basics of established scientific tradition. In this view, forming a paradigm is a sign of maturity
for a given science. The notion of a paradigm for programming was first expressed by Floyd
(1979) as far as I have been able to discern.

We will apply the notion of paradigm to the investigation of programming language and
software architecture to determine how well we can solve different types of problems. The
question we would like to answer takes the form: Is there taxonomy within a particular
domain that serves to organize the element of that domain? In programming languages, most
computer scientists would answer “yes.” In software architecture, the answer is more likely
a definite ‘maybe’.

The paradigms are not exclusive but reflect the different emphasis of language designers.
Most practical languages embody features of more than one paradigm.

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6.1. Classification of Paradigm

1. Imperative Paradigms
It is constructed on commands that update variables in storage. The Latin word imperium
means “to command.” The language provides statements, such as assignment statements,
that explicitly change the state of the computer's memory. This model closely matches the
actual executions of the computer and usually has high execution efficiency. Many people
also find the imperative paradigm a more natural way of expressing themselves.

2. Functional programming Paradigms

In this paradigm, computations are expressed as the evaluation of mathematical functions.
Functional programming paradigms treat values as single entities. Unlike variables, values
are never modified; instead, they are transformed into new values. Computations of
functional languages are performed largely through applying functions.

3. Logic programming Paradigms

In this paradigm, we express computation exclusively in terms of mathematical logic. While
the functional paradigm emphasizes the idea of a mathematical function, the logic paradigm
focuses on predicate logic, in which the basic concept is a relation. Logic languages are useful
for expressing problems where it is not obvious what the functions should be. For example
consider the uncle relationship: a given person can have many uncles, and another person
can be uncle to many nieces and nephews.

4. The Object-Oriented Paradigm

The OO programming paradigm is not just a few new features added to a programming
language, but it is a new way of thinking about the process of decomposing problems and
developing programming solutions. Alan Kay characterized the fundamentals of OOP as
follows: Everything is modeled as an object. Computation is performed by message passing
objects communicate with one another via message passing. Every object is an instance of a
class where a class represents a grouping of similar objects. Inheritance: defines the
relationships between classes. The Object Oriented paradigm focuses on the objects a
program represents and allows them to exhibit "behavior". Unlike the imperative paradigm,
where data are passive, and procedures are active, in the O-O paradigm data is combined

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with procedures to give objects, which are thereby rendered active. Table 11.1 shows the
classification of paradigms explained above.

Table 11.1: Classification

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7. PROGRAMMING METHODS
Computer programming (often shortened to programming or coding) is the process of
designing, writing, testing, debugging / troubleshooting, and maintaining the source code of
computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language. The purpose of
programming is to create a program that exhibits a certain desired behavior. The process of
writing source code often requires expertise in many different subjects, including knowledge
of the application domain, specialized algorithms and formal logic.

7.1. Structured programming

It is a subset of procedural programming that enforces a logical structure on the program

being written to make it more efficient and easier to understand and modify. Certain
languages such as Ada, Pascal, and dBASE are designed with features that encourage or
enforce a logical program structure.

Structured programming frequently employs a top-down design model, in which developers

map out the overall program structure into separate subsections. A defined function or set
of similar functions is coded in a separate module or sub module, which means that code, can
be loaded into memory more efficiently and that modules can be reused in other programs.

After a module has been tested individually, it is then integrated with other modules into the
overall program structure.

Program flow follows a simple hierarchical model that employs looping constructs such as
"for," "repeat," and "while." Use of the "Go To" statement is discouraged.

Structured programming was first suggested by “Corrado Bohm and Guiseppe Jacopini”. The
two mathematicians demonstrated that any computer program can be written with just
three structures: decisions, sequences, and loops. Edsger Dijkstra's subsequent article, Go to
Statement Considered Harmful was instrumental in the trend towards structured
programming. The most common methodology employed was developed by Dijkstra. In this
model (which is often considered to be synonymous with structured programming, although
other models exist) the developer separates programs into subsections that each has only
one point of access and one point of exit.

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Virtually any language can use structured programming techniques to avoid common pitfalls
of unstructured languages. Unstructured programming must rely upon the discipline of the
developer to avoid structural problems, and as a consequence may result in poorly organized
programs. Most modern procedural languages include features that encourage structured
programming. Object-oriented programming can be thought of as a type of structured
programming, uses structured programming techniques for program flow, and adds more
structure for data to the model.

7.2. Object-oriented programming (OOP)

It is a programming language model organized around "objects" rather than "actions" and
data rather than logic. Historically, a program has been viewed as a logical procedure that
takes input data, processes it, and produces output data.

The programming challenge was seen as how to write the logic, not how to define the data.
Object-oriented programming takes the view that what we really care about are the objects
we want to manipulate rather than the logic required to manipulate them. Examples of
objects range from human beings (described by name, address, and so forth) to buildings
and floors (whose properties can be described and managed) down to the little widgets on
your computer desktop (such as buttons and scroll bars).

The first step in OOP is to identify all the objects you want to manipulate and how they relate
to each other, an exercise often known as data modeling. Once you've identified an object,
you generalize it as a class of objects (think of Plato's concept of the "ideal" chair that stands
for all chairs) and define the kind of data it contains and any logic sequences that can
manipulate it. Each distinct logic sequence is known as a method. A real instance of a class is
called (no surprise here) an "object" or, in some environments, an "instance of a class." The
object or class instance is what you run in the computer. Its methods provide computer
instructions and the class object characteristics provide relevant data. You communicate
with objects - and they communicate with each other - with well-defined interfaces called
messages.

The concepts and rules used in object-oriented programming provide these important
benefits:

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• The concept of a data class makes it possible to define subclasses of data objects that
share some or all main class characteristics. Called inheritance, this property of OOP
forces a more thorough data analysis, reduces development time, and ensures more
accurate coding.
• Since a class defines only the data it needs to be concerned with, when an instance of
that class (an object) is run, the code will not be able to access other program data
accidentally. This characteristic of data hiding provides greater system security and
avoids unintended data corruption.
• The definition of a class is reusable not only by the program for which it is initially
created but also by other object-oriented programs (and, for this reason, can be more
easily distributed for use in networks).
• The concept of data classes allows a programmer to create any new data type not
already defined in the language.

Simula was the first object-oriented programming language. Java, Python, C++, Visual Basic
.NET and Ruby are the most popular OOP languages today. The Java programming language
is designed especially for use in distributed applications on corporate networks and the
Internet. Ruby is used in many Web applications. Curl, Smalltalk, Delphi and Eiffel are also
examples of object-oriented programming languages.

OOPSLA is the annual conference for Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages and
Applications.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
13. Name a few Structured Programming Languages.
14. What is the first step in object-oriented Programming?
15. In Logic programming paradigms, we express computation exclusively in terms of
_________________

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8. SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
Software may be applied in any situation for which a pre specified set of procedural steps
has been defined. Information content and determinacy are important factors in determining
the nature of a software application. Content refers to the meaning and form of incoming
and outgoing information. Software that controls an automated machine accepts discrete
data items with limited structure and produces individual machine commands in rapid
succession.

Information determinacy refers to the predictability of the order and timing of information.
An engineering analysis program accepts data with a predefined order, executes the analysis
algorithm without interruption and produces resultant data in a report or graphical format.
Such applications are determinate.

A multi-user operating system, on the other hand, accepts inputs with varied content and
arbitrary timing, executes algorithms that can be interrupted by external conditions, and
produces output that varies as a function of environment and time. Applications with these
characteristics are indeterminate.

Software applications can be neatly compartmentalized into different categories.

System software: System software is a collection of programs written to service other

programs. Some system software processes complex information structures. Other systems
applications process largely indeterminate data. It is characterized by heavy interaction with
hardware, heavy usage by multiple users, concurrent operation that requires scheduling,
resource sharing, and sophisticated process management, complex data structures and
multiple external interfaces.

Real-time software: Software that monitors/analyzes / controls real-world events as they

occur is called real-time software.

Business Software: Business information processing is the largest single software

application area. Discrete systems like payroll, accounts receivable/payable have evolved
into management information systems (MIS) software that accesses one or more large
databases containing business information. Applications in this area restructure existing
data in a way that facilitates business operations or management decision-making.

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Engineering and scientific software: Engineering and scientific software has been
characterized by “number-crunching” algorithms. Applications range from astronomy to
volcanology, from automotive stress analysis to space shuttle orbital dynamics, and from
molecular biology to automated manufacturing.

Embedded software: Embedded software resides only in read-only memory and is used to
control products and systems for the consumer and industrial markets. It can provide very
limited and esoteric functions or significant functions and control capability.

Personal computer software: Daily useful applications like word processing, spreadsheets,
multimedia, database management, personal and business financial applications are some of
the common examples for personal computer software.

Web-based software: The web pages retrieved by a browser are software that incorporates
executable instructions and data. The network becomes a massive computer providing an
almost unlimited software resource that anyone with a modem can access.

Artificial Intelligence software: Artificial Intelligence software uses non-nanometric

algorithms to solve complex problems that are not amenable to computation or
straightforward analysis. Expert systems, also called knowledge-based systems, pattern
recognition, and game playing are representative examples of applications within this
category.

Software crisis: The problems encountered in the development of computer software are
not limited to software that does not function properly; rather, the affliction encompasses
problems associated with how we develop software, how we support a growing volume of
existing software, and how we can expect to keep pace with a growing demand for more
software.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5
16. Software that controls real-world events as they occur is called _______________.
17. ____________ software is a collection of programs written to service other programs.

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9. SUMMARY
In this unit you learnt about the various concepts of Communication.

Let’s recap the important points covered in the unit:

• Software is a logical rather than a physical system element.

• Software Development Methodology is a series of processes that, if followed, can lead
to the development of an application.
• ‘A software system is a set of mechanisms for performing certain action on certain
data’.
• A software design is a model system with many participating entities and
relationships.
• This design is used in several different ways. It acts as a basis for detailed
implementation; it serves as a communication medium between the designers of sub-
systems; it provides information to system maintainers about the original intentions
of the system designers, and so on.
• Testing presents an interesting anomaly for the software engineer. During earlier
software engineering activities, the engineer attempts to build software from an
abstract concept to a tangible product.
• The engineer creates a series of test cases intended to 'demolish' the software that
has been built. In fact, Testing is the one step in the software process that could be
viewed (psychologically, at least) as destructive rather than constructive.
• System engineering defines software's role and leads to software requirements
analysis, where the information domain, function, behavior, performance,
constraints, and validation criteria for software are established.
• Structured programming (sometimes known as modular programming) is a subset of
procedural programming that enforces a logical structure on the program being
written to make it more efficient and easier to understand and modify is a
programming language model organized around "objects" rather than "actions" and
data rather than logic.
• Software may be applied in any situation for which a pre specified set of procedural
steps has been defined. Information content and determinacy are important factors

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in determining the nature of a software application. Content refers to the meaning

and form of incoming and outgoing information.
• Object-oriented programming is a programming language model organized around
"objects" rather than "actions" and data rather than logic. Historically, a program has
been viewed as a logical procedure that takes input data, processes it, and produces
output data.

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10. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Briefly explain the software development process.
2. What is analysis and design?
3. Explain different stages in Software Testing.
4. Explain various methods of Programming.
5. Name a few Software Applications

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3.11.
HowANSWERS
do you format an Excel sheet

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Sub Process
2. Correctness
3. Correspondence
4. Software Development Methodology
5. Programs
6. Data-flow Model
7. Entity-relation model
8. Relationships
9. object-oriented systems
10. Unit testing
11. Integration testing
12. Validation testing
13. Ada, Pascal, and dBASE
14. Is to identify all the objects you want to manipulate and how they relate to each other, an
exercise often known as data modeling.
15. Mathematical logic
16. Real time
17. System

Terminal Questions
Answer 1. System development can be viewed as a process. Furthermore, the development
itself, in essence, is a process of change, refinement, transformation, or addition to the
existing product. (Refer section 2)
Answer 2. Structured methods propose a more methodical approach to software design,
these structured methods are sets of notations and guidelines for software design. (Refer
section 3)
Answer 3. The software engineering process may be viewed as the spiral. Initially, system
engineering defines the role of software and leads to software requirements analysis, where

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the information domain, function, behavior, performance, constraints, and validation criteria
for software are established. (Refer section 4)
Answer 4. To general methods of programing are Structured programming and Object-
oriented programming (Refer section 6)
Answer 5. Software applications can be neatly compartmentalized into different categories.
System software Real time, software Business, Software is few to be mentioned (Refer
section 7)

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12. REFERENCES
• A Practitioner's Guide to Software Test Design by Lee Copeland (Jan 2004)
• Testing Computer Software, 2nd Edition by Cem Kaner, Jack Falk and Hung Q. Nguyen
(Apr 12, 1999)
• Software Requirements by Karl E. Wiegers (Mar 26, 2003) ∙ Systematic Software Testing
(Artech House Computer Library) by Rick D. Craig and Stefan P. Jaskiel (May 2002)

E-References:
• www.seas.gwu.edu
• www.searchsoa.techtarget.com
• www.searchcio-idmarket.techtarget.com

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Unit 12
Operating System Concepts
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ / Page

Topic
No / Graph Activity No
1 Introduction - -
3
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Operating System Concepts - - 4-5
3 Functions of Operating System - 1 6-8
4 Development of Operating System - -
4.1 Early Systems - -
4.2 Simple Batch Systems 1 -
4.3 Multi-Programmed Batch Systems 2 - 9 - 13
4.4 Time Sharing Systems - -
4.5 Distributed Systems - -
4.6 Real-time Operating System - 2
5 Operating System Components - 3 14 - 17
6 Operating System Services - 4 18 - 20
7 Operating Systems for Different Computers - 5 21 - 22
8 Summary - - 23
9 Terminal Questions - - 24
10 Answers - - 25
11 Reference - - 26

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1. INTRODUCTION
As we discussed in the previous unit, Computer software has become a driving force. It is the
engine that drives business decision-making. It serves as the basis for modern scientific
investigation and engineering problem solving. In this unit, we will study operating system
concepts like, functions of an Operating System, Development of an Operating System, Early
Systems, Simple Batch Systems, Multi Programmed Batch Systems, Time Sharing Systems,
Distributed Systems, Real-time Operating System, Operating System Components, Operating
System Services and Operating Systems for Different Computers.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to –

❖ Describe Operating System

❖ Deliberate the various functions of an Operating System
❖ Explain the evolution of Operating Systems
❖ Define the Operating System Components
❖ Explain the various Operating System Services

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2. OPERATING SYSTEM CONCEPTS

An operating system (OS) is a platform that controls the implementation of an application
program and acts as an interface between the user and computer hardware. The purpose of
an OS is to provide an environment in which a user can execute programs in a convenient
and efficient manner. The operating system must provide definite services to programs and
to the users of those programs to make the programming task easier, these services will
differ from one OS to another. It shields the machine user from the low-level details of the
machine's operation and provides frequently needed facilities. There is no universal
definition of what an operating system consists of. You can think of it as being the software
which is already installed on a machine, before you add anything of your own.

Generally the operating system has several key features:

(i) Technical layer of software for driving the hardware of the computer, like disk drives,
the keyboard and the screen;
(ii) A File system which provides a way of organizing files logically, and
(iii) Simple command language which enables users to run their own programs and to
manipulate their files in a simple way.
Some operating systems also provide text editors, compilers, debuggers and various
other tools. Since the operating system (OS) is in charge of a computer, all requests to
use its resources and devices need to go through the OS. An OS, therefore, provides

(iv) legal entry points into its code for performing basic operations like writing to devices.

Procedure of instructions telling the computer what to do is called a program. The user
normally uses a text editor to write their program in a high level language, such as Pascal, C,
Java, etc. Alternatively, they may write it in assembly language. Assembly language is a
computer language whose statements have an almost one-to-one correspondence to the
instructions understood by the computer's CPU. It provides a way of specifying in precise
detail what machine code the assembler should create.

A compiler is used to translate a high-level language program into assembly language or

machine code, and an assembler is used to translate an assembly language program into
machine code. A linker is used to combine reloadable object files (code files corresponding

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to incomplete portions of a program) into executable code files (complete code files for
which the addresses have been resolved for all global functions and variables).

A thread is an example of execution (the entity that executes). All the threads that comprise
a process share access to the same user program, virtual memory, open files, and other
operating system resources. Each thread has its own program counter, general purpose
registers, and user and kernel stack. The program counter and general purpose registers for
a thread are stored in the CPU when the thread is executing and saved away in memory when
it is not executing.

Multi-threaded processes are becoming very important, because computers with multiple
processors are becoming commonplace, as are distributed systems, and servers. It is
important that you learn how to program in this manner. Multi-threaded programming,
particularly dealing with synchronisation issues, is not trivial, and a good conceptual
understanding of synchronisation is essential.

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3. FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system is a software component that acts as the core of a computer system. It
performs various functions and is essentially the interface that connects your computer and
its supported components. In this section, we will discuss the basic functions of the operating
system. Operating systems generally accomplish these goals by running processes in low
privilege and providing service calls that invoke the operating system kernel in a high-
privilege state.

The main functions of an operating System are:

Resource Management:
The resource management function of an operating system allocates computer resources
such as CPU time, main memory, secondary storage, and input and output devices for use.
One can view Operating Systems from two points of view: Resource managers and extended
machines. Form Resource manager point of view, Operating Systems manage the different
parts of the system efficiently, and from an extended machines point of view Operating
Systems provide a virtual machine to users that is more convenient to use. The structurally
Operating Systems can be designed as the monolithic system, a hierarchy of layers, a virtual
machine system, a microkernel, or using the client-server model. The basic concepts of
Operating Systems are processes, memory management, I/O management, the file systems,
and security.

Data Management:
Data management keeps track of the data on disk and other storage devices. The application
program deals with data by file name and a particular location within the file. The operating
system's file system knows where the data are physically stored, and interaction between
the application and operating system is through the programming interface (API).
Whenever an application needs to read or write data, it calls the operating system.

Job management:
Job management controls the order and time in which applications are run and is more
sophisticated in the mainframe environment, where scheduling the daily work has always
been routine. IBM's job control language (JCL) was developed decades ago for that purpose.

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In a desktop environment, batch files can be written to perform a sequence of operations

that can be scheduled to start at a given time.

Task Management:
Task management, multitasking, which is the ability to simultaneously execute multiple
programs, is available in all operating systems today. Critical in the mainframe and server
environment, applications can be prioritized to run faster or slower depending on their
purpose. In the desktop world, multitasking is necessary for keeping several applications
open at the same time so users can bounce back and forth among them.

Device Management:
Device management controls peripheral devices by sending them commands in their
proprietary command language. The software routine that deals with each device is called a
"driver," and the operating system requires drivers for the peripherals attached to the
computer. When a new peripheral is added, that device's driver is installed into the operating
system.

User interface – The user interacts with the operating systems through the user interface
and is usually interested in the look and feel of the operating system. The most important
components of the user interface are the command interpreter, the file system, online help,
and application integration. The recent trend has been toward increasingly integrated
graphical user interfaces encompassing the activities of multiple processes on networks of
computers.

Daily uses of an Operating System

• Performing application programs

• Formatting floppy diskettes
• Setting up directories to organize the files
• Displaying a list of files stored on a particular disk
• Verifying that there is enough room on a disk to save a file. – Protecting and backing up
your files by copying them to other disks for safekeeping.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. ________ is software that hides lower-level details and provides a set of higher-level
functions.
2. ________ transforms the computer hardware into multiple virtual computers, each
belonging to a different program.

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4. DEVELOPMENT OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating system and computer architecture have had a great deal of impact on each other.
To simplify the use of the hardware, OS were developed. As operating systems were designed
and used, it became obvious that changes in the design of the hardware could simplify them.

4.1. Early Systems

In the initial days of electronic digital computing, the whole lot was done on the bare
hardware. Very few computers existed and those that did exist were experimental in nature.
The researchers making the first computers were also the programmers and the users. They
worked directly on the “bare hardware”. There was no operating system. The experimenters
wrote their programs in assembly language and a running program had complete control of
the entire computer. Debugging consisted of a combination of fixing both the software and
hardware, rewriting the object code and changing the actual computer itself. The
nonexistence of any operating system meant that only one person could use a computer at a
time. Even in the research lab, many researchers competed for limited computing time. The
first solution was a reservation system, with researchers signing up for specific time slots.

The answer to this problem was to have programmers make their work offline on some input
medium (often on punched cards, paper tape, or magnetic tape) and then hand the work to
a computer operator. The computer operator would load up jobs in the order received (with
priority overrides based on politics and other factors). Each job still ran one at a time with
complete computer control. Still, as soon as a job finished, the operator would transfer the
results to some output medium (punched tape, paper tape, magnetic tape, or printed paper)
and deliver the results to the suitable programmer. If the program ran to completion, the
result would be some end data. If the program crashed, memory would be transferred to
some output medium for the programmer to study (because some of the early business
computing systems used magnetic core memory, these became known as “core dumps”).
After the first successes with digital computer experiments, computers moved out of the lab
and into practical use. The first practical application of these experimental digital computers
was the generation of artillery tables for the British and American armies. The British and
American militaries paid for much of the early research in computers. Business and scientific

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applications followed. As computer use increased, programmers noticed they were

duplicating the same efforts.

Every programmer wrote his or her own routines for I/O, such as reading input from a
magnetic tape or writing output to a line printer. It made sense to write a common device
driver for each input or output device and have every programmer share the same device
drivers rather than each programmer writing his or her own. Some programmers resisted
the use of common device drivers in the belief that they could write “more competent” or
faster or "“better” device drivers of their own.

4.2. Simple Batch Systems

While punched cards were used for user jobs, processing of a job involved physical actions
by the system operator, e.g., loading a deck of cards into the card reader, pressing switches
on the computer's console to initiate a job, etc. These actions wasted a lot of central
processing unit (CPU) time.

Operating System

User Program Area

Figure 12.1: Simple Batch System

To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs were batched together and were run as a
group. Batch processing (BP) was implemented by locating a component of the BP system,
called the batch monitor or supervisor, permanently in one part of the computer's memory.
The remaining memory was used to process a user job - the current job in the batch as shown
in the figure 12.1 above.

The interval between job submission and accomplishment was considerable in batch
processed system as several programs were put in a batch and the entire batch had to be
processed before the results were printed. Further card reading and printing were slow as
they used slower mechanical units compared to electronic CPU. The speed mismatch was of
the order of 1000. To alleviate this problem, programs were spooled. The spool is an
acronym for simultaneous peripheral operation online. In essence, the idea was to use a
cheaper processor known as a peripheral processing unit (PPU) to read programs and data

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from cards and store them on a disk. The faster CPU reads programs/data from the disk,
processes them, and writes the results back on the disk. The cheaper processor then read the
results from the disk and printed them.

4.3. Multi-Programmed Batch Systems

Even though disks are faster than card reader/ printer they are still two orders of magnitude
slower than CPU. It is thus useful to have several programs ready to run waiting in the main
memory of CPU. When one program needs input/output (I/O) from disk, it is suspended, and
another program whose data is already in main memory (as shown in the figure 6.2 below)
is taken up for execution. This is called multiprogramming.

Operating System

Program 1

Program 2

Program 3

Program 4

Figure 12.2: Multi Programmed Batch Systems

Multiprogramming (MP) increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs such that the CPU
always has a job to execute. Multiprogramming is the first instance where the operating
system must make decisions for the user.

The MP arrangement ensures concurrent operation of the CPU and the I/O subsystem. It
allocates the CPU to a program only when it is not performing an I/O operation.

4.4 Time Sharing Systems

Multiprogramming features were overlaid on batch processing to ensure good utilization of

CPU. Still, from the point of view of a user, the service was poor as the response time, i.e., the
time elapsed between submitting a job and getting the results, was unacceptably high. The
development of interactive terminals changed the scenario. Computation has become an

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online activity. A user could provide inputs to a computation from a terminal and could also
examine the output of the computation on the same terminal. Hence, the response time
needed to be drastically reduced. This was completed by storing the programs of several
users in memory and providing each user with a slice of time on the CPU to process his/her
program.

4.5. Distributed Systems

Distributed operating system is an operating system which manages a number of computers

and hardware devices which make up a Distributed System. Such an operating system has
several functions: it manages the communication between entities on the system, it imposes
a security policy on the users of the system, it manages a Distributed File System, it monitors
problems with hardware and software, it manages the connections between application
programs and itself, and it allocates resources such as file storage to the individual users of
the system. A good distributed operating system should give the user the impression that
they are interacting with a single computer.

A recent trend in computer systems is to distribute computation among several processors.

In loosely coupled systems, the processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each
processor has its own local memory. The processors communicate with one another using a
communication network.

The processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function, and referred by several
different names, such as sites, nodes, computers and so on depending on the context. The
major reasons for building distributed systems are:

Resource sharing: If several different sites are connected, a user at one site may be able to
use the resources available at the other.

Computation speed up: If a particular computation can be partitioned into a number of sub
computations that can run concurrently, then a distributed system may allow a user to
distribute computation among the various sites to run them concurrently.

Reliability: If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operations.

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Communication: There are many instances in which programs need to exchange data with
one another. Distributed database system is an example of this.

4.6. Real-time Operating System

The advent of timesharing provided good response times to computer users. However,
timesharing could not satisfy the requirements of some applications. Real-time (RT)
operating systems were developed to meet the response requirements of such applications.

There are two types of real-time systems. A hard real-time system guarantees that critical
tasks are completed at a specified time. A less restrictive type of real-time system is a soft
real-time system, where a critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains
that priority until it is completed. The several areas in which this type is useful are
multimedia, virtual reality, and advanced scientific projects such as undersea exploration
and planetary rovers. Because of the expanded uses for soft real-time functionality, it is
finding its way into most current operating systems, including major UNIX and Windows NT
O.S versions.

A real-time operating system is one, which helps to fulfill the worst-case response time
requirements of an application. An RT OS provides the following facilities for this purpose:

1. Multitasking within an application.

2. Ability to define the priorities of tasks.

3. Priority-driven or deadline-oriented scheduling.

4. Programmer-defined interrupts.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
3. Multiprogramming (MP) increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so the CPU
always has a job to execute. (True/False)
4. Real-time (RT) operating systems were developed to meet the response
requirements of such applications. (True/False)

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5. OPERATING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Even though, not all systems have the same structure many modern operating systems share
the same goal of supporting the following types of system components.

1. Process Management
The operating system manages many activities ranging from user programs to system
programs like printer spooler, name servers, file server etc. Each of these activities is
encapsulated in a process. A process includes the complete execution context (code, data, PC,
registers, OS resources in use etc.).

It is important to note that a process is not a program. A process is only ONE instant of a
program in execution. There are many processes can be running the same program. The five
major activities of an operating system regarding process management are

1. Creation and deletion of user and system processes

2. Suspension and resumption of processes
3. A mechanism for process synchronization
4. A mechanism for process communication
5. A mechanism for deadlock handling

2. Main-Memory Management
Primary memory or Main Memory is a large array of words or bytes. Each word or byte has
its own address. Main memory provides storage that can be access directly by the CPU. That
is, for a program to be executed, it must be in the main memory.

The major operating activities regarding memory management are:

1. Keep track of which part of memory is currently being used and by whom.
2. Decide which processes are loaded into memory when memory space becomes
available.
3. Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed.

3. File Management
A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. A computer can store files
on the disk (secondary storage), which provides long-term storage. Some examples of
storage media are magnetic tape, magnetic disk, and optical disk. Each of these media has its

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own properties, like speed, capacity, data transfer rate, and access methods. A file system is
normally organized into directories to ease its use. These directories may contain files and
other directions.

The five major activities of an operating system regarding file management are

1. The creation and deletion of files.

2. The creation and deletion of directions.
3. The support of primitives for manipulating files and directions.
4. The mapping of files onto secondary storage.
5. The backup of files on stable storage media.

4. I/O System Management

I/O subsystem hides the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the user. Only the
device driver knows the peculiarities of the specific device to which it is assigned.

5. Secondary-Storage Management
Normally, systems have numerous storage levels, including primary, secondary, and cache.
Instructions and data must be placed in primary storage or cache to be referenced by a
running program. Because the main memory is too small to accommodate all data and
programs, and its data is lost when power is lost, the computer system must provide
secondary storage to back up the main memory. Secondary storage consists of tapes, disks,
and other media designed to hold information that will eventually be accessed in primary
storage (primary, secondary, cache) and is ordinarily divided into bytes or words consisting
of a fixed number of bytes. Each location in storage has an address; the set of all addresses
available to a program is called an address space.

The three major activities of an operating system regarding secondary storage management
are:

1. Scheduling the requests for memory access.

2. Managing the free space available on the secondary storage device. 3. Allocation of
storage space when new files must be written.

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6. Networking
A distributed system is a group of processors that do not share memory, peripheral devices,
or a clock. The processors communicate with one another through communication lines
called networks. The communication network design must consider routing and connection
strategies, and the problems of contention and security.

7. Protection System
If a computer system has multiple users and allows the concurrent execution of multiple
processes, then various processes must be protected from one another's activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or users
to the resources defined by a computer system.

8. Command Interpreter System

A command interpreter is an interface of the operating system with the user. The user gives
commands that are executed by the operating system (usually by turning them into system
calls). The main function of a command interpreter is to get and execute the next user-
specified command. Command-Interpreter is usually not part of the kernel since an
operating system may support multiple command interpreters (shell, in UNIX terminology),
and they do not really need to run in kernel mode. There are two main advantages of
separating the command interpreter from the kernel.

1. If we want to change how the command interpreter looks, i.e., I want to change its
interface, I can do that if the command interpreter is separate from the kernel. I cannot
change the kernel's code, so I cannot modify the interface.
2. If the command interpreter is a part of the kernel, it is possible for a malicious process to
gain access to a certain part of the kernel that it should not have. To avoid this scenario,
having the command interpreter separate from the kernel is advantageous.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
5. ______ is a collection of related information defined by its creator.
6. ________ System is a collection of processors that do not share memory, peripheral
devices, or a clock.
7. The main function of a command interpreter is to get and execute the next user-
specified command. (True/False)

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6. OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES

Operating systems are responsible for providing essential services within a computer
system:

• Loading of programs and transfer of programs between secondary storage and main
memory
• Supervision of the input/output devices
• File management
• Protection facilities

Following are the five services provided by operating systems for users' convenience.

1. Execution of Program
The persistence of a computer system is to allow the user to execute programs. So, the
operating system provides an environment where the user can conveniently run programs.
The user does not have to worry about the memory allocation or multitasking or anything.
These things are taken care of by the operating systems. Running a program involves
allocating and de-allocating memory and CPU scheduling in case of multi-process. These
functions cannot be given to the user-level programs. So, user-level programs cannot help
the user to run programs independently without help from operating systems.

2. I/O Operations
Every program needs an input and produces output. This involves the use of I/O. The
operating systems hide from the user the details of the underlying hardware for the I/O. All
the users see that the I/O has been performed without any details. So the operating system,
by providing I/O, makes it convenient for the users to run programs. For efficiency and
protection users cannot control I/O, so this service cannot be provided by user-level
programs.

3. File System Manipulation

The output of a program may need to be written into new files or input taken from some
files. The operating system provides this service. The user does not have to worry about
secondary storage management. The user gives a command for reading or writing to a file

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and sees his/her task accomplished. Thus operating system makes it easier for user
programs to achieve their task.

This facility involves secondary storage management. The speed of I/O that depends on
secondary storage management is critical to the speed of many programs, and hence, I think
it is best relegated to the operating systems to manage it rather than given to individual
users. It is not difficult for user-level programs to provide these services, but for the above-
mentioned reasons, it is best if this service is left with the operating system.

4. Communications Process
There are instances where processes need to communicate with each other to exchange
information. It may be between processes running on the same or different computers. By
providing this service the operating system relieves the user from the worry of passing
messages between processes. In case where the messages need to be passed to processes on
the other computers through a network, it can be done by the user programs. The user
program may be customized to the specifications of the hardware through which the
message transits and provides the service interface to the operating system.

5. Error Finding
An error in one part of the system may cause malfunctioning of the complete system. To
avoid such a situation, the operating system constantly monitors the system for detecting
errors. This relieves the user from the worry of errors propagating to various parts of the
system and causing malfunctioning.

This service cannot be allowed to be handled by user programs because it involves

monitoring and, in some cases, altering the area of memory or de-allocation of memory for a
faulty process, or it may be relinquishing the CPU of a process that goes into an infinite loop.
These tasks are too critical to be handed over to the user programs. A user program, if given
these privileges, can interfere with the correct (normal) operation of the operating systems.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
8. An error in one part of the system may cause malfunctioning of the complete system.
(True/False)
9. ________involves the allocating and de-allocating memory, CPU scheduling in case of
multi-process.

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7. OPERATING SYSTEMS FOR DIFFERENT COMPUTERS

Operating systems can be gathered according to functionality: operating systems for
Supercomputers, Computer Clusters, Mainframes, Servers, Workstations, Desktops,
Handheld Devices, Real-Time Systems, or Embedded Systems.

1. OS for Supercomputers:
Supercomputers are the fastest computers, very expensive, and employed for specialized
applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. These include
weather forecasting, animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
and petroleum exploration. Of the many operating systems used for supercomputing, UNIX
and Linux are the most dominant ones.

2. Computer Clusters Operating Systems:

A computer cluster is a group of computers that work together closely so that in many
respects, they can be viewed as though they are a single computer. The components of a
cluster are commonly connected to each other through fast local area networks. Besides
many open-source operating systems and two versions of Windows 2003 Server, Linux is
popularly used for Computer clusters.

3. Mainframe Operating Systems:

Mainframes used to be the primary procedure of computer. Mainframes are large centralised
computers, and at one time, they provided the bulk of business computing through time
sharing. Mainframes are still useful for some large-scale tasks, such as centralized billing
systems, inventory systems, database operations, etc.

4. Servers Operating Systems:

Servers are computers or groups that provide services to other computers connected via a
network. Based on the requirements, there are various versions of server operating systems
from different vendors, starting with Microsoft’s Servers from Windows NT to Windows
2003, OS/2 servers, UNIX servers, Mac OS servers, and various flavours of Linux.

5. Workstation Operating Systems:

Workstations are more powerful versions of personal computers. Like desktop computers,
they often only one person uses a particular workstation, which runs a more powerful

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version of a desktop operating system. Workstations are most often used as clients in a
network environment. The popular workstation operating systems are Windows NT
Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, OS/2 Clients, Mac OS, UNIX, Linux, etc.

6. Desktop Operating Systems:

A personal computer (PC) is a microcomputer whose price, size, and capabilities make it
useful for individuals, also known as Desktop computers or home computers. Desktop
operating systems are used for personal computers, for example DOS, Windows 9x, Windows
XP, Macintosh OS, Linux, etc.

7. Embedded Operating Systems:

Embedded systems are combinations of processors and special software inside another
device, such as the electronic ignition system on cars. Examples of embedded operating
systems are Embedded Linux, Windows CE, Windows XP Embedded, Free DOS, Free RTOS,
etc.

8. Operating Systems for Handheld Computers:

Handheld operating systems are much smaller and less capable than desktop operating
systems, so they can fit into the limited memory of handheld devices. These operating
systems include Palm OS, Windows CE, EPOC, and many Linux versions, such as Qt Palmtop
and Pocket Linux.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5
10. __________ are computers or groups of computers that provide services to other
computers, connected via a network.
11. __________are more powerful versions of personal computers.
12. __________systems are combinations of processors and special software inside another
device, such as the electronic ignition system on cars.

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8. SUMMARY

Let’s recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit:

• A compiler is used to translate a high-level language program into assembly language or
machine code, and an assembler is used to translate an assembly language program into
machine code.
• Resources Management – An operating system as a resource manager controls how
processes (the active agents) may access resources (passive entities).
• Multiprogramming (MP) increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so the CPU always
has a job to execute.
• Multiprogramming features were overlaid on BP to ensure good utilization of CPU, but
from the point of view of a user, the service was poor as the response time, i.e., the time
elapsed between submitting a job and getting the results, was unacceptably high.
• A real-time operating system is one that helps to fulfill an application's worst-case
response time requirements.
• A task is a sub-computation in an application program, which can be executed
concurrently with other sub-computations in the program, except at specific places in
its execution called synchronization points.
• Primary – Memory or main memory is a large array of words or bytes.
• A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator.
• A distributed system is a group of processors that do not share memory, peripheral
devices, or a clock.
• A command interpreter is an operating system interface with the user.
• A computer cluster is a group of computers that work together closely, so that in many
respects, they can be viewed as a single computer.

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9. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What is Operating system? How is it useful in the computer?
2. Briefly explain the functions of the operating system.
3. What is resource management?
4. Define multi-programming batch systems.
5. What is a distributed system?
6. What is the role of real-time operating system?

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3.10.
HowANSWERS
do you format an Excel sheet

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Abstraction
2. operating system
3. True
4. True
5. File
6. Distributed
7. True
8. True
9. Running a program
10. Servers
11. Workstations
12. Embedded

Terminal Questions
Answer 1: An operating system (OS) is a program that controls the execution of an
application program and acts as an interface between the user and computer hardware.
(Refer section 2)
Answer 2: Modern Operating systems generally have following three major goals. (Refer
section 3)
Answer 3: An operating system as resource manager controls how processes (the active
agents) may access resources (passive entities). (Refer section 3)
Answer 4: Multiprogramming (MP) increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs such that
the CPU always has a job to execute. (Refer section 4.3)
Answer 5: A recent trend in computer system is to distribute computation among several
processors. (Refer section 4.5)
Answer 6: Real-time (RT) operating systems were developed to meet the response
requirements of such applications. (Refer section 4.6)

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11. REFERENCES
• Modern Operating Systems (3rd Edition) by Andrew S. Tanenbaum
• Operating System Concepts Eight Edition by Avi Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin & Greg
Gagne
• Operating Systems Internals and Design Principles by William Stallings

E-References:
• www.computerhope.com
• www.howstuffworks.com
• www.personal.kent.edu
• www.searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Computer Fundamentals Manipal University Jaipur (MUJ)

Unit 13
Communication System Concepts
Table of Contents

Fig No /
SL SAQ / Page
Topic Table /
No Activity No
Graph
1 Introduction - -
3
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Basic elements of communication system 1 1 4-6
3 Data Communication - -
3.1 Data Transmission methods - -
7 - 14
3.2 Data Transmission Medium - -
3.3 Network Topologies 2, 3, 4, 5 -
4 Network Types 6, 7, 8 2 15 - 18
5 OSI Reference Model 9 -
5.1 Layers in the OSI model - - 19 - 22
5.2 Data transmission in OSI model - 3
6 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet protocol Model 10, 11 - 23 - 25
7 Internet - -
7.1 Web browsers 12 -
7.2 Web servers - 4
26 - 36
7.3 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 13, 14, 15 5
7.4 World Wide Web (WWW) i 6
7.5 Internet protocol Addressing 16 -
8 Summary - - 37 - 38
9 Terminal Questions - - 38
10 Answers - - 38 - 39
11 Reference - - 40

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1. INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have learnt about operating system concepts. In this unit you are
going to learn about communication system concepts. This unit introduces the fundamental
concepts of communication in computer networks. We will first look at constituent network
components and various network types, and then describe a reference model for network
protocol architectures We will also discuss the components of internet.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to –

❖ Explain the basic elements of data communication
❖ Explain the different types of network topologies
❖ Explain different network types
❖ Discuss on OSI reference model
❖ Discuss on TCP/IP model
❖ Describe the components of internet

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2. BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

To understand communication systems, we need to look at its parts. This section explains
to you the meaning of communication systems and the functions of various blocks of
communication system block diagram.

Communication Systems:
Communication System is a system or facility capable of providing information transfer
between persons or equipment’s. The elements used in communication systems make
communication simpler and faster. The three important elements of the communication
system are:

1. Transmitter
2. Transmission channel
3. Receiver

The terms "signal" and "message" will be used interchangeably. This is because the signal,
like the message, is a physical embodiment of information.

Basic Block Diagram of a Communication System:

Block diagram is a diagram of a communication system shown in figure 13.1 consists of

information source, transmitter, channel and receiver blocks. The detailed explanation of the
blocks is discussed below.

Figure 13.1: Basic Block Diagram of Communication System

Information source: An information source is one in which information is generated. The

source of information may be analogue or digital. The source of information may be, for
example, the human brain originating ideas and changes in the physical environment. If this
information or message is not in the electrical form, it must be converted into electrical form.
This is done

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A suitable input transducer converts the message into an electrical signal, which is then fed
to the transmitter. For example, an input transducer could be a microphone, which converts
sound into an electrical signal. This can be used in case the information source produces a
voice signal.

Transmitter: The device used to adapt the information into another signal capable of
passing on to a suitable medium is called a transmitter. The information signal involves a
process called modulation and coding.

Channel: The medium which carries the information signal is called the transmission
channel or simply a channel. That is, the medium which the information from a transmitter
propagates or travels to a particular receiver. This channel is used for sending the
information from one place to another place. Some of the transmission channels are:

• Couple of wires
• Coaxial cable
• Radio wave
• Laser beam
• Fiber optic

While transmission each transmission channel produces some loss of energy. It is because
when the distance increases, it causes a decrease in energy.

Noise: An unwanted signal called noise gets added to the message signal in the channel and
causes distortion to the message signal. In other words, this noise signal disturbs, interferes
with, and affects the desired signal in the communication process. Noise is generally normal
in the communication process. We cannot prevent it, but we can minimize it.

Receiver: The device which converts the suitable information into an original message is
called the receiver. The receiver gets information produced by the transmitter and produces
the actual data. Some operations performed by receiver are:

• Amplification of signal
• Demodulation
• Decoding

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The decoding is the reversing process performed by transmitter.

A destination is one in which we get the information in its original form. It converts an
electrical signal into its original message. For example, a destination could be an output
transducer like a loud speaker, which converts the recovered original signal in its electrical
form into sound waves.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. __________ is used to convert the information into another signal capable of passing on
to a suitable medium.
2. The device which converts the suitable information into original message is called
_____________.

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3. DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication is the transfer of data or information between a source and a receiver;
the source transmits the data, and the receiver receives it. The distance over which data
moves within a computer may vary from a few thousandths of an inch, as is the case within
a single IC chip, to as much as several feet along the backplane of the main circuit board. Over
such small distances, digital data may be transmitted as direct, two-level electrical signals
over simple copper conductors. Except for the fastest computers, circuit designers are not
very concerned about the shape of the conductor or the analog characteristics of signal
transmission.

Data Communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices external to

the message source. "External" devices are generally thought of as independently powered
circuitry beyond the chassis of a computer or other digital message source. As a rule, the
maximum permissible transmission rate of a message is directly proportional to signal and
inversely proportional to channel noise. It is the aim of any communications system to
provide the highest possible transmission rate at the lowest possible power and with the
least possible noise.

Basic elements of data communication are discussed below: Data and signals – A signal
is an electric current or electromagnetic field used to convey data from one place to another.
The simplest form of signal is a direct current (DC) switched on and off; this is the principle
by which the early telegraph worked. More complex signals consist of an alternating-current
(AC) or electromagnetic carrier that contains one or more data streams.

Data is superimposed on a carrier current or wave using a process called modulation. Signal
modulation can be done in either of two main ways: analog and digital. Data can be analog
or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is Continuous; digital data refers
to information that has discrete states. For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute,
and second hands gives information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are
continuous.

Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values. When
someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a microphone
and converted to an analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital signal.

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Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer memory as 0s
and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for
transmission across a medium.

Analog and digital signals – Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or
digital. An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the
wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of
values along its path. A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of
defined values. Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.

Periodic and non-periodic signals – Both analog and digital signals can take one of two
forms: periodic or non-periodic. A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable
time frame, called a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The
completion of one full pattern is called a cycle. A non-periodic signal changes without
exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time.

3.1. Data Transmission Methods

There are three methods of data transfer. These methods are discussed below:
• Simplex communication: In this type, data transfer occurs in only one direction, i.e.,
from source to destination or destination to source machines.
• Half-duplex communication: In this type, data transfer occurs in either directions,
but not simultaneously.
• Full-duplex communication: In this type, data transfer occurs in either direction
simultaneously. The protocol must also determine the number of logical channels per
connection along with their individual priorities. Many networks provide at least two
logical connections per channel, one for normal data and one for urgent data.

3.2. Data Transmission Medium

Transmission media is the physical path between the transmitter and receiver. It can be
guided or unguided.

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Guided & unguided transmission medium.

Guided media provides a guided (by a solid medium) path for propagating signals such as
twisted pairs, coaxial cables, optical fibers, etc. Unguided media employ an antenna for
transmitting through air, vacuum, or water. This form of transmission is referred to as
wireless transmission. Examples include Broadcast radio, satellite, etc.

Selection of transmission Media depends on the characteristics and quality of data

transmission, which are in turn determined by the characteristics of the medium and signal.
For guided media, the medium itself determines the limitations of transmission. For
Unguided media, the Bandwidth (BW) width of the signal produced at the transmitting
antenna is more important than the characteristics of the transmission.

In general, signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional (all directions), and at higher
frequencies, they are directional (focused). The key concern in designing a data transmission
system is Data Rate and Distance: The greater the data rate and distance, the better the
transmission system.

Factors used to determine data rate and distance are:

• Bandwidth (BW): Greater the BW of the signal, the higher the data rate that can be
achieved.
• Transmission impairment: These limit the distance. Twisted pair suffers more
impairment than coaxial cable, which in turn suffers more than optical fiber.
• Interference: Overlapping frequency bands can distort/wipeout a signal. It is of
more concern for unguided media than guided.
For guided it can be caused due to nearby cables. Proper shielding of cables can
minimize this problem.
• Number of receivers: Point-to-point links are used, or a shared link is used with
multiple attachments.

In a shared link, each attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion on the line,
limiting the distance and/or data rate. ∙ For guided media, the transmission capacity
depends on data rate or BW and depends critically on the distance (whether the medium is
p-p or multipoint)

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3.3. Network Topologies

Topology is a term used to define the way in which computers are connected in network. The
physical topology of a network denotes to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology, the method used
to pass information between workstations. Each topology is suited to specific tasks and has
its own advantages and disadvantages.

Network Topologies are logical layouts of the network. The term "logical" used here is
significant. That means network topology depends not on the "physical" layout of the
network.

• The choice of topology is dependent upon

• Type and number of equipment being used
• Planned applications and rate of data transfers
• Required response times
• Cost

It is to find the most economical and efficient way to connect all the users to the networks
resources while providing adequate capacity to handle user demands, maintain system
reliability and minimize delay. Many topologies do exist, but most commonly, there are 4
types of basic topologies used for networking computers, which are discussed below.

1) Bus topology

Figure 13.2: Bus topology

The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a
common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints is called the 'bus'. That is
transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common transmission

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medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the network virtually simultaneously. It
consists of a single main cable that connects each node. The bus topology is as shown in
Figure 13.2.

The network OS keeps track of unique electronic addresses for each node and manages the
flow of information. A single cable is dedicated to all the information traffic, so performance
can be slow at times. This topology is often bound in client/server systems (for example, file
server dedicated solely to the distribution of data files). This topology is most commonly
used, as it can be easily expandable as the network grows.

Advantages of a linear bus topology:

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a linear bus topology:

• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
• Not meant to be a stand-alone solution in a large building.

2) Ring topology
A ring topology is a type of network topology in which each node is connected to two other
nodes in the network, with the first and last nodes connected to each other, forming a ring.
A ring topology looks something like the one shown in Figure 13.3. In this, the nodes are
connected in a circle using cable segments. Each node is physically connected only to two
others.

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Figure 13.3: Ring topology

All data that is transmitted between nodes in the network travels from one node to the next
node in a circular manner and the data generally flows in a single direction. Performance can
be faster. Found in peer-to-peer networks.

Advantages
• Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity
to transmit
• Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
• Does not require a network server to manage the connectivity between the
computers

Disadvantages
• One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the MAU can create problems for the
entire network
• Moves, adds, and changes of devices can affect the network ∙ Much slower than an
Ethernet network under normal load

3) Star topology
A star topology is designed with each node connected directly to a central network hub or
concentrator, as shown in Figure 13.4. Data on a star network passes through the hub or
concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub or concentrator manages and
controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This

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configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial
cable or fiber optic cable.

Figure 13.4: Star topology

Advantages of a star topology:

• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network, then connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and then remove faulty parts.
• Has the advantage of minimum data traffic along the cables (node to server)

Disadvantages of a star topology:

• It requires more cable length than a linear topology.

• If the hub or concentrator fails, the nodes attached are disabled.
• Star topology is more expensive than linear bus topology because of the cost of
concentrators.
• It Requires an extremely powerful (and expensive) file server, plus additional cable.

4) Tree topology
A tree topology combines the characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of
groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable, as shown
in Figure 13.5. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network and enable
schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

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Figure 13.5: Tree topology

Advantages of a tree topology:

• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software vendors.

Disadvantages of a tree topology:

• The type of cabling used limits the overall length of each segment.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

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4. NETWORK TYPES
A computer network is a collection of computers and devices interconnected by
communications channels that facilitate communications among users and allow users to
share resources. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics. A
computer network allows the sharing of resources and information among interconnected
devices.

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or
scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as
an area network. Common examples of area network types are:

1) LAN (Local Area Network)

These are the networks that connect computers and resources together in a building or
buildings close together. The computers share hard drives, printers, data, CPU power,
fax/modem, applications, etc. They usually have distributed processing – which means that
there are many desktop computers distributed around the network and that there is no
central processor machine (mainframe). Fig.13.6 shows a typical Local area network.

Figure 13.6: Local area Network

Location: In a building or individual rooms or floors of buildings or connecting nearby
buildings together like a campus wide network like a college or university.

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2) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

These types of networks connect LANs together within a city. In the fig. 13.7, we see that
telecommunication services provide the connection (storm clouds) between networks. Local
telecommunication services provide the external connection for joining networks across
cities. The main criteria for a MAN are the connection between the LANs through a local
exchange carrier (the local phone company).

Figure 13.7: Metropolitan Area Network

Location: Separate buildings distributed throughout a city.

Universities, colleges, grocery chains, gas stations, department stores, and banks are
examples of companies that use MANs.

The protocols used for MANs are quite different from those used for LANs, except for ATM,
which can be used for both under certain conditions.

Examples of MAN protocols are:

• RS-232, V.35

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• X.25 (56kbps), PADs

• Frame Relay (up to 45 Mbps), FRADs
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) PRI and BRI
• Dedicated T-1 lines (1.544 Mbps) and Fractional T-1
• T-3 (45 Mbps) and OC-3 lines (155 Mbps)
• ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line)
• xDSL (many different types of Digital Subscriber Lines)

3) WAN (Wide Area Networks)

This communication system links LANs between cities, countries, and continents. The main
difference between a MAN and a WAN is that the WAN uses Long-Distance Carriers rather
than Local Exchange carriers. Otherwise, the same protocols and equipment are used as in a
MAN. Fig. 13.8 shows this type of network.

Figure 13.8: Wide Area Network

Location: City to city, across a country or a continent. Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect
LANs together between cities or across a country. The TransCanada Pipeline has a WAN that
stretches from Alberta in the Western Provinces of Canada to Boston on the Eastern United

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States seaboard. The pipeline goes from Alberta to Ontario then through the States and ends
up in Boston. The maintenance and control of the network resides in Calgary, Alberta.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
3. Which type of network connects computers and resources together in a building or
buildings close together?
4. Which type of network connects LANs together within a city?
5. Which type of Network connects LANs together between cities or across a country?
6. Star topology requires less cable length than a linear topology. (True/ False).
7. In bus topology, it is difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts
down. (True/False).

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5. OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The layered model that dominated data communications and networking literature before
1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Everyone believed that the OSI
model would become the ultimate standard for data communications, but this did not
happen. The TCP/IP protocol suite became the dominant commercial architecture because
it was used and tested extensively in the Internet; the OSI model was never fully
implemented.

Layered Architecture:
The OSI Model is composed of seven ordered layers:

• Layer 1 – The Physical Layer

• Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer
• Layer 3 – The Network Layer
• Layer 4 – The Transport Layer
• Layer 5 – The Session Layer
• Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer
• Layer 7 – The Application Layer

Figure 13.9 below shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device
B. As the message travels from one device to another, it may pass through several
intermediate nodes or devices. These intermediate nodes or devices usually involve only the
first three layers of the OSI model.

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Figure 13.9: The OSI Model

5.1. Layers in the OSI model

Let’s discuss the functions of all seven layers of the OSI model.

1. Physical layer: This layer manages the functions required to carry a bit stream over
a physical medium. It deals with the electrical and mechanical specifications of the
interface and transmission medium. It defines the procedures and functions that
physical devices and interfaces must perform for transmission.
2. Data link layer: This layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility,
into a reliable link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer
(the Network layer) and is also responsible for other functions such as framing, error
control, flow control, physical addressing, and access control mechanisms.
3. Network layer: This layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). The Data Link Layer oversees the
delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (links); the network

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layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its destination. If two
systems are attached to the same link, there is no need for the network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with
connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the
network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Other responsibilities of
the Network layer include logical addressing and routing.
4. Transport layer: This layer is accountable for process-to-process delivery of the
entire message. A process is an application program running on the host. The
Network layer oversees the source-to-destination delivery of individual packets; it
does not recognize the relationship between those packets. It treats each packet
independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether it does,
The Transport layer, also ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order,
overseeing both error and flow control at the source to-destination level.
5. Session layer: This layer acts as the network dialog controller. It establishes,
maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
6. Presentation layer: This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of
information exchanged between two systems. Its specific responsibilities include
Translation, Encryption, and Compression.
7. Application layer: This layer enables the user, whether human or software to access
the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types
of distributed information services. Specific services offered by the Application layer
include: Provision of Network Virtual terminals, File transfer, access, and
management, mail services, and Directory Services.

5.2. Data transmission in OSI model

The sending process has some data to send to the receiving process. It gives the data to the
application layer, which then attaches the application header, AH (which may be null), to the
front of it and give the resulting item to the presentation layer.

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The presentation layer may transform this item in various ways, which are then transmitted
to the receiving machine. On the machine, various headers are stripped off one by one as the
message propagates up the layers until it finally arrives at the receiving process.

The key idea throughout is that although actual data transmission is vertical, each layer is
programmed as though it were horizontal.

Network models
Different entities create computer networks. Standards are needed so that these
heterogeneous networks can communicate with one another. The two best-known
standards are the OSI model and the Internet model. The OSI model defines a seven-layer
network, while the Internet model defines a five-layer network.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
8. ___________ layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a
physical medium.
9. __________ layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks.
10. __________ layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.

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6. TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL

MODEL
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the simple communication
language or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a
private network (either an intranet or an extranet). When you are set up with direct access
to the Internet, your computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP program just as every
other computer you may send messages to or get information from also has a copy of TCP/IP.
Most of the networking software, TCP/IP is modeled in layers. This layered representation
leads to the term protocol stack, which denotes to the stack of layers in the protocol suite. It
can be used for positioning (but not for functionally comparing) the TCP/IP protocol suite
against others, such as the Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model. Functional comparisons cannot easily be extracted from this
because basic variances exist in the layered models used by the different protocol suites.

By dividing the communication software into layers, the protocol stack allows for division of
labor, ease of implementation and code testing, and the ability to develop alternative layer
implementations. Layers communicate with those above and below via concise interfaces. In
this regard, a layer provides a service to the layer directly above it and uses services provided
by the layer directly below it. For example, the IP layer provides the ability to transfer data
from one host to another without any guarantee to reliable delivery or duplicate
suppression. Transport protocols such as TCP use this service to provide applications with
reliable, in-order, data stream delivery.

Figure 13.10 shows how the TCP/IP protocols are modelled in four layers.

Figure 13.10: The TCP/IP protocol stack: Each layer represents a package of
functions.

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These layers include:

i. Application layer: The program provides the application layer that uses TCP/IP for
communication. An application is a user process cooperating with another process,
usually on a different host (there is also a benefit to application communication
within a single host). Examples of applications include Telnet and the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP). Port numbers and sockets define the interface between the
application and transport layers.
ii. Transport layer: The transport layer provides end-to-end data transfer by delivering
data from an application to its remote peer. Multiple applications can be supported
simultaneously. The most-used transport layer protocol is the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP), which provides connection-oriented reliable data delivery, duplicate
data suppression, congestion control, and flow control. Another transport layer
protocol is the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). It provides connectionless, unreliable,
best effort service. As a result, applications using UDP as the transport protocol have
to provide their own end-to-end integrity, flow control, and congestion control if
desired. Usually, UDP is used by applications that need a fast transport mechanism
and can tolerate the loss of some data.
iii. Internetwork layer: The internetwork layer, also called the internet layer or the
network layer, provides the “virtual network” image of an internet (this layer shields
the higher levels from the physical network architecture below it). Internet Protocol
(IP) is the most important protocol in this layer. It is a connectionless protocol that
does not assume reliability from lower layers. IP does not provide reliability, flow
control, or error recovery. These functions must be provided at a higher level. IP
provides a routing function that delivers transmitted messages to their destination. A
message unit in an IP network is called an IP datagram. This is the basic unit of
information transmitted across TCP/IP networks. Other internetwork layer protocols
are IP (Internet protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), IGMP (Internet
Group Management Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), and RARP
(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol).
iv. Network interface layer: The network interface layer, also called the link layer or
the data-link layer, is the interface to the actual network hardware. This interface may

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or may not provide reliable delivery and may be packet or stream-oriented. In fact,
TCP/IP does not specify any protocol here, but can use almost any network interface
available, which illustrates the flexibility of the IP layer. Examples are IEEE 802.2,
X.25 (which is reliable in itself), ATM, FDDI, and even SNA. TCP/IP specifications do
not describe or standardize any network-layer protocols; they only standardize ways
of accessing those protocols from the internetwork layer.

A more detailed layering model is included in Figure 13.11.

Figure 13.11: Detailed Architectural Model

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7. INTERNET
The Internet is a worldwide network of networks that connects millions of computers (called
hosts). It is a virtual space in which users send and receive email, log in to remote computers
(telnet), browse databases of information (gopher, World Wide Web, WAIS), and send and
receive programs (ftp) contained on these computers.

7.1. Web browsers

A Web browser is referred as an application that provides access to a Web server. Depending
on the implementation, browser capabilities and thus structures vary. A Web browser, at a
minimum, consists of a Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) interpreter and HTTP client
that are used to retrieve HTML Web pages. Besides this basic requirement, many browsers
also support FTP, NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol), and e-mail (POP and SMTP
clients), among other features, with an easy-to-manage graphical interface. Fig. 13.12
illustrates a basic Web browser structure.

Figure 13.12: Structure of a Web Browser

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The Web uses a client/server processing model like many other Internet facilities. The Web
browser is the client component. Examples of Web browsers include Mozilla Firefox,
Netscape Navigator, and Microsoft Internet Explorer® Web browsers are responsible for
formatting and displaying information, interacting with the user, and invoking external
functions, such as Telnet, or external viewers for data types that Web browsers do not
directly support. Web browsers have become the “universal client” for the GUI workstation
environment, in much the same way that the ability to emulate popular terminals such as the
DEC VT100 or IBM 3270 allows connectivity and access to character-based applications on
various computers. Web browsers are inexpensive and widely available for all popular GUI
workstation platforms.

7.2. Web servers

Web servers are responsible for servicing requests for information from Web browsers. The
information can be a file retrieved from the server's local disk, or it can be generated by a
program called by the server to perform a specific application function. There are several
public-domain Web servers available for a variety of platforms, including most UNIX
variants, as well as personal computer environments such as Microsoft Windows. Some well-
known public domain servers are CERN, NCSA httpd, and Apache servers.

CERN Servers -
NCSA httpd Servers - The CERN httpd (also known as W3C httpd) is a generic public domain
full-featured hypertext server which can be used as a regular HTTP server. The server
typically runs on port 80 to serve hypertext and other documents. Still, it can also serve as a
proxy -- a server on a firewall machine -- that provides access for people inside a firewall to
the outside world. When running as a proxy, httpd may be configured to do caching of
documents, resulting in faster response times.

Apache Servers
Apache, a public-domain open-source Web server established by a loosely knit group of
programmers. The first version of Apache, based on the NCSA httpd Web server, was
developed in 1995. Core development of the Apache Web server is performed by a group of
about 20 volunteer programmers, called the Apache Group. However, because the source
code is freely available, anyone can adapt the server for specific needs, and there is a large

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public library of Apache add-ons. In many respects, the development of Apache is similar to
the development of the Linux operating system. The original version of Apache was written
for UNIX, but now versions run under OS/2, Windows and other platforms.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
11. A ______________ is referred to as an application that provides access to a Web server.
12. ___________ is responsible for servicing requests for information from Web browsers.

7.3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a protocol designed to allow the transfer of Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) documents. HTML is a tag language used to create hypertext
documents. Hypertext documents include links to other documents that contain additional
information about the highlighted term or subject. Such documents can contain other
elements apart from text, such as graphic images, audio and video clips, Java applets, and
even virtual reality worlds (which are described in VRML, a scripting language for that kind
of elements).

Nowadays, both HTTP 1.0 and HTTP 1.1 are stable specifications; therefore, the World Wide
Web Consortium has closed the HTTP activity after it achieved its goal of creating a stable
and weakness-free HTTP standard.

1. Overview of HTTP
HTTP is based on request-response activity. A client running an application called a browser
establishes a connection with a server and sends a request to the server in the form of a
request method. The server responds with a status line, including the message's protocol
version and a success or error code, followed by a message containing server information,
entity information, and possible body content.

An HTTP transaction is divided into four steps:

1. The browser opens a connection.
2. The browser sends a request to the server.
3. The server sends a response to the browser.

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4. The connection is closed.

On the Internet, HTTP communication generally takes place over TCP connections. The
default port is TCP 80, but other ports can be used. This does not preclude HTTP from being
implemented on top of any other protocol on the Internet or other networks. HTTP only
presumes a reliable transport; any protocol that provides such guarantees can be used.
Except for experimental applications, current practice requires that the client establishes the
connection before each request and closed by the server after sending the response. Both
clients and servers should be aware that either party can close the connection prematurely
due to user action, automated timeout, or program failure, and should handle such closing in
a predictable and desirable fashion. In any case, the closing of the connection by either or
both parties always terminates the current request, regardless of its status.

In simple terms, HTTP is a stateless protocol because it does not keep track of the
connections. To load a page including two graphics, a graphic-enabled browser will open
three TCP connections: one for the page and two for the graphics. Most browsers, however,
can handle several of these connections simultaneously. This behavior can be rather
resource-intensive if one page consists of many elements, as quite a number of Web pages
do. HTTP 1.1, as defined in RFC 2616, alleviates this problem to the extent that one TCP
connection will be established per type of element on a page, and all elements of that kind
will be transferred over the same connection respectively. These deviates from HTTP 1.0 by
making the connections persistent.

HTTP operation
In most cases, HTTP communication is initiated by the user agent requesting a resource on
the origin server. In the simplest case, the connection is established through a single
connection between the user agent and the origin server, as shown in Figure 13.13.

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Figure 13.13: HTTP: Single client/server connection

Sometimes, there is no direct connection between the user agent and the origin server. There
is one (or more) intermediary between the user agent and origin server, such as a proxy,
gateway, or tunnel. Requests and responses are evaluated by the intermediaries and
forwarded to the destination or another intermediary in the request-response chain.

Figure 13.14: HTTP: Client/server connection

A proxy can handle the content of the data and, therefore, modify the data accordingly. When
a request comes to a proxy, it rewrites all or part of the message and forwards it to the next
destination. A gateway receives the message and sends it to the underlying protocols in an
appropriate format. A tunnel does not deal with the content of the message; therefore, it
simply forwards the message as it is.

Proxies and gateways, in general, can handle the caching of HTTP messages. This can
dramatically reduce the response time and IP traffic in the network. Because tunnels cannot
understand the message content, they cannot store cached data of HTTP messages. In the
previous figure (Fig. 13.14), if one of the intermediaries (A, B or C) employs an internal cache
for HTTP messages, the user agent can get a response from the intermediary if it is previously
cached from the origin server in the response chain. Fig. 13.15 illustrates that A has a cached

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copy of an earlier response from the origin server in the response chain. Therefore, if the
server response for the request is not already cached in the user agent's internal cache, it can
directly be obtained from A.

Figure 13.15: HTTP: Cached server response

Caching does not apply to all server responses. Special requests can modify cache behavior
to determine which server responses can or cannot be cached. For this purpose, server
responses can be marked as non-cachable, public, or private (cannot be cached in a public
cache).

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5
13. HTTP is a stateless protocol because __________________.
14. The HTTP communication is initiated by the ____________ requesting a resource on the
origin server.

7.4. World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web is an architectural framework for accessing linked documents spread
out over millions of machines all over the internet. Its popularity stems from the fact that:
• It has a colorful graphical interface that is easy for users to use.
• It provides an enormous wealth of information on almost every conceivable subject.

Architectural overview
The Web consists of a vast, worldwide collection of documents called Web pages, often called
simply pages. Each page may contain links to other pages anywhere in the world. The idea
of having one-page point to another is now called hypertext, invented by a visionary M.I.T

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professor of electrical engineering, Vannevar Bush, in 1945, long before the Internet was
invented.

A collection of useful, related resources, interconnected via hypertext links, is what has been
called a 'web' of information. Making it available on the Internet created what Tim Berners-
Lee first called the World Wide Web in 1990. The term "www" is commonly found at the
beginning of Web addresses because of the long-standing practice of naming Internet hosts
(servers) according to the services they provide.

Pages are viewed with a program called a browser. The most popular ones are Internet
Explorer and Netscape Navigator. The browser fetches the page requested, interprets the
text and formatting commands on it, and displays the page properly formatted on the screen.
Typically, a Web page starts with a title, contains some information, and ends with the email
address of the page maintainer.

Strings of text that link to other pages are called hyperlinks. Hyperlinks are often highlighted
by underlining, displayed in a special color, or both.

Common Uniform Resource Locator

URL scheme is open-ended in that it is straightforward to have browsers use multiple
protocols to get at different kinds of resources. Some common URLs are listed in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1: Common Uniform Resource Locator

1. The http protocol is the web's native language, spoken by web servers. HTTP stands
for hypertext transfer protocol.

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2. The ftp is file transfer protocol is used to access files. It is more power than HTTP. For
example, it allows a user on machine A to transfer a file from machine B to machine
C.
3. The file protocol allows access to a local file as a web page. It is similar to FTP but does
not require a server.
4. Two forms of news protocol. The first one specifies a newsgroup and can be used to
get a list of articles from a preconfigured news site. The second one requires an
identifier of a specific news article to be given. The browser then fetches the given
article from its preconfigured news site using the Network News Transfer Protocol
(NTTP)
5. The Gopher system used the gopher protocol. It was an information retrieval scheme
conceptually like the Web. It supported only text and not images.
6. The mailto protocol allows users to email from a Web browser.
7. The telnet protocol establishes an online connection to remote machines.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 6
15. What does the Web consist of?
16. State true or false: Each page may contain links to other pages anywhere in the
world.
17. The idea of having one-page point to another is now called _________.

7.5. Internet Protocol Addressing

IP addresses are represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value, usually expressed in dotted
decimal format. For example, 9.167.5.8 is a valid IP address. IP software uses the numeric
form. The Domain Name System (DNS) maps the IP address to an easier-to-read symbolic
name, for example, myhost.ibm.com.

To identify a host on the Internet, each host is assigned an address, the IP address, or in some
cases, the Internet address. When the host is attached to multiple networks, it is called
multihomed and has one IP address for each network interface. The IP address consists of a
pair of numbers:

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IP address = <network number><host number>

IP addresses are 32-bit numbers represented in a dotted decimal form (as the decimal
representation of four 8-bit values concatenated with dots). For example, 128.2.7.9 is an IP
address, with 128.2 being the network number and 7.9 being the host number. Next, we
explain the rules for dividing an IP address into its network and host parts.

The binary format of the IP address 128.2.7.9 is:

10000000 00000010 00000111 00001001

IP addresses are used by the IP protocol to uniquely identify a host on the Internet (or more
generally, any internet). Strictly speaking, an IP address identifies an interface capable of
sending and receiving IP datagrams. One system can have multiple such interfaces. However,
hosts and routers must have at least one IP address, so this simplified definition is
acceptable. IP datagrams (the basic data packets exchanged between hosts) are transmitted
by a physical network attached to the host. Each IP datagram contains a source IPaddress
and a destination IP address. To send a datagram to a certain IP destination, the target IP
address must be translated or mapped to a physical address. This might require
transmissions in the network to obtain the destination's physical network address.

Class-based IP addresses
The first bits of the IP address specify how the rest of the address should be separated into
its network and host part. The terms network address and netID are sometimes used instead
of network number. Similarly, the terms host address and hostID are sometimes used instead
of host number.

There are five classes of IP addresses as shown in Figure 13.16.

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Figure 13.16: Assigned classes of IP addresses

Where:
• Class A addresses: These addresses use 7 bits for the <network> and 24 bits for the
<host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 27-2 (126) networks each with 224-
2 (16777214) hosts –more than 2 billion addresses.
• Class B addresses: These addresses use 14 bits for the <network> and 16 bits for the
<host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 214-2 (16382) networks each with
216-2 (65534) hosts –more than 1 billion addresses.
• Class C addresses: These addresses use 21 bits for the <network> and 8 bits for the
<host> portion of the IP address. That allows for 221-2 (2097150) networks each
with 28-2 (254) hosts –more than half a billion addresses.
• Class D addresses: These addresses are reserved for multicasting (a sort of
broadcasting, but in a limited area, and only to hosts using the same Class D address).
• Class E addresses: These addresses are reserved for future or experimental use.

Class A address is suitable for networks with a huge number ofhosts. Class C addresses are
suitable for networks with a small number of hosts. This means that medium-sized networks
(those with more than 254 hosts or with an expectation of more than 254 hosts) must use
Class B addresses. However, the number of small- to medium-sized networks has been

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growing very rapidly. It was feared that if this growth had been allowed to continue
unabated, all the available Class B network addresses would have been used by the mid-
1990s. This was termed the IP address exhaustion problem.

The division of an IP address into two parts also separates the responsibility of selecting the
complete IP address. The network number portion of the address is assigned by the RIRs.
The host number portion is assigned by the authority controlling the network. As shown in
the next section, the host number can be further subdivided: This division is controlled by
the authority that manages the network. The RIRs do not control it.

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8. SUMMARY

In this unit you learnt about the various concepts of Communication. Let’s recap the
important points covered in the unit:

• A Communication System is a system or facility capable of providing information

transfer between persons or equipments.
• Data Communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices
external to the message source.
• A signal is an electric current or electromagnetic field that conveys data from one
place to another.
• Topology is a term used to define the way in which computers are connected in a
network. The physical topology of a network denotes to the configuration of cables,
computers, and other peripherals.
• A star topology is designed with each node connected directly to a central network
hub or concentrator.
• A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists
of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
• The layered model that dominated data communications and networking literature
before 1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
• Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links).
• The transport layer is accountable for the process-to-process delivery of the entire
message.
• Most of the networking software, TCP/IP is modeled in layers. This layered
representation leads to the term protocol stack, which denotes to the stack of layers
in the protocol suite.
• The internetwork layer, also called the internet layer or the network layer, provides
the “virtual network” image of an internet (this layer shields the higher levels from
the physical network architecture below it).
• A Web browser is referred as an application that provides access to a Web server.
Depending on the implementation, browser capabilities and thus structures vary.

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• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a protocol designed to allow the transfer of

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents.

9. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain basic elements of communication system.

2. What is data communication?
3. Briefly explain data & signal.
4. Write a short note on data transmission medium.
5. Briefly explain various network types.
6. What is OSI reference model?

3.10.
HowANSWERS
do you format an Excel sheet

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
3. LAN
4. MAN
5. WAN
6. False
7. True
8. Physical
9. Network
10. Transport
11. Browser
12. Web server
13. It does not keep track of the connections
14. User agent
15. Web pages
16. True

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17. Hypertext

Terminal Questions
Answer 1: A Communication System is a system or facility capable of providing information
transfer between persons or equipments.
(Refer section 2)
Answer 2: Data Communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices
external to the message source. (Refer to section 3)
Answer 3: A signal is an electric current or electromagnetic field that conveys data from one
place to another. The simplest form of signal is a direct current (DC) that is switched on and
off; this is the principle by which the early telegraph worked. (Refer section 3)
Answer 4: Transmission media is the physical path between the transmitter and receiver. It
can be guided or unguided. (Refer section 3.2)
Answer 5: One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their
scope or scale. (Refer section 4)
Answer 6: The layered model that dominated data communications and networking
literature before 1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. (Refer section 5)

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11. REFERENCES
• Absolute Beginner's Guide to Computer Basics By Michael Miller, Que Publishing,
2007
• Alex Leon & Mathews Leon, “Fundamentals of Information Technology”, Leon
Techworld, 2009.
• Computer Concepts Basics By Dolores Wells, Course Technology, 2009
• Computer fundamentals: architecture and organization By B. Ram, New Age
International, 2000
• Data and Computer Communications (9th Edition) by William Stallings (Aug 13,
2010)
• P. K. Sinha & Priti Sinha, “Computer Fundamentals”, BPB Publications, 2004.
• Vikas Gupta, “Comdex Computer Kit”, Wiley Dreamtech, Delhi, 2004 ∙ V. Raja Raman,
“Introduction to Computers”, PHI, 1998. ∙ Windows XP: the complete reference By
John R. Levine, Margaret Levine Young, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 2001.

E-References:
• www.webopedia.com/TERM/N/network.html
• searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/network
• www.howstuffworks.com
• www.personal.kent.edu
• www.searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com

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BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

SEMESTER 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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Unit 14
TCP/IP and Internet
Table of Contents

SL Fig No / Table SAQ / Page

Topic
No / Graph Activity No
1 Introduction - -
4-5
1.1 Objectives - -
2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite - -
2.1 Architecture, History, Standards, and Trends - -
2.2 TCP/IP Architectural Model 1 -
6 - 16
2.3 The TCP/IP protocol layers 2, 3 -
2.4 TCP/IP applications i -
2.5 IP Addressing 4 1
3 History of Internet - -
17 - 19
3.1 Chronological Development of the Internet - 2
4 Concepts of Internet - -
4.1 Clients and Servers - -
4.2 Router 5 - 20 - 23
4.3 ISP - -
4.4 Modems 6 3
5 Internet backbones - -
5.1 Optical Fiber - -
24
5.2 Hub 7 -
5.3 Switches - 4
6 How the Internet Works - 5 25
7 Requirements for Internet - -
7.1 Connection Types - - 26 - 30
7.2 Connecting to the Internet 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 6
8 Uses of Internet - 7 31

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9 Internet Explorer 13, 14 8 32 - 33

10 Internet Applications - 9 34 - 35
11 Summary - - 36 - 37
12 Terminal Questions - - 37
13 Answers - - 37 - 38
14 Reference - - 39

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1. INTRODUCTION
Computer is an information tool. Networks enhance the computer’s ability to exchange,
preserve, and protect information. Networks make it easier to share expensive hardware
and software. The type of information changes from business to business. The way that
information is stored and worked with also varies.

Computers connected over a Network can make the information exchange easier and faster.
The information moves directly from computer to computer rather than through a human
intermediary. Due to this, people can concentrate on getting their work done rather than
moving information around the company. A group of computers and other devices connected
together is called a Network, and the concept of connected computers sharing resources is
called Networking.

The Internet is the publicly available worldwide system of interconnected computer

networks that transmit data by packet switching over the Internet Protocol (IP).

The Internet is a computer network made up of thousands of networks worldwide. No one

knows exactly how many computers are connected to the Internet. It is certain, however,
that these number in millions.

No one oversees the Internet. There are organizations which develop technical aspects of
this network and set standards for creating applications on it, but no governing body is in
control of it. The Internet backbone, through which Internet traffic flows, is owned by private
companies.

The Internet is “a network of networks”. It is a global collection of high-powered computers

that are connected to network cables, telephone lines, microwave dishes, satellites, etc. Some
computers (Servers) on the Internet store documents, sound files, video clips, program files,
electronic shopping centers, animations, pictures, interactive contents and other
information that can be stored and presented electronically. All these resources are available
to all computers connected to the Internet.

You can communicate with anyone on the Internet by sending e-mail, posting messages in
newsgroups, chatting in various chat areas and even telephoning and video-conferencing
over the Net.

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The Internet mainly connects networks of computers. In a corporate wide network, each
department has a Local Area Network that allows sharing of files, databases, printers and
other peripheral devices. Several departments working together interconnect their
networks so that the information may be shared more easily among the departments. This
type of arrangement is called a regional network. These regional networks are
interconnections based on geography or function. The regional networks are connected to
the corporate network, also called a backbone.

1.1. Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to –

❖ Describe TCP/IP Protocol Suite
❖ Brief concepts of the Internet
❖ Explain Internet Backbones
❖ Utilize the Internet application

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2. TCP / IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The TCP/IP protocol suite has become a staple of today's international society and global
economy. Continually evolving standards provide a wide and flexible foundation on which
an entire infrastructure of applications are built. Through these, we can seek entertainment,
conduct business, make financial transactions, deliver services, and much more.

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite has become the
industry-standard method of interconnecting hosts, networks, and the Internet. As such, it is
seen as the engine behind the Internet and networks worldwide.

Although TCP/IP supports a host of applications, both standard and nonstandard, these
applications could not exist without the foundation of a set of core protocols. Additionally, to
understand the capability of TCP/IP applications, an understanding of these core protocols
must be realized.

2.1. Architecture, History, Standards, and Trends

Today, the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) are familiar terms to millions of people
worldwide. Many people depend on applications enabled by the Internet, such as electronic
mail and Web access. In

Additionally, the increased popularity of business applications places additional emphasis

on the Internet.

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite is the engine
for the Internet and networks worldwide. Its simplicity and power has led to its becoming
the single network protocol of choice in the world today. This section gives an overview of
the TCP/IP protocol suite. We discuss how the Internet was formed, how it developed, and
how it will likely develop.

2.2. TCP/IP Architectural Model

The TCP/IP protocol suite is so named for two of its most important protocols: Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). A less used name for it is the Internet
Protocol Suite, which is the phrase used in official Internet standards documents.

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Internetworking
The main design goal of TCP/IP is to build an interconnection of networks, referred to as an
internetwork, or internet, that provide universal communication services over
heterogeneous physical networks. The clear benefit of such an internetwork is enabling
communication between hosts on different networks, perhaps separated by a large
geographical area.

The words ‘internetwork’ and ‘internet’ are simply contractions of the phrase'
interconnected network. ' However, when written with a capital “I,” the Internet refers to the
worldwide set of interconnected networks. Therefore, the Internet is an Internet, but the
reverse does not apply. The Internet is sometimes called the connected Internet.

The Internet consists of the following groups of networks:

• Backbones: Large networks that exist primarily to interconnect other networks. Also
known as network access points (NAPs) or Internet Exchange Points (IXPs).
Currently, the backbones consist of commercial entities.
• Regional networks connecting, for example, universities and colleges.
• Commercial networks providing access to the backbones to subscribers, and
networks owned by commercial organizations for internal use also have Internet
connections.
• Local networks, such as campus-wide university networks.

In most cases, networks are limited in size by the number of users that can belong to the
network, by the maximum geographical distance that the network can span, or by the
applicability of the network to certain environments. For example, an Ethernet network is
inherently limited in terms of geographical size. Therefore, the ability to interconnect a large
number of networks in some hierarchical and organized fashion enables the communication
of any two hosts belonging to this internetwork.

Figure 14.1 below shows two examples of the internet. Each consists of two or more physical
networks.

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Figure 14.1: Internet examples: Two interconnected networks, each seen as one
logical network.

Another important aspect of TCP/IP internetworking is the creation of a standardized

abstraction of the communication mechanisms provided by each type of network. Each
physical network has its own technology-dependent communication interface in the form of
a programming interface that provides basic communication functions (primitives). TCP/IP
provides communication services that run between the programming interface of a physical
network and user applications. It enables a common interface for these applications
independent of the underlying physical network.

Therefore, the architecture of the physical network is hidden from the user and from the
application developer. The application needs only code to the standardized communication
abstraction to function under any type of physical network and operating platform.

As is evident in Figure 14.1, to interconnect two networks, we need a computer that is

attached to both networks and can forward data packets from one network to the other; such
a machine is called a router. The term IP router is also used because the routing function is
part of the Internet Protocol portion of the TCP/IP protocol suite.

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To be able to identify a host within the internetwork, each host is assigned an address, called
the IP address. When a host has multiple network adapters (interfaces), such as with a
router, each interface has a unique IP address. The IP address consists of two parts:

IP address = <network number><host number>

The network number part of the IP address identifies the network within the internet and is
assigned by a central authority and is unique throughout the internet. The authority for
assigning the host number part of the IP address resides with the organization that controls
the network identified by the network number.

2.3. The TCP/IP protocol layers

Like most networking software, TCP/IP is modelled in layers. This layered representation
leads to the term protocol stack, which refers to the stack of layers in the protocol suite. It
can be used for positioning (but not for functionally comparing) the TCP/IP protocol suite
against others, such as Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model. Functional comparisons cannot easily be extracted from this,
because there are basic differences in the layered models used by the different protocol
suites.

By dividing the communication software into layers, the protocol stack allows for division of
labor, ease of implementation and code testing, and the ability to develop alternative layer
implementations. Layers communicate with those above and below via concise interfaces. In
this regard, a layer provides a service to the layer directly above it and uses services provided
by the layer directly below it. For example, the IP layer provides the ability to transfer data
from one host to another without any guarantee to reliable delivery or duplicate
suppression. Transport protocols such as TCP make use of this service to provide
applications with reliable, in-order, data stream delivery.

Figure 14.2 shows how the TCP/IP protocols are modeled in four layers.

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Figure 14.2: The TCP/IP protocol stack: Each layer represents a package of functions.

These layers include:

i. Application layer: The program provides the application layer that uses TCP/IP for
communication. An application is a user process cooperating with another process,
usually on a different host (there is also a benefit to application communication
within a single host). Examples of applications include Telnet and the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP). The interface between the application and transport layers is defined
by port numbers and sockets
ii. Transport layer: The transport layer provides end-to-end data transfer by
delivering data from an application to its remote peer. Multiple applications can be
supported simultaneously. The most-used transport layer protocol is the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides connection-oriented reliable
data delivery, duplicate data suppression, congestion control, and flow control.
Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram Protocol. It provides
connectionless, unreliable, best-effort service. As a result, applications using UDP as
the transport protocol must provide their own end-to-end integrity, flow control, and
congestion control if desired. Usually, UDP is used by applications that need a fast
transport mechanism and can tolerate the loss of some data.
iii. Internetwork layer: The internetwork layer, also called the internet layer or the
network layer, provides the “virtual network” image of an internet (this layer shields
the higher levels from the physical network architecture below it). Internet Protocol
(IP) is the most important protocol in this layer. It is a connectionless protocol that
does not assume reliability from lower layers. IP does not provide reliability, flow

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control, or error recovery. These functions must be provided at a higher level. IP

provides a routing function that delivers transmitted messages to their destination. A
message unit in an IP network is called an IP datagram. This is the basic unit of
information transmitted across TCP/IP networks. IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP are
other internetwork layer protocols.
iv. Network interface layer: The network interface layer, also called the link layer or
the data-link layer, is the interface to the actual network hardware. This interface may
or may not provide reliable delivery and may be packet or stream-oriented. In fact,
TCP/IP does not specify any protocol here, but can use almost any network interface
available, which illustrates the flexibility of the IP layer. Examples are IEEE 802.2,
X.25 (which is reliable), ATM, FDDI, and even SNA. TCP/IP specifications do not
describe or standardize any network-layer protocols per se; they only standardize
ways of accessing those protocols from the internetwork layer.

A more detailed layering model is included in Figure 1.9.

Figure 14.3: Detailed Architectural Model

2.4. TCP/IP applications

Application protocols are the highest-level protocols within the TCP/IP protocol stack. They
communicate with applications on other internet hosts and are the user-visible interface to
the TCP/IP protocol suite.

All application protocols have some characteristics in common:

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• They can be user-written applications or applications standardized and shipped with

the TCP/IP product. Indeed, the TCP/IP protocol suite includes application protocols
such as:
o Telnet for interactive terminal access to remote internet hosts
o File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for high-speed disk-to-disk file transfers
o Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) as an internet mailing system

These are some of the most widely implemented application protocols, but many
others exist. Each TCP/IP implementation will include a lesser or greater set of
application protocols.

• They use either UDP or TCP as a transport mechanism. Remember that UDP is
unreliable and offers no flow-control; so in this case, the application has to provide
its own error recovery, flow control, and congestion control functionality. It is often
easier to build applications on top of TCP because it is a reliable stream, connection-
oriented, congestion-friendly, and flow control-enabled protocol. As a result, most
application protocols will use TCP, but there are applications built on UDP to achieve
better performance through increased protocol efficiencies.
• Most applications use the client/server model of interaction.

2.5. IP Addressing

IP addresses are represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value, usually expressed in dotted
decimal format. For example, 9.167.5.8 is a valid IP address. IP software uses the numeric
form. The Domain Name System (DNS) maps the IP address to an easier-to-read symbolic
name, for example, myhost.ibm.com.

To identify a host on the Internet, each host is assigned an address, the IP address, or in some
cases, the Internet address. When the host is attached to multiple networks, it is called
multihomed and has one IP address for each network interface. The IP address consists of a
pair of numbers:

IP address = <network number><host number>

The network number portion of the IP address is administered by one of three Regional
Internet Registries (RIR):

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• American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN): This registry is responsible for
the administration and registration of Internet Protocol (IP) numbers for North
America, South America, the Caribbean, and sub-Saharan Africa.
• Reseaux IP Europeans (RIPE): This registry is responsible for the administration
and registration of Internet Protocol (IP) numbers for Europe, Middle East, and parts
of Africa.
• Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC): This registry is responsible for
administering and registering Internet Protocol (IP) numbers within the Asia Pacific
region.

IP addresses are 32-bit numbers represented in a dotted decimal form (as the decimal
representation of four 8-bit values concatenated with dots). For example, 128.2.7.9 is an IP
address with 128.2 being the network number and 7.9 being the host number. Next, we
explain the rules for dividing an IP address into its network and host parts.

The binary format of the IP address 128.2.7.9 is:

10000000 00000010 00000111 00001001

IP addresses are used by the IP protocol to uniquely identify a host on the Internet (or, more
generally, any Internet). Strictly speaking, an IP address identifies an interface capable of
sending and receiving IP datagrams. One system can have multiple such interfaces. However,
hosts and routers must have at least one IP address, so this simplified definition is
acceptable. IP datagrams (the basic data packets exchanged between hosts) are transmitted
by a physical network attached to the host. Each IP datagram contains a source IP address
and a destination IP address. To send a datagram to a certain IP destination, the target IP
address must be translated or mapped to a physical address. This might require
transmissions in the network to obtain the destination's physical network address.

Class-based IP addresses
The first bits of the IP address specify how the rest of the address should be separated into
its network and host part. The terms network address and netID are sometimes used instead
of network number. Similarly, the terms host address and hostID are sometimes used instead
of host number.

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There are five classes of IP addresses, as shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 14.4: Assigned classes of IP addresses

Where:

• Class A addresses: These addresses use 7 bits for the <network> and 24 bits for the
<host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 27-2 (126) networks each with 224-
2 (16777214) hosts –more than 2 billion addresses.
• Class B addresses: These addresses use 14 bits for the <network> and 16 bits for the
<host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 214-2 (16382) networks each with
216-2 (65534) hosts –more than 1 billion addresses.
• Class C addresses: These addresses use 21 bits for the <network> and 8 bits for the
<host> portion of the IP address. That allows for 221-2 (2097150) networks each
with 28-2 (254) hosts –more than half a billion addresses.

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• Class D addresses: These addresses are reserved for multicasting (a sort of

broadcasting, but in a limited area, and only to hosts using the same Class D address).
• Class E addresses: These addresses are reserved for future or experimental use.

Class A address is suitable for networks with a huge number of hosts. Class C addresses are
suitable for networks with a small number of hosts. This means that medium-sized networks
(those with more than 254 hosts or with an expectation of more than 254 hosts) must use
Class B addresses. However, the number of small- to medium-sized networks has been
growing very rapidly. It was feared that if this growth had been allowed to continue
unabated, all the available Class B network addresses would have been used by the mid-
1990s. This was termed the IP address exhaustion problem.

The division of an IP address into two parts also separates the responsibility of selecting the
complete IP address. The network number portion of the address is assigned by the RIRs.
The host number portion is assigned by the authority controlling the network. As shown in
the next section, the host number can be further subdivided: This division is controlled by
the authority that manages the network. The RIRs do not control it.

Reserved IP addresses
A component of an IP address with a value of all bits 0 or all bits 1 has a special meaning:

• All bits 0: An address with zero bits in the host number portion is interpreted as ‘this’
host (IP address with <host address>=0). All bits zero in the network number portion
is this network (IP address with <network address>=0). When a host wants to
communicate over a network, but does not yet know the network IP address, it can
send packets with <network address>=0. Other hosts in the network interpret the
address as meaning this network. Their replies contain the fully qualified network
address the sender records for future use.
• All bits 1: An address with all bits 1 is interpreted as all networks or all hosts. For
example, the following means all hosts on network 128.2 (Class B address):

128.2.255.255

This is called a directed broadcast address because it contains a valid <network address>
and a broadcast <host address>.

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• Loopback: The Class A network 127.0.0.0 is defined as the loopback network.

Addresses from that network are assigned to interfaces that process data within the
local system. These loopback interfaces do not access a physical network.

Special use IP addresses: RFC 3330 discusses special use IP addresses. Table 1.1 provides a
brief description of these IP addresses.

Table 14.1: Special use IP addresses

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1
1. The TCP/IP protocol suite is so named for two of its most important protocols,
_________ and ___________.
2. The highest-level protocols within the TCP/IP protocol stack are __________.
3. IP addresses are represented by a 8-bit unsigned binary value. (True/False).

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3. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

The concept of the Internet was devised about 40 years ago to address the U.S. military's
need to maintain communications during a national disaster. Since there were no satellite
links at that time, there was concern that national defense measures would gravely suffer if
one or more of the existing communication channels were destroyed by a terrorist attack.

By this time, scientists at some West Coast universities had already wired their computers
together to share research. This original network was referred to as the ARPANet (Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network).

Seeing the need for a communication system that could withstand damage at numerous
points and still function, the military sought the help of the day's computer experts. These
experts devised a plan for modifying their basic ARPANet idea to create a national network
– the Internet. The military considered the idea and then rejected it as unworkable.
Fortunately, once the idea of the Internet was formulated, the universities went forward on
their own.

The professors, who originally used their network to link large mainframe university
computers, soon saw the advantage of accessing this information from their homes and
offices via modems. Simultaneously, corporations saw advantages in networking computers
to share information with employees throughout the country. They then set up their own
internal and external networks. Soon, more and more people got into the act – and, the rest
is history.

Upto that point all Internet information was shared in the form of basic lines of text referred
to as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) characters. These consist
of all the upper and lower case letters of the alphabet, plus a dozen or so symbols and special
characters. Internet information exchanged at that time primarily centred on e-mail and
newsgroups (information exchange and Internet postings among people sharing similar
interests).

Specialized newsgroups eventually grew to 10,000 in number, covering every imaginable

topic. Individuals could post newsgroup messages under topic headings and read everyone
else's words.

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It has only been rather recently that the popularity of these non-worldwide Web discussion
groups has waned. Once the GUI environment was introduced, it was simply much easier
(although not necessarily faster) to use a browser such as the Internet Explorer or Netscape
or to access Worldwide Web discussion groups and e-mail. Even so, e-mail programs such as
Outlook Express, which come free from the Microsoft's Internet Explorer program, still allow
users to log on to these newsgroups.

3.1. Chronological Development of the Internet

• 1969 – ARPANET:
The first attempt to link computers into a network.
• 1973-1983 – The Internet:
A network made up of smaller networks linked together. Data is transmitted in packets
of information sent using TCP/IP (Transport Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol).
The packets can take different routes to get to their destination.
• 1992 – Mbone:
Multicast Backbone is a networked system with a major increase in bandwidth that
allows things such as movies to be sent in real time. Unlike the Internet, where data is
sent to a single recipient, MBone allows numerous people to receive the transmission at
the same time.
• 1996 – Internet 2:
A high-performance network links more than 200 universalities by fiber optic links.
Using this system, an entire movie can be transmitted in about 35 seconds.
• 1996 – The Grid:
A supercomputer network linking a collection of public and private research centres.
• 2000 – Abone:
Active Network Backbone. A high-speed network stripped of nearly all file-handling
intelligence. The data packets being sent incorporate their own software and delivery
instructions.
• 2002 – Planet Lab:
A much "smarter" technical approach to the Internet where the software can protect
itself against worms and viruses and relieve bottlenecks automatically.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2
4. ARPAnet Stands for __________
5. The Grid is a ___________ network linking a collection of public and private research
centres.

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4. CONCEPTS OF INTERNET

4.1. Clients and Servers

Most of the millions of computers that regularly access the Internet are clients; i.e., they
basically seek and display Internet information. But there must also be computers that
supply this information. These are normally large computers, called servers, that store
information and make it available to large numbers of clients. (Of course, in the era of
Napster and similar music-sharing programs, almost any computer can be configured as
both a client and a server.)

In computing, a server is:

A computer software application that carries out some task on behalf of users. This is usually
divided into file serving, allowing users to store and access files on a common computer;
and application serving, where the software runs a computer program to carry out some
task for the users. This is the original meaning of the term. Web, mail, and database servers
are what most people access when using the Internet.

In computing, a client is:

A system that accesses a (remote) service on another computer via a network. The term was
first applied to devices that were not capable of running their own stand-alone programs but
could interact with remote computers via a network.

The client-server model is still used today on the Internet, where a user may connect to a
service operating on a remote system through the Internet protocol suite. Web browsers are
clients that connect to web servers and retrieve web pages for display. Most people use e-
mail clients to retrieve their e-mail from their ISP's mail storage servers. Online chat uses a
variety of clients, which vary depending on the chat protocol being used.

4.2. Router

A router is a computer networking device that forwards data packets toward their
destinations through a process known as routing.

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Figure 14.5: A Linksys NAT (Network Address translation) Router, popular for
home and small office networks.

They are devices that forward traffic between networks, using information from the network
layer and routing tables. Some routers are dedicated, i.e., they are used only for shuffling
traffic. Some routers are also used for other purposes, including file storage. A Routing Table
is a table or database of routing paths and decision variables that allow routers to send
packets to the correct destination.

A router must be connected to at least two networks, or it will have nothing to route. A router
that connects end-users to the Internet is called an Edge router; a router that transmits data
between other routers is called a Core router.

Routers are also now being implemented as Internet gateways, primarily for small networks
like those used in homes and small offices. This application is mainly where the Internet
connection is an always-on broadband connection like cable modem or DSL (Digital
Subscriber Line).

4.3. ISP (Internet Service Providers)

The cheapest way to surf the Internet is to get a connection from your local Internet Service
Provider (ISP). The ISP takes you to the Internet. ISP will charge you periodically for the
Internet access. Your ISP may also charge you an initial set up fee. If you are accessing the
Internet from within Windows, you will require SLIP (Serial Line Input Protocol) or PPP
(Point to Point Protocol) connections. VSNL [Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd.], MTNL and Satyam
Online is a popular Internet Service Provider in India. It has DNS servers in many cities.

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ISPs provide connections to the Internet for home users and businesses. There are local,
regional, national, and global ISPs. However, the regional and national providers that provide
bandwidth, transit, and routing services are more appropriately called NSPs (network
service providers). The interconnection scheme is hierarchical in most cases, with local ISPs
connecting into regional NSPs that, in turn, connect into national or global NSPs.

An ISP is usually a local service provider that provides customers with Internet access and
customer support. In contrast, NSPs are more interested in network infrastructure and
reselling bandwidth. Many ISPs are small offices with little equipment.

SLIP and PPP are two popular protocols that allow home computer users to connect their
computers to the Internet as peer hosts. In this mode of connection, the host computer can
browse the network individually without any interruption from the server.

4.4. Modems

Figure 14.6

Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices that convert digital

signals to analog signals and vice versa. Modems allow digital transmissions over analog
telephone lines. They allow people to connect their computers with other computers,
corporate office LANs, and the Internet. A Modem is required when connecting to Internet
using telephone lines. It is an essential link between the computer running Internet browser
and Dial-up service provider. The modem must be connected to the computer and to the
telephone on both ends.

Modem speeds are measured in terms of BPS (Bits Per Second). Speeds available are 9600
BPS, 28800 BPS, 33600 BPS etc. Connecting speed is dependent on the telephone service. A
telephone service called ISDN, (Integrated Services Digital Network) allows a modem to

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connect at 128 KBPS. DOT provides this service and costs more than the regular analog
connection. It also requires additional hardware. However ISDN connection provides fastest
access and highest quality connection. It combines voice and digital network services in a
single medium, making it possible to offer customers digital data services and voice
connections through a single wire. There are two types of ISDN services, PRI (Primary Rate
interface) and BRI (Basic Rate Interface).

Wireless “modems”
Wireless modems come in a variety of types, bandwidths, and speeds. They are often
referred to as transparent or smart. They transmit information that is modulated onto a
carrier frequency to allow many simultaneous wireless communication links to work
simultaneously on different frequencies.

Transparent modems operate like their phone line modem cousins. Typically, they are half
duplex, meaning that they cannot send and receive data simultaneously. Typically,
transparent modems are polled in a round-robin manner to collect small amounts of data
from scattered locations that do not have easy access to wired infrastructure. Utility
companies most commonly use transparent modems for data collection.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3
7. The computers that supply this information are referred to as _______.
8. A _________ is a computer networking device that forwards data packets toward their
destinations through a process known as routing.
9. Modems are data communication devices that convert digital signals to analog
signals and vice versa. (True/False)

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5. INTERNET BACKBONES

5.1. Optical Fiber

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is
flexible and can be bundled as cables. Although fibers can be made of either plastic or glass,
the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications applications are always glass because
of its lower optical absorption. The light transmitted through the fiber is confined due to total
internal reflection within the material.

5.2. Hub

Figure 14.7: A concentrator that joins multiple clients using a single link to the rest
of the LAN.
A hub has several ports to which clients are connected directly and one or more ports that
can be used to connect the hub to the backbone or other active network components. A hub
functions as a multiport repeater; signals received on any port are immediately
retransmitted to all other ports of the hub.

5.3. Switches

A switch is a device that connects all devices on a home network so that they can talk
together. Unlike a hub, traffic sent from Server A to Server B will only be received by Server
B.
Switches regulate traffic, thereby eliminating the possibility of message garbling. Switches,
therefore, provide more efficient traffic flow.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4
10. The light transmitted through the fibre is confined due to _________ within the material.
11. A hub functions as a ________.

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6. HOW INTERNET WORKS MODEL

In a network, if you wish to send mail, enter the name of the user (i.e., the user name to whom
you want to send the mail). The E-mail system of the network sends the mail to the concerned
address. This arrangement is similar to calling a local telephone number. Anyone wanting to
access a telephone number from outside the city limit must enter the area code and the
telephone number. Similarly, if the two people are not in the same E-mail system, they must
enter fully qualified addresses. Between these two persons there may be many networks.
Once the e-mail is sent, the message is broken into small pieces called “packets”. Packets are
the basic unit of measurement on the Internet. There are special-purpose computers called
“Routers” on the Internet, which will decide the best path to the destination to send these
packets. Once these packets reach their destination they are reassembled into the original
message.

The Internet has been described as co-operative anarchy. Each individual network has its
own rules. Communication between networks is possible because of cooperation. There is
no central administration of the Internet but there are formal bodies within the Internet that
perform co-ordinating functions.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5
12. _________ are the basic unit of measurement on the Internet.
13. The _________ of the network sends the mail to the concerned address

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7. REQUIREMENTS FOR INTERNET

• An account with Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a must to connect to the Internet.
In India, Airtel, BSNL\ and VSNL are the Internet Service Providers.
• Individual computers can establish a connection with ISP’s servers. A username and
a password restriction are used to connect to the main server. Direct cable connection
and dial-up networking (using telephone lines and modem) are the ways to connect
your machine to ISP’s servers.
• In the case of dial-up networking, telephone lines and modems are used to connect to
local ISP. In this kind of connection, the user must dial the ISP’s phone numbers to
establish the connection. In copper wires (telephone lines) digital data cannot travel.
So, digital data is converted into analog signals and transmitted. The speed of the
connection is determined based on the status of the telephone system. If a telephone
system uses copper wires, the speed of the data flow cannot exceed 64Kbps.
• Internet Browser brings the Internet to your system. Web browsers enable you to use
most Internet features like sending and receiving mail, downloading files from the
Internet, browsing documents on the Net and reading and posting messages in News
Groups. Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer are the two most
popular Web browsers. These browsers can be used to watch videos on the Web,
listen to music, read a book, and even shop.

7.1. Connection Types

• In a host/terminal connection or shell account, your computer acts like a terminal

directly connected to an internal host. Terminal emulation programs (Windows
Terminal) can be used to make your computer act as a terminal. The terminal
program signals the modem to dial and handles the transfer of characters from your
computer to the host computer and back. This account does not permit the download
of graphics, video, or audio from websites. It is less expensive.
• TCP/IP link lets your computer function as an Internet host. These links are called
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) or PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) links. Using this
account, direct e-mail, some sort of newsgroup access, FTP, Telnet and running a

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browser software is possible. This account is more expensive and allows for graphics
download.

7.2. Connecting to the Internet

1. Obtain software from an Internet service provider (ISP). Your computer may already have
one or more such programs included on its hard disk.

2. Follow the ISP's instructions for installing the software.

3. The installation program will most likely guide you through the process of registering and
setting up your online account. You'll be asked to provide information such as your name,
address, and billing information. Once you've input your information, many ISPs will
configure themselves automatically. If not, the ISP will provide instructions for what to do.

4. If the ISP has given you instructions for configuring Windows, you must first open the
Internet Options control panel. Open the Start menu, then click Settings, then click Control
Panel. Double-click Internet Options and click the Connections tab.

Figure 14.8: Click on Internet Options

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Figure 14.9
5. Your first step is to create a Connection file with the access phone number given to you by
the ISP. In the Dial-Up Settings pane of the window, click Add, then follow the instructions.

Figure 14.10

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Figure 14.11
6. After you add the phone number, select the connection you just made, then click the
Settings button.

Figure 14.12
7. Enter a name, password, and other information your ISP has given you. 8. Click on connect
option bottom of the box to set your Internet settings.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 6
14. In India Airtel, BSNL\ and VSNL are the Internet Service Providers. (True/False).
15. Internet Browser brings the Internet to our system. (True/false)

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8. USES OF INTERNET
• Search for information: On the Internet, there are sites that have electronic versions of
classic literature pages and pages of movie facts, stock quotes, collections of music and
other interactive content and mountains of additional information. Since there is awful
lot of information, you may have trouble finding a place to start.
• Electronic Mail: One of the widely used features on the Internet is electronic mail (e-
mail). With e-mail, you can send and receive emails without even leaving the keyboard.
Messages can be sent globally just by paying local telephone charges. When someone
sends you an e-mail, it is stored in your mailbox (on the service provider’s computer).
Using the e-mail program, connect to your ISP and download your message to your local
hard disk. E-mail eliminates the need of postage stamps and greatly reduces the time
taken to send and receive messages.
• Chat with Other People: If you like talking to complete strangers and making new
friends, the Internet is the best place. With chat programs, you can chat with a group of
people whose geographical location you need not know.
• Telnet to other Computers: With the telnet program, you can connect to another
computer and use it as if you were sitting at its keyboard. When the telnet program
connects your computer to a remote computer, the remote computer usually asks you to
enter a user name and a password. On telnet sites that allow anonymous access, you can
enter anonymous as your username and your e-mail address as the password.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 7
16. When someone sends an email it is stored in _________.
17. With _________ program, you can connect to another computer and use it as if you were
sitting at its keyboard.

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9. INTERNET EXPLORER
Internet Explorer is a popular Web browser created by Microsoft for viewing pages on the
World Wide Web. When Internet Explorer is first opened on your computer, the main screen
of the program will appear. This main window has many parts, which are described below
in detail.

Figure 14.13

The "Title Bar" at the very top of the window tells you the title of the page you are viewing
and what Internet Explorer application is currently active.

Directly under the "Title Bar" is the "Main Menu Bar". This bar has many different sub-menus
which control all options, functions, and commands for the entire Internet Explorer program.
Some of the browsing controls can also be found in this sub-menus.

Beneath this menu is the "Internet Explorer Toolbar." This toolbar contains the most
frequently used commands and browsing functions.

Figure 14.14

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The Main Explorer Toolbar

Under the toolbar is the "Address Bar." This bar tells you the exact HTTP/URL location of the
page you are currently viewing. You can also type a Web address directly into this bar and
then press enter to go to that site.

Below the "Address Bar" is the "Link Bar". These buttons will take you to pages at Microsoft's
Main home site where they have applications and information specifically designed for your
easy use.

Underneath the "Link Bar" is the "Main Browser Window". This window will display all of
the information that is located at the Web site you are currently located at. Any text, images,
movies, animation, links, or any other application files will be shown in this window. The
scroll bars located on the right side and on the bottom of this window allow you to continue
viewing the page you are located at even when the page is too large to fit in your screen.

The very bottom of the page is the "Status Bar". This bar tells you what the progress of the
browser is while it downloads files to the page, where links go to when you move over them,
whether or not a document is secure, and any other information that the program feels is
necessary for you to know.

Other Internet Explorer Functions

• Viewing Documents while not on the web
• Printing Web Documents
• Using Internet Mail

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 8
18. A Web browser created by Microsoft is ________.
19. _________ tells the exact HTTP/URL location of the page we are currently viewing.

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10. INTERNET APPLICATIONS

Regular use of the Internet is strongly related to education and race.

Note in the above graph that while only about 22% of people without a high school education
use the Internet, almost 90% of people with a college education regularly surf the Net. Age
is also strongly related. In some cases grade school youths are much more comfortable with
computers and the Internet than even their elder brothers and sisters who are in college.

Although some families may consider the Internet a luxury, savvy businesses now see it as a
necessity in today's competitive business environment. Thousands of college classes depend
on the Internet for reading materials and course research, and the number of complete
courses on the Internet now totals several hundred-thousand. Several institutions grant
degrees solely on the basis of Internet coursework.

Another indication of the rapid growth of computer use has been the increase in bill paying
over the Internet. Millions of people no longer make out checks, address envelopes, and lick
stamps to pay their bills – they simply do it all by mouse clicks. Some banks exist only on the
Internet, which often means that the money they save on offices, facilities, etc., can not only
be passed on to users in the form lower fees, but these institutions can also pay higher
interest rates on accounts.

Although Internet advertising trails the other media in total revenue, as you can see on the
above, it is showing the most rapid growth.

Advertising on the Internet has a controversial history. Many purists originally felt that the
Internet should be free of advertising clutter and influence. (The same views were originally
lodged against broadcast advertising.)

Even with all of these developments, the Internet is still in its infancy. As bandwidth
limitations and standards problems are resolved, many of the barriers to its more effective
use will be removed. A major problem for education is the inability to transmit full-screen,
full-motion video—a problem that should soon be resolved.

Compared to the traditional classroom, research has shown that students can do just as well,
and sometimes better, by taking well-designed Internet courses. For students, Internet
classes not only save time and money, but they can fit into difficult work schedules.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 9
20. Several institutions grant degrees solely based on Internet coursework. (True/False)
21. For students, Internet classes save time and money and can fit into difficult work
schedules. (True/false).

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11. SUMMARY
• The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite is the
engine for the Internet and networks worldwide. Its simplicity and power has led to its
becoming the single network protocol of choice in the world today.
• The main design goal of TCP/IP is to build an interconnection of networks, referred to as
an internetwork, or internet, that provide universal communication services over
heterogeneous physical networks.
• Like most networking software, TCP/IP is modelled in layers. This layered
representation leads to the term protocol stack, which refers to the stack of layers in the
protocol suite.
• The TCP/IP protocols are modelled in four layers these are Application layer, Transport
layer, Internetwork layer, and Network interface layer.
• A 32-bit unsigned binary value represents IP addresses. It is usually expressed in a dotted
decimal format. For example, 9.167.5.8 is a valid IP address.
• The Internet is the publicly available worldwide system of interconnected computer
networks that transmit data by packet switching over the Internet Protocol (IP).
• Technically, when you connect two or more computers together that’s called a network.
• Packets are the basic unit of measurement on the Internet.
• Original network was called the ARPANet (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network).
• Of basic lines of text referred to as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) characters.
• Most of the millions of computers that regularly access the Internet are clients.
• Normally, large computers, called servers, store information and make it available to
large numbers of clients.
• A router is a computer networking device that forwards data packets toward their
destinations through a process known as routing.
• The cheapest way to surf the Internet is to get a connection from your local Internet
Service Provider (ISP).
• Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices that convert
digital signals to analog signals and vice versa.

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• Hub is a concentrator that joins multiple clients through a single link to the rest of the
LAN.

12. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain TCP/IP Protocol layers.

2. Write a short note on modems.
3. Write a note on various Internet Service Providers.
4. Write a note on Internet Explorer.
5. Write steps to connect to the Internet.

3.13.
HowANSWERS
do you format an Excel sheet

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
2. Application Protocol
3. False
4. Advanced Research Project Agency
5. Supercomputer
6. False
7. Server
8. Router
9. True
10. Total Internal reflection
11. Multiport Repeater
12. Packet
13. The email system
14. True
15. True
16. Mail box

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17. Telnet
18. Explorer
19. Address Bar
20. True
21. True
Terminal Questions
Answer 1. Like most networking software, TCP/IP is modelled in layers. This layered
representation leads to the term protocol stack, which refers to the stack of layers in the
protocol suite. Refer section 2.3
Answer 2. Modems (modulators/demodulators) are data communication devices that
convert digital signals to analog signals and vice versa.Refer section 4.4
Answer 3. The ISP takes you to the Internet. ISP will charge you periodically for the Internet
access. Refer section 4.3.
Answer 4. A popular Web browser, created by Microsoft, used to view pages on the World
Wide Web. Refer section 9.
Answer 5. Obtain software from an Internet service provider (ISP). Your computer may
already have one or more such programs included on its hard disk. Refer section 7.2.

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14. REFERENCES
• Introduction to Digital Media by Tony Feldman.
• Kaye, Barbaka K.Norman J Medoff (2001), The World Wide Web – A mass communication
perspective, Mc Graw Hill Higher Education, New York.
• Feldman, Tony – Introduction to Digital Media
• Digital Computer Fundamentals by Bartee, Thomas C.

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