Bhagwan Parshuram Institute of Technology, Delhi

Introduction to DBMS Lab.

Practical File
INDEX
Name of the student: Enrollment Number:

S.No. Aim of the Experiment Date Remarks

1 To practice and implement data
definition language commands and
constraints.
2 To study the various DML commands
and implement them on the database.

3 Write the queries for implementing

built-in functions, GROUP BY ,
HAVING , ORDER BY.
4 To perform nested Queries and joining
Queries using DML command.

5 To perform set operations using DML

Commands.

6 To create and manipulate various

database objects of the Table using
views
7 To create PL/SQL programs to
implement various types of control
structure.
8 To develop procedures and function for
various operations.

9 To create triggers for various events

such as insertion, updation, etc.,
 Exercise Number: 1
Title of the Exercise : DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL) COMMANDS
Date of the Exercise :
OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT
To practice and implement data definition language commands and constraints.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2
b) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
DDL COMMAND
It is used to communicate with database. DDL is used to:
1 o Create an object
o Alter the structure of an object
o To drop the object created.
2 The commands used are: Create, Alter, Drop, Truncate
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT
An integrity constraint is a mechanism used by oracle to prevent invalid data entry
3 into the table. It has enforcing the rules for the columns in a table. The types of the
integrity constraints are:
a) Domain Integrity b) Entity Integrity c) Referential Integrity
a) Domain Integrity
This constraint sets a range and any violations that take place will prevent the user
from performing the manipulation that caused the breach. It includes:
Not Null constraint:
While creating tables, by default the rows can have null value .the enforcement of
not null constraint in a table ensure that the table contains values.
Principle of null values:
4 o Setting null value is appropriate when the actual value is unknown, or when a
value would not be meaningful.
o A null value is not equivalent to a value of zero.
o A null value will always evaluate to null in any expression.
o When a column name is defined as not null, that column becomes a mandatory
i.e., the user has to enter data into it.
o Not null Integrity constraint cannot be defined using the alter table command
when the table contain rows.
Check Constraint:
Check constraint can be defined to allow only a particular range of values .when the
5
manipulation violates this constraint, the record will be rejected. Check condition
cannot contain sub queries.
 b) Entity Integrity
Maintains uniqueness in a record. An entity represents a table and each row of a
table represents an instance of that entity. To identify each row in a table uniquely
we need to use this constraint. There are 2 entity constraints:
Unique key constraint
It is used to ensure that information in the column for each record is unique, as with
telephone or drivers license numbers. It prevents the duplication of value with rows
of a specified column in a set of column. A column defined with the constraint can
allow null value.
6 If unique key constraint is defined in more than one column i.e., combination of
column cannot be specified. Maximum combination of columns that a composite
unique key can contain is 16.
Primary Key Constraint
A primary key avoids duplication of rows and does not allow null values. It can be
defined on one or more columns in a table and is used to uniquely identify each row
in a table. These values should never be changed and should never be null.
A table should have only one primary key. If a primary key constraint is assigned to
more than one column or combination of column is said to be composite primary
key, which can contain 16 columns.
c) Referential Integrity
It enforces relationship between tables. To establish parent-child relationship
between 2 tables having a common column definition, we make use of this
constraint. To implement this, we should define the column in the parent table as
primary key and same column in the child table as foreign key referring to the
7 corresponding parent entry.
Foreign key
A column or combination of column included in the definition of referential
integrity, which would refer to a referenced key.
Referenced key
It is a unique or primary key upon which is defined on a column belonging to the
parent table.
c) SQL Commands:
CREATE TABLE
It is used to create a table
Syntax: Create table tablename (column_name1 data_ type constraints, column_name2
data_ type constraints …)
Example:
Create table Emp ( EmpNo number(5), EName VarChar(15), Job Char(10) constraint un unique,
DeptNo number(3) CONSTRAINT FKey2 REFERENCES DEPT(DeptNo));

Create table stud (sname varchar2(20) not null, rollno number(10) not null,dob date not null);
Rules:
1. Oracle reserved words cannot be used.
3. Underscore, numerals, letters are allowed but not blank space.
3. Maximum length for the table name is 30 characters.
4. 2 different tables should not have same name.
5. We should specify a unique column name.
6. We should specify proper data type along with width.
7. We can include “not null” condition when needed. By default it is ‘null’.
ALTER TABLE
Alter command is used to:
1. Add a new column.
3. Modify the existing column definition.
 3. To include or drop integrity constraint.
Syntax: alter table tablename add/modify (attribute datatype(size));
Example:
1. Alter table emp add (phone_no char (20));
2. Alter table emp modify(phone_no number (10));
3. ALTER TABLE EMP ADD CONSTRAINT Pkey1 PRIMARY KEY (EmpNo);
DROP TABLE
It will delete the table structure provided the table should be empty.
Example: drop table prog20; Here prog20 is table name
TRUNCATE TABLE
If there is no further use of records stored in a table and the structure has to be retained
then the records alone can be deleted.
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>;
Example: Truncate table stud;
DESC
This is used to view the structure of the table.
Example: desc emp;
Name Null? Type

EmpNo NOT NULL number(5)

EName VarChar(15)
Job NOT NULL Char(10)
DeptNo NOT NULL number(3)
PHONE_NO number (10)
DOMAIN INTEGRITY
Example: Create table cust(custid number(6) not null, name char(10));
Alter table cust modify (name not null);
CHECK CONSTRAINT
Example: Create table student (regno number (6), mark number (3) constraint b check
(mark >=0 and mark <=100));
Alter table student add constraint b2 check (length(regno<=4));
ENTITY INTEGRITY
a) Unique key constraint
Example: Create table cust(custid number(6) constraint uni unique, name char(10));
Alter table cust add(constraint c unique(custid));
b) Primary Key Constraint
Example: Create table stud(regno number(6) constraint primary key, name char(20));
d) Queries:
Q1. Create a table called EMP with the following structure.
Name Type
---------- ----------------------
EMPNO NUMBER(6)
ENAME VARCHAR2(20)
JOB VARCHAR2(10)
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
SAL NUMBER(7,2)
Allow NULL for all columns except ename and job.
Solution:
1. Understand create table syntax.
2. Use the create table syntax to create the said tables.
3. Create primary key constraint for each table as understand from logical table structure.
Ans:
SQL> create table emp(empno number(6),ename varchar2(20)not null,job varchar2(10) not null,
deptno number(3),sal number(7,2));
Table created.

Q2: Add a column experience to the emp table. experience numeric null allowed.
Solution:
1. Learn alter table syntax. 2. Define the new column and its data type.
3. Use the alter table syntax.
Ans:
SQL> alter table emp add(experience number(2));
Table altered.

Q3: Modify the column width of the job field of emp table.
Solution:
1. Use the alter table syntax. 2. Modify the column width and its data type.
Ans:
SQL> alter table emp modify(job varchar2(12));
Table altered.
SQL> alter table emp modify(job varchar(13));
Table altered.

Q4: Create dept table with the following structure.

Name Type
------------ ---------------------
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)
DNAME VARCHAR2(10)
LOC VARCHAR2(10)
Deptno as the primarykey
Solution:
1. Understand create table syntax. 2. Decide the name of the table.
3. Decide the name of each column and its data type.
4. Use the create table syntax to create the said tables.
5. Create primary key constraint for each table as understand from logical table structure.
Ans:
SQL> create table dept(deptno number(2) primary key,dname varchar2(10),loc
varchar2(10));
Table created.
Q5: create the emp1 table with ename and empno, add constraints to check the empno
value while entering (i.e) empno > 100.
Solution:
1. Learn alter table syntax. 2. Define the new constraint [columns name type]
3. Use the alter table syntax for adding constraints.
Ans:
SQL> create table emp1(ename varchar2(10),empno number(6) constraint ch
check(empno>100));
Table created.
Q6: drop a column experience to the emp table.
Solution:
1. Learn alter table syntax. Use the alter table syntax to drop the column.
Ans:
SQL> alter table emp drop column experience;
Table altered.
Q7: Truncate the emp table and drop the dept table
Solution:
1. Learn drop, truncate table syntax.
Ans:
SQL> truncate table emp;
Table truncated.
SQL> drop table dept;
Table dropped.

e) Result:
Thus the data definition language commands was performed and implemented
successfully

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define the terms

DDL:
Data base schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a special language
called a data definition language.
2. What are the categories of SQL command?
SQL commands are divided in to the following categories:
Data Delimitation language
Data manipulation language
Data control language
Transaction Control Language
3. What is integrity constraint?
An integrity constraint is a mechanism used by oracle to prevent invalid data entry into
the table. It has enforcing the rules for the columns in a table.
4. List the types of constraint.
a) Domain Integrity
b) Entity Integrity
c) Referential Integrity
5. Primary Key Constraint
A primary key avoids duplication of rows and does not allow null values. It can be
defined on one or more columns in a table and is used to uniquely identify each row in a
table. These values should never be changed and should never be null.
6. Referential Integrity
It enforces relationship between tables. To establish parent-child relationship between 2
tables having a common column definition, we make use of this constraint. To implement
this, we should define the column in the parent table as primary key and same column in
the child table as foreign key referring to the corresponding parent entry.
 Exercise Number: 2
Title of the Exercise : DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML) COMMANDS
Date of the Exercise :
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
To study the various DML commands and implement them on the database.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2
b) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
DML COMMAND
1 DML commands are the most frequently used SQL commands and is used to query
and manipulate the existing database objects. Some of the commands are Insert,
Select, Update, Delete
Insert Command
This is used to add one or more rows to a table. The values are separated by commas
2
and the data types char and date are enclosed in apostrophes. The values must be
entered in the same order as they are defined.
Select Commands
It is used to retrieve information from the table. it is generally referred to as
3
querying the table. We can either display all columns in a table or only specify
column from the table.
Update Command
4 It is used to alter the column values in a table. A single column may be updated or
more than one column could be updated.
Delete command
5 After inserting row in a table we can also delete them if required. The delete
command consists of a from clause followed by an optional where clause.

c) SQL Commands:
INSERT COMMAND
Inserting a single row into a table:
Syntax: insert into <table name> values (value list)
Example: insert into s values(‘s3’,’sup3’,’blore’,10)

Inserting more than one record using a single insert commands:

Syntax: insert into <table name> values (&col1, &col2, ….)
Example: Insert into stud values(&reg, ‘&name’, &percentage);

Skipping the fields while inserting:

Insert into <tablename(coln names to which datas to b inserted)> values (list of values);
Other way is to give null while passing the values.
SELECT COMMANDS
Selects all rows from the table
Syntax: Select * from tablename;
Example; Select * from IT;

The retrieval of specific columns from a table:

It retrieves the specified columns from the table
Syntax: Select column_name1, …..,column_namen from table name;
Example: Select empno, empname from emp;

Elimination of duplicates from the select clause:

It prevents retriving the duplicated values .Distinct keyword is to be used.
Syntax: Select DISTINCT col1, col2 from table name;
Example: Select DISTINCT job from emp;

Select command with where clause:

To select specific rows from a table we include ‘where’ clause in the select command. It
can appear only after the ‘from’ clause.
Syntax: Select column_name1, …..,column_namen from table name where condition;
Example: Select empno, empname from emp where sal>4000;
Select command with order by clause:
Syntax: Select column_name1, …..,column_namen from table name where condition
order by colmnname;
Example: Select empno, empname from emp order by empno;
Select command to create a table:
Syntax: create table tablename as select * from existing_tablename;
Example: create table emp1 as select * from emp;
Select command to insert records:
Syntax: insert into tablename ( select columns from existing_tablename);
Example: insert into emp1 ( select * from emp);

UPDATE COMMAND
Syntax:update tablename set field=values where condition;
Example:Update emp set sal = 10000 where empno=135;

DELETE COMMAND
Syntax: Delete from table where conditions;
Example:delete from emp where empno=135;
d) Queries:
Q1: Insert a single record into dept table.
Solution:
1. Decide the data to add in dept.
2. Add to dept one row at a time using the insert into syntax.
Ans:
SQL> insert into dept values (1,'IT','Tholudur');
1 row created.
Q2: Insert more than a record into emp table using a single insert command.
Ans:
SQL> insert into emp values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&deptno,&sal);
Enter value for empno: 1
Enter value for ename: Mathi
Enter value for job: AP
Enter value for deptno: 1
 Enter value for sal: 10000
old 1: insert into emp values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&deptno,&sal)
new 1: insert into emp values(1,'Mathi','AP',1,10000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 2
Enter value for ename: Arjun
Enter value for job: ASP
Enter value for deptno: 2
Enter value for sal: 12000
old 1: insert into emp values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&deptno,&sal)
new 1: insert into emp values(2,'Arjun','ASP',2,12000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 3
Enter value for ename: Gugan
Enter value for job: ASP
Enter value for deptno: 1
Enter value for sal: 12000
old 1: insert into emp values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&deptno,&sal)
new 1: insert into emp values(3,'Gugan','ASP',1,12000)
1 row created.
Q3: Update the emp table to set the salary of all employees to Rs15000/- who are working
as ASP
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 12000
3 Gugan ASP 1 12000
SQL> update emp set sal=15000 where job='ASP';
2 rows updated.
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 15000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
Q4: Create a pseudo table employee with the same structure as the table emp and insert
rows into the table using select clauses.
Ans:
SQL> create table employee as select * from emp;
Table created.
SQL> desc employee;
Name Null? Type

EMPNO NUMBER(6)
ENAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20)
JOB NOT NULL VARCHAR2(13)
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
SAL NUMBER(7,2)
Q5: select employee name, job from the emp table
Ans:
SQL> select ename, job from emp;
ENAME JOB

Mathi AP
Arjun ASP
Gugan ASP
Karthik Prof
Akalya AP
suresh lect
6 rows selected.
Q6: Delete only those who are working as lecturer
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 15000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
4 Karthik Prof 2 30000
5 Akalya AP 1 10000
6 suresh lect 1 8000
6 rows selected.
SQL> delete from emp where job='lect';
1 row deleted.
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 15000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
4 Karthik Prof 2 30000
5 Akalya AP 1 10000
Q7: List the records in the emp table orderby salary in ascending order.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp order by sal;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
5 Akalya AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 15000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
4 Karthik Prof 2 30000
Q8: List the records in the emp table orderby salary in descending order.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp order by sal desc;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

4 Karthik Prof 2 30000

2 Arjun ASP 2 15000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
1 Mathi AP 1 10000
5 Akalya AP 1 10000
Q9: Display only those employees whose deptno is 30.
Solution:
1. Use SELECT FROM WHERE syntax.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp where deptno=1;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
5 Akalya AP 1 10000

Q10: Display deptno from the table employee avoiding the duplicated values.
Solution:
1. Use SELECT FROM syntax.
2. Select should include distinct clause for the deptno.
Ans:
SQL> select distinct deptno from emp;

DEPTNO

1
2

e) Result:
Thus the DML commands using from where clause was performed successfully and
executed.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is DML?
DML commands are the most frequently used SQL commands and is used to query
and manipulate the existing database objects.
2. What are DML command?
Some of the commands are Insert, Select, Update, Delet
3. Give the general form of SQL Queries? Select
A1, A2… ............. , An
From R,1R2 ........ ..........., R
m Where P
4. What is the use of rename operation?
Rename operation is used to rename both relations and an attributes. It uses the as
clause, taking the form: Old-name as new-name
5. Define tuple variable?
Tuple variables are used for comparing two tuples in the same relation. The tuple
variables are defined in the from clause by way of the as clause.
6. Write the syntax to retrieve specific columns from a table:

Syntax: Select column_name1, ....... ,column_namen from table name;

 Exercise Number: 3
Title of the Exercise : IN BUILT FUNCTIONS
Date of the Exercise :
OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT
Write the queries for implementing built-in functions ,GROUP BY, HAVING,ORDER BY.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2
b) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
Function is a group of code that accepts zero or more arguments and both return one
or more results. Both are used to manipulate individual data items. Operators differ
from functional in that they follow the format of function name (arg..). An argument
1
is a user defined variables or constants. Most operators accept at most 2 arguments
while the structure of functions permit to accept 3 or more arguments. Function can
be classifies into single row function and group functions.
Single Row functions
A single row function or scalar function returns only one value for every row
queries in table. Single row function can appear in a select command and can also
be included in a where clause. The single row function can be broadly classified as,
2 o Date Function o Numeric Function
o Character Function o Conversion Function
o Miscellaneous Function
The example that follows mostly uses the symbol table “dual”. It is a table, which is
automatically created by oracle along with the data dictionary.
Date Function
3 They operate on date values and produce outputs, which also belong to date data
type except for months, between, date function returns a number.
Group Functions
4
A group function returns a result based on group of rows

c) SQL Commands:
DATE FUNCTION
1. Add_month
This function returns a date after adding a specified date with specified number of months.
Syntax: Add_months(d,n); where d-date n-number of months
Example: Select add_months(sysdate,2) from dual;
2. last_day
It displays the last date of that month.
Syntax: last_day (d); where d-date
Example: Select last_day (‘1-jun-2009’) from dual;
3. Months_between
It gives the difference in number of months between d1 & d2.
Syntax: month_between (d1,d2); where d1 & d2 -dates
Example: Select month_between (‘1-jun-2009’,’1-aug-2009’) from dual;
4. next_day
It returns a day followed the specified date.
Syntax: next_day (d,day);
Example: Select next_day (sysdate,’wednesday’) from dual
5. round
This function returns the date, which is rounded to the unit specified by the format model.
Syntax : round (d,[fmt]);
where d- date, [fmt] – optional. By default date will be rounded to the nearest day
Example: Select round (to_date(‘1-jun-2009’,’dd-mm-yy’),’year’) from dual;
Select round (‘1-jun-2009’,’year’) from dual;
NUMERICAL FUNCTIONS
Command Query Output

Abs(n) Select abs(-15) from dual; 15

Ceil(n) Select ceil(55.67) from dual; 56
Exp(n) Select exp(4) from dual; 54.59
Floor(n) Select floor(100.2) from dual; 100
Power(m,n) Select power(4,2) from dual; 16
Mod(m,n) Select mod(10,3) from dual; 1
Round(m,n) Select round(100.256,2) from dual; 100.26
Trunc(m,n) Select trunc(100.256,2) from dual; 100.23
Sqrt(m,n) Select sqrt(16) from dual; 4

CHARACTER FUNCTIONS

Command Query Output

initcap(char); select initcap(“hello”) from dual; Hello

lower (char); select lower (‘HELLO’) from dual; hello
upper (char); select upper (‘hello’) from dual; HELLO
ltrim (char,[set]); select ltrim (‘cseit’, ‘cse’) from dual; select it
rtrim (char,[set]); rtrim (‘cseit’, ‘it’) from dual; cse
replace (char,search select replace(‘jack and jue’,‘j’,‘bl’) from dual; black and
string, replace string); blue
substr (char,m,n); select substr (‘information’, 3, 4) from dual; Form

CONVERSION FUNCTION
1. to_char()
Syntax: to_char(d,[format]);
This function converts date to a value of varchar type in a form specified by date format.
If format is negelected then it converts date to varchar2 in the default date format.
Example: select to_char (sysdate, ’dd-mm-yy’) from dual;
2. to_date()
Syntax: to_date(d,[format]);
This function converts character to date data format specified in the form character.
Example: select to_date(‘aug 15 2009’,’mm-dd-yy’) from dual;
Miscellaneous Functions
1. uid – This function returns the integer value (id) corresponding to the user currently
logged in.
Example: select uid from dual;
2. user – This function returns the logins user name.
Example: select user from dual;
3. nvl – The null value function is mainly used in the case where we want to consider null values
as zero.
 Syntax; nvl(exp1, exp2)
If exp1 is null, return exp2. If exp1 is not null, return exp1.
Example: select custid, shipdate, nvl(total,0) from order;
4. vsize: It returns the number of bytes in expression.
Example: select vsize(‘tech’) from dual;

GROUP FUNCTIONS
A group function returns a result based on group of rows.
1. avg - Example: select avg (total) from student;
2. max - Example: select max (percentagel) from student;
2.min - Example: select min (marksl) from student;
4. sum - Example: select sum(price) from product;

COUNT FUNCTION
In order to count the number of rows, count function is used.
1. count(*) – It counts all, inclusive of duplicates and nulls.
Example: select count(*) from student;
2. count(col_name)– It avoids null value.
Example: select count(total) from order;
2. count(distinct col_name) – It avoids the repeated and null values.
Example: select count(distinct ordid) from order;

GROUP BY CLAUSE
This allows us to use simultaneous column name and group functions.
Example: Select max(percentage), deptname from student group by deptname;

HAVING CLAUSE
This is used to specify conditions on rows retrieved by using group by clause.
Example: Select max(percentage), deptname from student group by deptname having
count(*)>=50;

SPECIAL OPERATORS:
In / not in – used to select a equi from a specific set of values
Any - used to compare with a specific set of values
Between / not between – used to find between the ranges
Like / not like – used to do the pattern matching

d) Queries:
Q1: Display all the details of the records whose employee name starts with ‘A’.
Solution:
1. Use SELECT FROM WHERE syntax. 2. select should include all in the given format.
3. from should include employee 4. where should include condition on empname like ‘A%’.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp where ename like 'A%';
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

2 Arjun ASP 2 15000

5 Akalya AP 1 10000

Q2: Display all the details of the records whose employee name does not starts with ‘A’.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp where ename not like 'A%';
 EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
4 Karthik Prof 2 30000
Q3: Display the rows whose salary ranges from 15000 to 30000.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp where sal between 15000 and 30000;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

2 Arjun ASP 2 15000

3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
4 Karthik Prof 2 30000
Q4: Calculate the total and average salary amount of the emp table.
Ans:
SQL> select sum(sal),avg(sal) from emp;
SUM(SAL) AVG(SAL)

80000 16000
Q5: Count the total records in the emp table.
Ans:
SQL>select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 15000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
4 Karthik Prof 2 30000
5 Akalya AP 1 10000
SQL> select count(*) from emp;
COUNT(*)

5
Q6: Determine the max and min salary and rename the column as max_salary and
min_salary.
Solution:
1. Use the MIN & MAX aggregate function in select clause.
2. Rename the column as min_sal & max_sal.
Ans:
SQL> select max(sal) as max_salary, min(sal) as min_salary from emp;
MAX_SALARY MIN_SALARY

30000 10000
Q7: Display the month between “1-jun-10”and 1-aug-10 in full.
Ans:
SQL>Select month_between (‘1-jun-2010’,’1-aug-2010’) from dual;
Q8: Display the last day of that month in “05-Oct-09”.
Ans:
SQL> Select last_day ('1-jun-2009') from dual;
LAST_DAY(

30-JUN-09
Q9: Find how many job titles are available in employee table.
Solution:
1. Use select from clause.
2. Use count function to get the result.
Ans:
SQL> select count(job) from emp;
COUNT(JOB)

4
SQL> select count(distinct job) from emp;
COUNT(DISTINCTJOB)

2
Q10: What is the difference between maximum and minimum salaries of employees in the
organization?
Solution:
1. Use select from clause.
2. Use function max(),min() and find the difference between them to get the result.
Ans:
SQL> select max(sal), min(sal) from emp;
MAX(SAL) MIN(SAL)

20000 10000

d) Result:
Thus the nested Queries and join Queries was performed successfully and executed.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define function?
Function is a group of code that accepts zero or more arguments and both return one
or more results. Both are used to manipulate individual data items.
2. Write the two types of functions
i. Single row functions
ii. Group functions
3. What are single row functions?
A single row function or scalar function returns only one value for every row
queries in table. Single row function can appear in a select command and can also be
included in a where clause. The single row function can be broadly classified as,
o Date Function o Numeric Function
o Character Function o Conversion Function
o Miscellaneous Function
4. List some character funcitons
initcap(char);
lower (char);
upper (char);
ltrim (char,[set]); rtrim (char,[set]);
 Exercise Number: 4
Title of the Exercise : NESTED QUERIES AND JOIN QUERIES
Date of the Exercise :
OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT
To perform nested Queries and joining Queries using DML command.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2
b) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
Nested Queries: Nesting of queries one within another is known as a nested
queries.
1 Sub queries The query within another is known as a sub query. A statement
containing sub query is called parent statement. The rows returned by sub query are
used by the parent statement.
Types
1. Sub queries that return several values
Sub queries can also return more than one value. Such results should be made use
along with the operators in and any.
2. Multiple queries
2
Here more than one sub query is used. These multiple sub queries are combined by
means of ‘and’ & ‘or’ keywords
3. Correlated sub query
A sub query is evaluated once for the entire parent statement whereas a correlated
Sub query is evaluated once per row processed by the parent statement.
Relating Data through Join Concept
The purpose of a join concept is to combine data spread across tables. A join is
3 actually performed by the ‘where’ clause which combines specified rows of tables.
Syntax; select columns from table1, table2 where logical expression;
Types of Joins 1. Simple Join 2. Self Join 3. Outer Join 4. Inner Join
1. Simple Join
a) Equi-join: A join, which is based on equalities, is called equi-join.
b) Non Equi-join: It specifies the relationship between
4 Table Aliases
Table aliases are used to make multiple table queries shorted and more readable. We
give an alias name to the table in the ‘from’ clause and use it instead of the name
throughout the query.
Self join: Joining of a table to itself is known as self-join. It joins one row in a table
5 to another. It can compare each row of the table to itself and also with other rows of
the same table.
Outer Join: It extends the result of a simple join. An outer join returns all the rows
returned by simple join as well as those rows from one table that do not match any
6 row from the table. The symbol (+) represents outer join.
Inner join: Inner join returns the matching rows from the tables that are being
joined
c) SQL Commands:
Nested Queries:
Example: select ename, eno, address where salary >(select salary from employee where
ename =’jones’);

1.Subqueries that return several values

Example: select ename, eno, from employee where salary <any (select salary from
employee where deptno =10’);
3. Correlated subquery
Example: select * from emp x where x.salary > (select avg(salary) from emp where deptno
=x.deptno);

Simple Join
a) Equi-join
Example: select * from item, cust where item.id=cust.id;
b) Non Equi-join
Example: select * from item, cust where item.id<cust.id;
Self join
Example: select * from emp x ,emp y where x.salary >= (select avg(salary) from x.emp where x.
deptno =y.deptno);

Outer Join
Example: select ename, job, dname from emp, dept where emp.deptno (+) = dept.deptno;

d) Queries:
Q1: Display all employee names and salary whose salary is greater than minimum salary of
the company and job title starts with ‘M’.
Solution:
1. Use select from clause.
2. Use like operator to match job and in select clause to get the result.
Ans:
SQL> select ename,sal from emp where sal>(select min(sal) from emp where job like 'A%');
ENAME SAL

Arjun 12000
Gugan 20000
Karthik 15000
Q2: Issue a query to find all the employees who work in the same job as Arjun.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 12000
3 Gugan ASP 2 20000
4 Karthik AP 1 15000
SQL> select ename from emp where job=(select job from emp where ename='Arjun');
ENAME

Arjun
Gugan
Q3: Issue a query to display information about employees who earn more than any
employee in dept 1.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp where sal>(select max(sal) from emp where empno=1);

EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

2 Arjun ASP 2 12000

3 Gugan ASP 2 20000
4 Karthik AP 1 15000
JOINS
Tables used
SQL> select * from emp;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 12000
3 Gugan ASP 2 20000
4 Karthik AP 1 15000

SQL> select * from dept;

DEPTNO DNAME LOC

1 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

2 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

EQUI-JOIN
Q4: Display the employee details, departments that the departments are same in both the
emp and dept.
Solution:
1. Use select from clause. 2. Use equi join in select clause to get the result.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp,dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC

1 Mathi AP 1 10000 1 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

2 Arjun ASP 2 12000 2 RESEARCH DALLAS
3 Gugan ASP 2 20000 2 RESEARCH DALLAS
4 Karthik AP 1 15000 1 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

NON-EQUIJOIN
Q5: Display the employee details, departments that the departments are not same in both
the emp and dept.
Solution:
1.Use select from clause. 2. Use non equi join in select clause to get the result.
Ans:
SQL> select * from emp,dept where emp.deptno!=dept.deptno;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC

2 Arjun ASP 2 12000 1 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

3 Gugan ASP 2 20000 1 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
1 Mathi AP 1 10000 2 RESEARCH DALLAS

EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC

4 Karthik AP 1 15000 2 RESEARCH DALLAS

1 Mathi AP 1 10000 30 SALES CHICAGO
2 Arjun ASP 2 12000 30 SALES CHICAGO
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC

3 Gugan ASP 2 20000 30 SALES CHICAGO

4 Karthik AP 1 15000 30 SALES CHICAGO
1 Mathi AP 1 10000 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC

2 Arjun ASP 2 12000 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

3 Gugan ASP 2 20000 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
4 Karthik AP 1 15000 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
12 rows selected.

LEFTOUT-JOIN
Tables used
SQL> select * from stud1;
Regno Name Mark2 Mark3 Result

101 john 89 80 pass

102 Raja 70 80 pass
103 Sharin 70 90 pass
104 sam 90 95 pass
SQL> select * from stud2;
NAME GRA

john s
raj s
sam a
sharin a
Q6: Display the Student name and grade by implementing a left outer join.
Ans: SQL> select stud1.name,grade from stud1 left outer join stud2 on stud1.name=stud2.name;
Name Gra

john s
raj s
sam a
sharin a
smith null
RIGHTOUTER-JOIN
Q7: Display the Student name, register no, and result by implementing a right outer join.
Ans:
SQL> select stud1.name, regno, result from stud1 right outer join stud2 on stud1.name =
stud2.name;
Name Regno Result

john 101 pass

raj 102 pass
sam 103 pass
sharin 104 pass
Rollno Name Mark1 Mark2 Total

1 sindu 90 95 185
2 arul 90 90 180
FULLOUTER-JOIN
Q8: Display the Student name register no by implementing a full outer join.
Ans:
SQL> select stud1.name, regno from stud1 full outer join stud2 on (stud1.name= stud2.name);
Name Regno

john 101
raj 102
sam 103
sharin 104
SELFJOIN
Q9: Write a query to display their employee names
Ans:
SQL> select distinct ename from emp x, dept y where x.deptno=y.deptno;
ENAME

Arjun
Gugan
Karthik
Mathi
Q10: Display the details of those who draw the salary greater than the average salary.
Ans:
SQL> select distinct * from emp x where x.sal >= (select avg(sal) from emp);
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

3 Gugan ASP 2 20000

4 Karthik AP 1 15000
11 kavitha designer 12 17000

e) Result:
Thus the nested Queries and join Queries was performed successfully and executed.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is the use of sub Queries?
A sub Queries is a select-from-where expression that is nested with in another
Queries. A common use of sub Queries is to perform tests for set membership, make set
comparisons, and determine set cardinality
 Exercise Number: 5
Title of the Exercise : SET OPERATORS
Date of the Exercise :
OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT
To perform set operations using DML Commands.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2
b) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
Set Operators:
The Set operator combines the result of 2 queries into a single result. The following
1 are the operators:
· Union · Union all
· Intersect · Minus
The rules to which the set operators are strictly adhere to :
· The queries which are related by the set operators should have a same number of
2 column and column definition.
· Such query should not contain a type of long.
· Labels under which the result is displayed are those from the first select statement.
c) SQL commands:
Union: Returns all distinct rows selected by both the queries
Syntax:
Query1 Union Query2;
Union all: Returns all rows selected by either query including the duplicates.
Syntax:
Query1 Union all Query2;
Intersect: Returns rows selected that are common to both queries.
Syntax:
Query1 Intersect Query2;
Minus: Returns all distinct rows selected by the first query and are not by the second
Syntax:
Query1 minus Query2;

d) Queries:
Q1: Display all the dept numbers available with the dept and emp tables avoiding
duplicates.
Solution:
1. Use select from clause. 2. Use union select clause to get the result.
Ans:
SQL> select deptno from emp union select deptno from dept;
 DEPTNO

1
2
12
30
40

Q2: Display all the dept numbers available with the dept and emp tables.
Solution:
1. Use select from clause. 2. Use union all in select clause to get the result.
Ans:
SQL> select deptno from emp union all select deptno from dept;

DEPTNO

1
2
2
1
12
1
2
30
40
9 rows selected.
Q3: Display all the dept numbers available in emp and not in dept tables and vice versa.
Solution:
1. Use select from clause.
2. Use minus in select clause to get the result.
Ans:
SQL> select deptno from emp minus select deptno from dept;

DEPTNO

12
SQL> select deptno from dept minus select deptno from emp;
DEPTNO

30
40

e) Result:
Thus the set operations using DML Commands was successfully performed and executed.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. List the set operations of SQL?
1) Union 2)Intersect operation 3)The except operation(minus)
2. Which command returns all distinct rows selected by both the queries?
Union
 Exercise Number: 6

Title of the Exercise : VIEWS

Date of the Exercise :

OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT

To create and manipulate various database objects of the Table using views
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2
b) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
Views:
A view is the tailored presentation of data contained in one or more table and can also
1 be said as restricted view to the data’s in the tables. A view is a “virtual table” or a
“stored query” which takes the output of a query and treats it as a table. The table
upon which a view is created is called as base table.
A view is a logical table based on a table or another view. A view contains no data of
its own but is like a window through which data from tables can be viewed or
2
changed. The tables on which a view is based are called base tables. The view is
stored as a SELECT statement in the data dictionary
Advantages of a view:
a. Additional level of table security.
3 b. Hides data complexity.
c. Simplifies the usage by combining multiple tables into a single table.
d. Provides data’s in different perspective.
Types of view:
4 Horizontal -> enforced by where cause
Vertical -> enforced by selecting the required columns
c) SQL Commands
Creating and dropping view:
Syntax:
Create [or replace] view <view name> [column alias names] as <query> [with <options>
conditions];
Drop view <view name>;
Example:
Create or replace view empview as select * from emp;
Drop view empview;
d) Queries:
Tables used:
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 12000
3 Gugan ASP 2 20000
4 Karthik AP 1 15000
Q1: The organization wants to display only the details of the employees those who are ASP.
(Horizontal portioning)
Solution:
1. Create a view on emp table named managers
2. Use select from clause to do horizontal partioning
Ans:
SQL> create view empview as select * from emp where job='ASP';
View created.
SQL> select * from empview;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

2 Arjun ASP 2 12000

3 Gugan ASP 2 20000
Q2: The organization wants to display only the details like empno, empname, deptno,
deptname of the employees. (Vertical portioning)
Solution:
1. Create a view on emp table named general 2. Use select from clause to do vertical partioning
Ans:
SQL> create view empview1 as select ename,sal from emp;
View created.
Q3: Display all the views generated.
Ans:
SQL> select * from tab;
TNAME TABTYPE CLUSTERID

DEPT TABLE
EMP TABLE
EMPVIEW VIEW
EMPVIEW1 VIEW
Q4: Execute the DML commands on the view created.
Ans:
SQL> select * from empview;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

2 Arjun ASP 2 12000

3 Gugan ASP 2 20000
Q5: Drop a view.
Ans: SQL> drop view empview1;
View dropped.
e) Result:
Thus the creation and manipulate various database objects of the Table using views was
successfully executed.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What is a view?
A view is a logical table based on a table or another view. A view contains no data of
its own but is like a window through which data from tables can be viewed or changed.
2. List any two advantages of view?
1. Hides data complexity.
2. Simplifies the usage by combining multiple tables into a single table.
 Exercise Number: 7
Title of the Exercise : CONTROL STRUCTURE
Date of the Exercise :
OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT
To create PL/SQL programs to implement various types of control structure.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2
b) PL/SQL Syntax:
PL/SQL can also process data using flow of statements. The flow of control
statements are classified into the following categories.
 Conditional control –Branching
 Iterative control – looping
 Sequential control - Selection
BRANCHING in PL/SQL:
Sequence of statements can be executed on satisfying certain condition. If statements are
being used and different forms of if are:
1. Simple IF 2. If then else 3. Else if 4. Nested if
SELECTION IN PL/SQL (Sequential Controls)
1. Simple case 2. Searched case
ITERATIONS IN PL/SQL
Sequence of statements can be executed any number of times using loop construct. It is
broadly classified into:
1.Simple Loop 2. For Loop 3. While Loop
SIMPLE IF:
Syntax:
IF condition THEN
statement1;
statement2;
END IF;
IF-THEN-ELSE STATEMENT:
Syntax:
IF condition THEN
statement1;
ELSE
statement2;
END IF;
ELSIF STATEMENTS:
Syntax:
IF condition1 THEN
statement1;
ELSIF condition2 THEN
statement2;
ELSIF condition3 THEN
statement3;
ELSE
 statement;
END IF;
NESTED IF:
Syntax:
IF condition THEN
statement1;
ELSE
IF condition THEN
statement2;
ELSE
statement3;
END IF;
END IF;
ELSE
statement3;
END IF;
SELECTION IN PL/SQL (Sequential Controls)
SIMPLE CASE
Syntax:
CASE SELECTOR
WHEN Expr1 THEN statement1;
WHEN Expr2 THEN statement2;
:
ELSE
Statement n;
END CASE;
SEARCHED CASE:
Syntax:
CASE
WHEN searchcondition1 THEN statement1;
WHEN searchcondition2 THEN statement2;
::
ELSE
statementn;
END CASE;
ITERATIONS IN PL/SQL
SIMPLE LOOP
Syntax:
LOOP
statement1;
EXIT [ WHEN Condition];
END LOOP;
Example:
Declare
A number:=10;
Begin
Loop
a := a+25;
exit when a=250;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(to_char(a));
end;
/
WHILE LOOP
Syntax
WHILE condition LOOP
statement1;
statement2;
END LOOP;
Example:
Declare
i number:=0;
j number:=0;
begin
while i<=100 Loop
j := j+i;
i := i+2;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(‘the value of j is’ ||j);
end;
/
FOR LOOP
Syntax:
FOR counter IN [REVERSE]
LowerBound..UpperBound
LOOP
statement1;
statement2;
END LOOP;
Example:
Begin
For I in 1..2
Loop
Update emp set field = value where condition;
End loop;
End;
/
Q1: write a pl/sql program to swap two numbers
c) Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Declare three variables and read variables through a and b
2 Swap the values of a and b using temporary variables
3 Display the swapped results

d) Program:
SQL>edit swapping.sql
declare
a number(10);
b number(10);
c number(10);
begin
dbms_output.put_line('THE PREV VALUES OF A AND B WERE');
dbms_output.put_line(a);
dbms_output.put_line(b);
 a:=&a;
b:=&b;
c:=a;
a:=b;
b:=c;
dbms_output.put_line('THE VALUES OF A AND B ARE');
dbms_output.put_line(a);
dbms_output.put_line(b);
end;
e) output:
SQL> @ swapping.sql
19 /
Enter value for a: 5
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=5;
Enter value for b: 3
old 7: b:=&b;
new 7: b:=3;
THE PREV VALUES OF A AND B WERE
53
THE VALUES OF A AND B ARE
35
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Q2: Write a pl/sql program to find the largest of three numbers

c) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Read three numbers through a, b & c
2 Find the biggest among three using nested if statement
3 Display the biggest no as result
d) Program:
SQL>set server output on;
SQL>edit biggest.sql
declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
begin
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
c:=&c;
if a>b then
if a>c then
dbms_output.put_line ('biggest is:' ||to_char(a));
else
dbms_output.put_line('biggest is :' ||to_char(c));
end if;
elsif b>c then
dbms_output.put_line('biggest is :' ||to_char(b));
else
dbms_output.put_line('biggest is :' ||to_char(c));
 end if;
end;
e) output:
SQL>@biggest.sql
/
Enter value for a: 5
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=5;
Enter value for b: 5
old 6: b:=&b;
new 6: b:=8;
Enter value for c: 8
old 6: c:=&c;
new 6: c:=4;
biggest is : 8

Q3: write a pl/sql program to find the total and average of 6 subjects and display the grade
c) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Read six numbers and calculate total and average
2 Find whether the student is pass or fail using if statement
3 Find the grade using nested elseif statement
4 Display the Grade, Percentage and Total of the student
d) Program:
SQL> edit grade.sql
declare
java number(10);
dbms number(10);
co number(10);
se number(10);
es number(10);
ppl number(10);
total number(10);
avgs number(10);
per number(10);
begin
dbms_output.put_line('ENTER THE MARKS');
java:=&java;
dbms:=&dbms;
co:=&co;
se:=&se;
es:=&es;
ppl:=&ppl;
total:=(java+dbms+co+se+es+ppl);
per:=(total/600)*100;
if java<50 or dbms<50 or co<50 or se<50 or es<50 or ppl<50 then
dbms_output.put_line('FAIL');
if per>75 then
dbms_output.put_line('GRADE A');
elsif per>65 and per<75 then
dbms_output.put_line('GRADE B');
elsif per>55 and per<65 then
 dbms_output.put_line('GRADE C');
else
dbms_output.put_line('INVALID INPUT');
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('PERCENTAGE IS '||per);
dbms_output.put_line('TOTAL IS '||total);
end;
e) output:
SQL> @ grade.sql
31 /
Enter value for java: 80
old 12: java:=&java;
new 12: java:=80;
Enter value for dbms: 70
old 13: dbms:=&dbms;
new 13: dbms:=70;
Enter value for co: 89
old 14: co:=&co;
new 14: co:=89;
Enter value for se: 72
old 15: se:=&se;
new 15: se:=72;
Enter value for es: 76
old 16: es:=&es;
new 16: es:=76;
Enter value for ppl: 71
old 17: ppl:=&ppl;
new 17: ppl:=71;
GRADE A
PERCENTAGE IS 76
TOTAL IS 458
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Q4: Write a pl/sql program to find the sum of digits in a given number
c) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Read a number. Separate the digits using modular function
2 Sum the digits separated by mod function
3 Display the sum of digits
d) Program:
SQL>edit sumofdigits.sql
declare
a number;
d number:=0;
sum1 number:=0;
begin
a:=&a;
while a>0
loop
d:=mod(a,10);
sum1:=sum1+d;
 a:=trunc(a/10);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('sum is'|| sum1);
end;
e) output:
SQL> @ sumofdigits.sql
16 /

Q5: write a pl/sql program to display the number in reverse order

c)Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Read a number. Separate the digits using modular function
2 Reverse the digits separated by taking remainder from mod function
3 Display the reverse of the digits
d) Program:
SQL>edit reverse.sql
declare
a number;
rev number;
d number;
begin
a:=&a;
rev:=0;
while a>0
loop
d:=mod(a,10);
rev:=(rev*10)+d;
a:=trunc(a/10);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('no is'|| rev);
end;
e) output:
SQL> @ reverse.sql
16 /
Enter value for a: 536
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=536;
no is 635
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Q6: Write a PL / SQL program to check whether the given number is prime or not
c) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Read the number
2 Using mod function find the given number is prime or not
3 Display the result
d) Program:
SQL>edit prime.sql
declare
a number; c number:=0; i number;
begin
a:=&a;
for i in 1..a
loop
if mod(a,i)=0 then
c:=c+1;
end if;
end loop;
if c=2 then
dbms_output.put_line(a ||'is a prime number');
else
dbms_output.put_line(a ||'is not a prime number');
end if;
end;
e) output:
SQL> @ prime.sql
19 /
Enter value for a: 11
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=11;
11is a prime number
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Q7: Write a PL/SQL program to find the factorial of a given number
c) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Read a number for calculating factorial value.
2 Calculate the factorial of a given number using for loop
3 Display the factorial value of a given number.

d) Program:
SQL>edit fact.sql
declare
n number;f number:=1;
begin
n:=&n;
for i in 1..n
loop
f:=f*i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('the factorial is'|| f);
end;
e) output:
SQL> @ fact.sql
12 /
Enter value for n: 5
old 5: n:=&n;
new 5: a:=5;
the factorial is 120
Q8: write a pl/sql code block to calculate the area of a circle for a value of radius varying
from 3 to 7. Store the radius and the corresponding values of calculated area in an empty
table named areas, consisting of two columns radius & area
c) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Create a table named areas with radius and area
2 Initialize values to pi, radius and area
3 Calculate the area using while loop. Display the result.

d) Program:
SQL> create table areas(radius number(10),area number(6,2));
Table created.
PROGRAM
declare
pi constant number(4,2):=3.14;
radius number(5):=3; area number(6,2);
begin
while radius<7
loop
area:=pi*power(radius,2);
insert into areas values(radius,area);
radius:=radius+1;
end loop;
end;

e) output:
SQL> @ AREAOFCIRCLE.SQL
13 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> SELECT * FROM AREAS;
RADIUS AREA

3 28.26
4 50.24
5 78.5
6 113.04

Q9: write a PL/SQL code block that will accept an account number from the user, check if
the users balance is less than minimum balance, only then deduct rs.100/- from the balance.
This process is fired on the acct table.
c) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Develop a query to Create the table acct and insert values into them
2 Develop a PL/SQL program to read the account number.
Check the balance for the account no. check if the users balance is less than
3
minimum balance, only then deduct rs.100/- from the balance
4 Update the balance changes into the acct table.
d) Program:
SQL> create table acct(name varchar2(10),cur_bal number(10),acctno number(6,2));
SQL> insert into stud values('&sname',&rollno,&marks);
SQL> select * from acct;
ACCTNO NAME CUR_BAL

777 sirius 10000

765 john 1000
855 sam 500
353 peter 800
declare
mano number(5);
mcb number(6,2);
minibal constant number(7,2):=1000.00;
fine number(6,2):=100.00;
begin
mano:=&mano;
select cur_bal into mcb from acct where acctno=mano;
if mcb<minibal then
update acct set cur_bal=cur_bal-fine where acctno=mano;
end if;
end;

e) output:
SQL> @ BANKACC.sql
13 /
Enter value for mano: 855
old 7: mano:=&mano;
new 7: mano:=855;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

f) Result:
Thus the above creation of PL/SQL programs to implement various types of control
structure was successfully executed.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What is meant by branching in PL/SQL:
Sequence of statements can be executed on satisfying certain condition. If statements are
being used and different forms of if are:
1. Simple IF 2. If then else 3. Else if 4. Nested if
2. What are selection statements?
1. Switch case statement
3. Define iterations IN PL/SQL
Sequence of statements can be executed any number of times using loop construct.
4. Classify the iteration statements `in PL/SQL
It is broadly classified into:
1. Simple Loop
2. For Loop
3. While Loop
 Exercise Number: 8
Title of the Exercise : PROCEDURE AND FUNCTION
Date of the Exercise :

OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT

To develop procedures and function for various operations.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2

b) PL/SQL syntax:
A procedure is a block that can take parameters (sometimes referred to as arguments) and
be invoked.
Procedures promote reusability and maintainability. Once validated, they can be used in
number of applications. If the definition changes, only the procedure are affected, this greatly
simplifies maintenance.
Modularized program development:
· Group logically related statements within blocks.
· Nest sub-blocks inside larger blocks to build powerful programs.
· Break down a complex problem into a set of manageable well defined logical modules
and implement the modules with blocks.

KEYWORDS AND THEIR PURPOSES

REPLACE: It recreates the procedure if it already exists.

PROCEDURE: It is the name of the procedure to be created.
ARGUMENT: It is the name of the argument to the procedure. Parenthesis can be omitted if no
arguments are present.
IN: Specifies that a value for the argument must be specified when calling the procedure ie., used
to pass values to a sub-program. This is the default parameter.
OUT: Specifies that the procedure passes a value for this argument back to it’s calling
environment after execution ie. used to return values to a caller of the sub-program.
INOUT: Specifies that a value for the argument must be specified when calling the procedure
and that procedure passes a value for this argument back to it’s calling environment after
execution.
RETURN: It is the data type of the function’s return value because every function must return a
value, this clause is required.

PROCEDURES
Syntax :
create or replace procedure <procedure name> (argument {in,out,inout} datatype ) {is,as}
variable declaration;
constant declaration;
begin
PL/SQL subprogram body;
exception
exception PL/SQL block;
end;
FUNCTIONS
Syntax:
create or replace function <function name> (argument in datatype,……) return datatype {is,as}
variable declaration;
constant declaration;
begin
PL/SQL subprogram body;
exception
exception PL/SQL block;
end;

Tables used:
SQL> select * from ititems;
ITEMID ACTUALPRICE ORDID PRODID

101 2000 500 201

102 3000 1600 202
103 4000 600 202

PROGRAM FOR GENERAL PROCEDURE – SELECTED RECORD’S PRICE IS

INCREMENTED BY 500 , EXECUTING THE PROCEDURE CREATED AND
DISPLAYING THE UPDATED TABLE

SQL> create procedure itsum(identity number, total number) is price number;

2 null_price exception;
3 begin
4 select actualprice into price from ititems where itemid=identity;
5 if price is null then
6 raise null_price;
7 else
8 update ititems set actualprice=actualprice+total where itemid=identity;
9 end if;
10 exception
11 when null_price then
12 dbms_output.put_line('price is null');
13 end;
14 /
Procedure created.

SQL> exec itsum(101, 500);

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from ititems;

ITEMID ACTUALPRICE ORDID PRODID

101 2500 500 201

102 3000 1600 202
103 4000 600 202

PROCEDURE FOR ‘IN’ PARAMETER – CREATION, EXECUTION

SQL> set serveroutput on;
SQL> create procedure yyy (a IN number) is price number;
2 begin
3 select actualprice into price from ititems where itemid=a;
 4 dbms_output.put_line('Actual price is ' || price);
5 if price is null then
6 dbms_output.put_line('price is null');
7 end if;
8 end;
9 /
Procedure created.

SQL> exec yyy(103);

Actual price is 4000
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PROCEDURE FOR ‘OUT’ PARAMETER – CREATION, EXECUTION

SQL> set serveroutput on;

SQL> create procedure zzz (a in number, b out number) is identity number;
2 begin
3 select ordid into identity from ititems where itemid=a;
4 if identity<1000 then
5 b:=100;
6 end if;
7 end;
8 /
Procedure created.
SQL> declare
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 begin
5 zzz(101,b);
6 dbms_output.put_line('The value of b is '|| b);
7 end;
8 /
The value of b is 100
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PROCEDURE FOR ‘INOUT’ PARAMETER – CREATION, EXECUTION

SQL> create procedure itit ( a in out number) is

2 begin
3 a:=a+1;
4 end;
5 /
Procedure created.

SQL> declare
2 a number:=7;
3 begin
4 itit(a);
5 dbms_output.put_line(‘The updated value is ‘||a);
6 end;
7 /
The updated value is 8
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Tables used:
SQL>select * from ittrain;
TNO TFARE

1001 550
1002 600
PROGRAM FOR FUNCTION AND IT’S EXECUTION

SQL> create function trainfn (trainnumber number) return number is

2 trainfunction ittrain.tfare % type;
3 begin
4 select tfare into trainfunction from ittrain where tno=trainnumber;
5 return(trainfunction);
6 end;
7 /
Function created.

SQL> declare
2 total number;
3 begin
4 total:=trainfn (1001);
5 dbms_output.put_line('Train fare is Rs. '||total);
6 end;
7 /
Train fare is Rs.550
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

FACTORIAL OF A NUMBER USING FUNCTION — PROGRAM AND EXECUTION

SQL> create function itfact (a number) return number is

2 fact number:=1;
3 b number;
4 begin
5 b:=a;
6 while b>0
7 loop
8 fact:=fact*b;
9 b:=b-1;
10 end loop;
11 return(fact);
12 end;
13 /
Function created.

SQL> declare
2 a number:=7;
3 f number(10);
4 begin
5 f:=itfact(a);
6 dbms_output.put_line(‘The factorial of the given number is’||f);
7 end;
8 /

The factorial of the given number is 5040

Q1: Write a procedure to calculate total for the all the students and pass regno, mark1, &
mark2 as arguments.

c) Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Develop a query to create a table named itstudent2 and insert values into them
2 Develop a procedure p1 with regno, mark1, & mark2 as arguments.
3 Calculate the total and update the total value into the itstudent2 table

d) Program:
SQL> create table itstudent2(regno number(3),name varchar(9),mark1 number(3),mark2
number(3));
Table created.
SQL> insert into itstudent2
2 values(&a,'&b',&c,&d);
Enter value for a: 110
Enter value for b: arun
Enter value for c: 99 Enter value for d: 100
old 2: values(&a,'&b',&c,&d)
new 2: values(110,'arun',99,100)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for a: 112 Enter value for b: siva Enter value for c: 99 Enter value
for d: 90
old 2: values(&a,'&b',&c,&d)
new 2: values(112,'siva',99,90)
1 row created.
SQL> select * from itstudent2;
REGNO NAME MARK1 MARK2
110 arun 99 100
112 siva 99 90
SQL> alter table itstudent2 add(total number(5)); Table altered.
SQL> select * from itstudent2;
REGNO NAME MARK1 MARK2 TOTAL
110 arun 99 100
112 siva 99 90
SQL> create or replace procedure p1(sno number,mark1 number,mark2 number) is
2 tot number(5);
3 begin
4 tot:=mark1+mark2;
5 update itstudent2 set total=tot where regno=sno;
6 end;
7 /
Procedure created.
SQL> declare
2 cursor c1 is select * from itstudent2;
3 rec itstudent2 % rowtype;
4 begin
5 open c1;
6 loop
7 fetch c1 into rec;
 8 exit when c1%notfound;
9 p1(rec.regno,rec.mark1,rec.mark2);
10 end loop;
11 close c1;
12 end;
13 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

e) Output:
SQL> select * from itstudent2;
REGNO NAME MARK1 MARK2 TOTAL

110 arun 99 100 199

112 va 99 90 189

Q2: Write a PL/SQL procedure called MULTI_TABLE that takes two numbers as parameter and
displays the multiplication of the first parameter till the second parameter.
Ans.
//p2.sql
create or replace procedure multi_table (a number, b number) as
mul number;
begin
for i in 1. .b
loop
mul : = a * i;
dbms_output.put_line (a || ‘*’ || i || ‘=’ || mul);
end loop;
end;
//pq2.sql
declare
a number; b number;
begin
a:=&a; b:=&b; multi_table(a,b);
end;
e)Output:
SQL> @p2.sql;
Procedure created.
SQL> @pq2.sql;
Enter value for a: 4
old 5: a:=&a; new 5: a:=4;
Enter value for b: 3
old 6: b:=&b; new 6: b:=3;
4*1=4
4*2=8
4*3=12
Q3: Consider the EMPLOYEE (EMPNO, SALARY, ENAME) Table.
Write a procedure raise_sal which increases the salary of an employee. It accepts an employee
number and salary increase amount. It uses the employee number to find the current salary from
the EMPLOYEE table and update the salary.
Ans:
//p3.sql
create or replace procedure raise_sal( mempno employee . empno % type, msal_percent
number ) as
begin
update employee set salary = salary + salary*msal_percent /100 where empno = mempno;
end;
/
//pq3.sql
declare
cursor c1 is select * from emp;
rec emp % rowtype;
begin
open c1;
loop
fetch c1 into rec;
exit when c1%notfound;
raisal(rec.empno,10);
end loop;
close c1;
end;
/
e)Output:
SQL> @p3.sql;
Procedure created.
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 10000
2 Arjun ASP 2 15000
3 Gugan ASP 1 15000
4 Karthik Prof 2 30000
5 Akalya AP 1 10000
SQL> @pq3.sql;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO SAL

1 Mathi AP 1 11000
2 Arjun ASP 2 16500
3 Gugan ASP 1 16500
4 Karthik Prof 2 33000
5 Akalya AP 1 11000

Q4: Write a PL/SQL function CheckDiv that takes two numbers as arguments and returns the
values 1 if the first argument passed to it is divisible by the second argument, else will return the
value 0;
Ans:
//p4.sql
create or replace function checkdiv (n1 number, n2 number) return number as res
number;
begin
if mod (n1, n2) = 0 then
res := 1;
else
res:= 0;
end if;
return res;
end;
/
//pq4.sql
declare
a number;
b number;
 begin
a:=&a; b:=&b;
dbms_output.put_line(‘result=’||checkdiv(a,b));
end;
/
e)Output:
SQL> @p4.sql;
Function created.
SQL> @pq4.sql;
Enter value for a: 4
old 5: a:=&a; new 5: a:=4;
Enter value for b: 2
old 6: b:=&b; new 6: b:=2;
result=1

Q5: Write a PL/SQL function called POW that takes two numbers as argument and return the
value of the first number raised to the power of the second .
Ans:
//p5.sql
create or replace function pow (n1 number, n2 number) return number as
res number;
begin
select power ( n1, n2) into res from dual; return res;
end;
or
create or replace function pow (n1 number, n2 number) return number as
res number : =1;
begin
for res in 1..n2
loop
res : = n1 * res;
end loop;
return res;
end;
//pq5.sql
declare
a number;
b number;
begin
a:=&a; b:=&b;
dbms_output.put_line('power(n1,n2)='||pow(a,b));
end;
/
e)Output:
SQL> @p5.sql;
Function created.
SQL> @ pq5.sql;
Enter value for a: 2
old 5: a:=&a;
new 5: a:=2;
Enter value for b: 3
old 6: b:=&b;
new 6: b:=3;
power(n1,n2)=8
Q6: Write a PL/SQL function ODDEVEN to return value TRUE if the number passed to it is
EVEN else will return FALSE.
Ans:
//p6.sql
create or replace function oddeven (n number) return boolean as
begin
if mod (n, 2) = 0 then return true;
else
return false;
end if;
end;
/
//pq6.sql
declare
a number; b boolean;
begin
a:=&a; b:=oddeven(a);
if b then
dbms_output.put_line('The given number is Even');
else
dbms_output.put_line('The given number is Odd');
end if;
end;
/
e) Output:
SQL> @p6.sql;
Function created.
SQL> @pq6.sql;
Enter value for a: 5
old 5: a:=&a; new 5: a:=5;
The given number is Odd
f) Result:
Thus the procedures and function for various operations was developed and executed
successfully.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is procedure? Write its advantages.
A procedure is a block that can take parameters (sometimes referred to as arguments) and
be invoked. Advantages:
Procedures promote reusability and maintainability.
They can be used in number of applications.
If the definition changes, only the procedure are affected, this greatly simplifies
maintenance.
2. List the three types of argument passed in to the procedure
IN: Specifies that a value for the argument must be specified when calling the procedure
OUT: Specifies that the procedure passes a value for this argument back to it’s calling
environment after execution ie. used to return values to a caller of the sub-program.
INOUT: Specifies that a value for the argument must be specified when calling the procedure
and that procedure passes a value for this argument back to it’s calling environment after
execution.
3. Is the function return value?
Yes, function’s return value because every function must return a value, this clause is
required.
 Exercise Number: 9
Title of the Exercise : TRIGGER
Date of the Exercise :
OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT
To create triggers for various events such as insertion, updation, etc.,
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a) Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 System 1
2 Operating System Windows
3 Front end VB/VC ++/JAVA
4 Back end Oracle11g,my SQL, DB2
b) PL/SQL Syntax:
TRIGGER
A Trigger is a stored procedure that defines an action that the database automatically take
when some database-related event such as Insert, Update or Delete occur.

TRIGGER VS. PROCEDURE VS CURSOR

TRIGGER PROCEDURES CURSORS

These are named These are named These are named PL/SQL
PL/SQL blocks. PL/SQL blocks. blocks.
These are invoked User as per need invokes These can be created both
automatically. these. explicitly and implicitly.
These can’t take These can take These can take parameters.
parameters. parameters.
These are stored in These are stored in These are not stored in
database. database. database.

TYPES OF TRIGGERS
The various types of triggers are as follows,
 Before: It fires the trigger before executing the trigger statement.
 After: It fires the trigger after executing the trigger statement.
 For each row: It specifies that the trigger fires once per row.
 For each statement: This is the default trigger that is invoked. It specifies that the
trigger fires once per statement.
VARIABLES USED IN TRIGGERS
 :new
 :old
These two variables retain the new and old values of the column updated in the database.
The values in these variables can be used in the database triggers for data manipulation

Row Level Trigger vs. Statement Level Trigger:

Row Level Trigger Statement Level Trigger
These are fired for each row affected by These are fired once for the statement
the DML statement. instead of the no of rows modified by it.
These are used for generating/checking These are used for generated the
the values begin inserted or updated. summary information.
Before trigger vs. after trigger

Before Triggers After Triggers

Before triggers are fired before the After triggers are fired after the
DML statement is actually executed. DML statement has finished
execution.

Sytax:

Create or replace trigger <trg_name> Before /After Insert/Update/Delete

[of column_name, column_name….]
on <table_name>
[for each row]
[when condition]
begin
---statement
end;

Q1: Create a trigger that insert current user into a username column of an existing table
c) Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step
Details of the step
no.
1 Create a table itstudent4 with name and username as arguments
2 Create a trigger for each row that insert the current user as user name into a table
3 Execute the trigger by inserting value into the table

d) Program:
SQL> create table itstudent4(name varchar2(15),username varchar2(15));
Table created.
SQL> create or replace trigger itstudent4 before insert on itstudent4 for each row
2 declare
3 name varchar2(20);
4 begin
5 select user into name from dual;
6 :new.username:=name;
7 end;
8 /
Trigger created.
e) Output:

SQL> insert into itstudent4 values('&name','&username');

Enter value for name: akbar
Enter value for username: ranjani
old 1: insert into itstudent4 values('&name','&username')
new 1: insert into itstudent4 values('akbar','ranjani')
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for name: suji
Enter value for username: priya
old 1: insert into itstudent4 values('&name','&username')
 new 1: insert into itstudent4 values('suji','priya')
1 row created.
SQL> select * from itstudent4;

NAME USERNAME

akbar SCOTT
suji SCOTT

Q2: Create a Simple Trigger that does not allow Insert Update and Delete Operations on
the Table
d) Program:
Table used:
SQL> select * from itempls;
ENAME EID SALARY

xxx 11 10000
yyy 12 10500
zzz 13 15500
Trigger:
SQL> create trigger ittrigg before insert or update or delete on itempls for each row
2 begin
3 raise_application_error(-20010,'You cannot do manipulation');
4 end;
5
6 /
Trigger created.

e) Output:
SQL> insert into itempls values('aaa',14,34000);
insert into itempls values('aaa',14,34000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20010: You cannot do manipulation
ORA-06512: at "STUDENT.ITTRIGG", line 2
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'STUDENT.ITTRIGG'

SQL> delete from itempls where ename='xxx';

delete from itempls where ename='xxx'
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20010: You cannot do manipulation
ORA-06512: at "STUDENT.ITTRIGG", line 2
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'STUDENT.ITTRIGG'

SQL> update itempls set eid=15 where ename='yyy';

update itempls set eid=15 where ename='yyy'
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20010: You cannot do manipulation
ORA-06512: at "STUDENT.ITTRIGG", line 2
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'STUDENT.ITTRIGG'
Q3: Create a Trigger that raises an User Defined Error Message and does not allow
updating and Insertion

d) Program:
Table used:
SQL> select * from itempls;
ENAME EID SALARY

xxx 11 10000
yyy 12 10500
zzz 13 15500
Trigger:
SQL> create trigger ittriggs before insert or update of salary on itempls for each row
2 declare
3 triggsal itempls.salary%type;
4 begin
5 select salary into triggsal from itempls where eid=12;
6 if(:new.salary>triggsal or :new.salary<triggsal) then
7 raise_application_error(-20100,'Salary has not been changed');
8 end if;
9 end;
10 /
Trigger created.

e) Output:
SQL> insert into itempls values ('bbb',16,45000);
insert into itempls values ('bbb',16,45000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-04098: trigger 'STUDENT.ITTRIGGS' is invalid and failed re-validation
SQL> update itempls set eid=18 where ename='zzz';
update itempls set eid=18 where ename='zzz'
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-04298: trigger 'STUDENT.ITTRIGGS' is invalid and failed re-validation

Q4: develop a query to Drop the Created Trigger

Ans:
SQL> drop trigger ittrigg;
Trigger dropped.

f) Result:
Thus the creation of triggers for various events such as insertion, updation, etc., was
performed and executed successfully.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is the need for triggers? Or List the requirements needed to design a trigger.
 Specifying when a trigger is to be executed.
 Specify the actions to be taken when the trigger executes.
2. What is trigger?
Triggers are statements that are executed automatically by the system as the side effect of
a modification to the database. The triggers can be initiated before the event or after the
event.