Dept of Chemistry, CMR Institute of Technology BCHES102/202

Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

Memory Device: Introduction, Basic concepts of electronic memory, History of organic/polymer electronic
memory devices Classification of electronic memory devices, Types of organic memory devices (organic molecules,
Polymeric materials, organic-inorganic hybrid materials)

Display Systems: Photoactive and electroactive materials, Nanomaterials and organic materials used in
optoelectronic devices. Liquid crystals (LC’s) - Introduction, classification, properties and application in Liquid
Crystal Displays (LCD’s). Properties and application of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s) and Quantum
Light Emitting Diodes (QLED’s). Light emitting electrochemical cells

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 Dept of Chemistry, CMR Institute of Technology BCHES102/202

Memory Device
Definition: A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store data. Most electronic devices such as computers,
mobile phones, tablets, etc all have a storage device that stores data and/or programs.
Electronic Memory Device: An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in
response and compact in size. The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a method for storing and accessing
binary digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”,

Classification of Electronic Memory Devices (Based on working)

Memory devices can be classified into following types
1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory
2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory
3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory
4. Charge Transfer effect
1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory:
• Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor.
• It is converted to p-type and n-type semiconductor by doping trivalent and pentavalent impurities.
• A transistor is a miniature electronic component that can work either as an amplifier or a switch.
• A computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors, each transistor is working as a switch, which can
be switched ON or OFF.
• Each transistor can be in two different states and store two different numbers, “0” and “1”.
• Since chip is made of billions of such transistors and can store billions of Zeros and Ones, and almost every
number and letter can be stored.
2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory:
• A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are capable of storing an
electric charge.
• If the capacitor is charged, it holds the binary numeral, “1” and holds “0” when the
cell is discharged.
• If the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by dielectric layer, charges
dissipate slowly and memory would be volatile.
• On the other hand, if the medium between the electrodes is ferroelectric in nature,
it can maintain permanent electric polarization. Thus, memory based on
ferroelectric capacitors (FeRAM) is non-volatile memory.

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3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory:

Memory devices containing switchable resistive materials are classified as resistor-type memory,
or resistive random access memory (RRAM).
Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal
structure.

The structure comprises of an insulating layer (I) sandwiched between the two metal (M)
electrodes and supported on a substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic or metal foil).

Initially, the device is under high resistance state or “OFF” and logically “0” state, when
resistance changed or under external applied field changes to low resistance state or “ON”
logical value “1”.

4. Charge Transfer Effects:

• A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor–acceptor (D–A) complex, characterized by an
electronic transition to an excited state in which a partial transfer of charge occurs from the donor moiety to the
acceptor moiety.
• The conductivity of a CT complex is dependent on the ionic binding between the D–A components.
• The data can be read by measuring the voltage level on the capacitor or other element.

Classification of electronic memory based on storage type of the device

Electronic memory can be divided into two primary categories: volatile and non-volatile memory.
Non-volatile memory: Non-volatile memory (NVM) is a type of memory that can retain stored information even after power
is removed.
Volatile Memory: Volatile memory is a type of memory that maintains its data only while the device is powered. If the
power is interrupted for any reason, the data is lost.
Further it is divided as shown below

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Disadvantages of traditional methods of data storage

1. Conventional memory devices are implemented on semiconductor-based integrated circuits, such as transistors and
capacitors
2. In order to achieve greater density of data storage and faster access to information, more components are deliberately
packed onto a single chip.
3. Silicon-based semiconductor devices become less stable below 22 nm, and the reliability to store and read individual
bits of information will be substantially reduced.
4. Power consumption and unwanted heat generation are also of increasing concern.
5. The new technologies are based on electrical bistability of materials arising from changes in certain intrinsic
properties, such as magnetism, polarity, phase, conformation and conductivity, in response to the applied electric
field.
6. The efficiency of memory structures is measured in terms of storage capacity and the speed of functioning.
Therefore, Organic memory devices (OMDs) provide an ideal solution, in being inexpensive, and at the same time
promising high performance.

Organic/polymer electronic memory device

Definition: Organic electronic memory device have organic semiconductor layer and stores data based on different electrical
conductivity states (ON and OFF states) in response to an applied electric field.

History of organic/polymer electronic memory devices

The history of organic/polymer electronic memory devices dates back to the late 1990s, with the discovery of a new class of
organic materials called conductive polymers.

❖ In 1995 - University of Cambridge in the UK demonstrated a rewritable polymer memory device

based on a conductive polymer called polyaniline. This device used a technique called
"electrochemical doping" to switch between high and low resistance states, effectively storing data in
the form of electrical conductivity.

❖ In 1997, another team of researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
developed a non-volatile organic memory device using a conducting polymer called poly(3-
hexylthiophene). This device used a similar principle of electrochemical doping to store data,
but it was capable of retaining the stored data even when power was turned off.

❖ In 2002, researchers at the University of Texas at Austin developed a polymer memory device that could be
programmed and erased using pulses of light. This device used a photoactive polymer called
poly(3-hexylthiophene) as the storage medium.

❖ In 2007, researchers at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology
(AIST) in Japan developed a polymer memory device that used a "floating gate" structure to
store data. This device was based on a conducting polymer called polyfluorene, and it demonstrated excellent data
retention and endurance.

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 Dept of Chemistry, CMR Institute of Technology BCHES102/202

Conventional electronic memory Modern memory

Conventional electronic memory devices are silicon- based Organic/polymer electronic memory, which uses various
and data storage depends on the amount of charges electrical conductivity states such as ON and OFF in
available in the memory cell. “Higher the charges available, response to an applied electric field.
greater would be the data storage”. ⮚ high storage capacity
⮚ fast data transfer rate
⮚ short access time
⮚ low power consumption
⮚ neuromorphic computing(use of artificial neurons)

The advantages of organic and polymer electronic memory include

⮚ Good processability,

⮚ Molecular design through chemical synthesis,

⮚ Simple device structure,

⮚ Miniaturized dimensions,

⮚ Low-cost,

⮚ Low-power operation,

⮚ Multiple state properties,

⮚ Large capacity for data storage

Types of Organic electronic memory device (OMD)

Based on materials used Organic memory devices (OMDs) broadly classified as:
a) Molecular memory devices
b) Polymer memory devices (PMDs)

Molecular memory devices: If small organic molecular material is used to store the data, it is called organic –based memory
device. Example: naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene, pentacene, perylene, p-quaterphenyl and p-quinquephenyl.
Depending on the charge carrier it is it is of 2 types

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(i) p-Type Organic Semiconductor Material:

An organic molecule with π conjugated system and possess holes as major charge carrier is called p-type semiconductor.
Example: Pentacene

• Pentacene is a linear aromatic hydrocarbon formed by the fusion of five benzene rings. The extended π-system allows the
continuous delocalization of π-electrons.
Eg. Consider OTFT (Optical Thin Film Transistor) as shown in fig.
• Source and drain was made of gold and semiconductor used is Pentacene.
• When a Positive voltage is applied to the gate, negative charges are
induced at the source electrode (Au). Since, Fermi level of gold is away
from LUMO of Pentacene, electron flow from Au can not takes place.
• When a negative voltage is applied to the gate, holes are induced at the
source electrode (Au). Since Fermi level energy of gold is close to energy of HOMO of Pentacene, holes are injected
from source to semiconductor.
• Due to this a conducting channel is formed at the insulator and semiconductor interface which allows the movement
of holes from source to drain when secondary voltage is applied.
• Therefore, Pentacene is considered as p-type semiconductor.

(ii) n-type organic semiconducting material:

An organic molecule with π conjugated system with electron withdrawing substituent groups and possess electrons as major
charge carrier is called n-type semiconductor.
Example: Perfluoropentacene (PFP)

• When Pentacene is modified with electronegative fluorine atoms, it lowers the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital
(LUMO) energy levels of materials for electron injection and transport.
• The HOMO-LUMO gaps of perfluorinated pentacene are smaller than those of the corresponding Pentacene.
Eg: Consider optical Thin Film Transistor(OTFT)

• Source and drain was made of gold and semiconductor used is Perfluoropentacene.
● The HOMO-LUMO gaps are 2.07 eV for pentacene and 1.95eV for perfluoropentacene.
● When a Positive voltage is applied to the gate, negative charges are induced at the source electrode( Au) and
electrons are injected from source to LUMO of semiconductor (perfluoropentacene)
● This charge forms a conducting channel at the insulator and semiconductor interface and allows the charge carriers
electron from source to drain.
● Therefore, Perfluoropentacene is considered as n-type semiconductor.
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Polymeric material for Organic memory device

Polymer used for organic memory device is Polyimide with Donor-Triphenylamine and Acceptor- phthalimide.

Donor: Triphenyl Amine group (TPA)

Acceptor: Phthalimide group
● The donors and acceptors of PIs contribute to the electronic transition based on an induced charge transfer (CT) effect
under an applied electric field.
● When an electric field more than threshold energy is applied, the electrons of the HOMO of donor (TPA unit) is
excited to LUMO of donor.
● Since LUMO of donor and acceptor are of similar energy, hence after excitation the electron transferred to LUMO of
acceptor, generating a CT state.
● This permits the generation of holes in the HOMO, which produces the open channel for the charge carriers to
migrate through.
● Therefore, Field-induced charge transfer from triphenylamine to phthalimide exhibit the switching behavior (bistable
states ON/OFF).

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 Dept of Chemistry, CMR Institute of Technology BCHES102/202

Display Systems
Photoactive and electroactive materials, Nanomaterials and organic materials used in optoelectronic devices.
Liquid crystals (LC’s) - Introduction, classification, properties and application in Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s).
Properties and application of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s) and Quantum Light Emitting Diodes
(QLED’s).Light emitting electrochemical cells-Introduction.

Display: Display is a out put device used to present visual information.

Display System: “a system through which information is conveyed by visual means,”
Photoactive and electroactive organic materials:
Photoactive and electroactive organic materials are the semiconductors composed of π-electron systems and are used in
electronic and optoelectronic devices
Photoactive material: They respond to light and bring the change in their optical, electrical and magnetic properties in
response to light.
Electroactive material: They exhibit trong response to electric field.
Working Principle:
Photoactive and electroactive material absorb and emit light in the UV to IR region.
Display system like (OLED) consisting of photoactive and electroactive
material to absorb light and allows an electron to jump from HOMO of a
Donor to LUMO of an Acceptor.
This phenomenon generate and transport charge carriers.
Example: In an OLED device, the light-emitting layer is excited by the
recombination energy of electrons from the cathode and holes from the
anode, and then the light-emitting layer emits light when returning to the
ground state. One of the electrodes consists of transparent material in
order to extract light from the light emitting layer.
Optoelectronics:
Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which includes the study, design and manufacture of a
hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and light into energy through semiconductors.
Optoelectronic devices: A hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and light into energy through
semiconductors.
Optoelectronic devices are primarily transducers i.e. they can convert one energy form to another.
They can also detect light and transform light signals to electrical signals for processing by a computer.

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Nanomaterials (Silicon Nanocrystals) for Optoelectronic devices

Definition: Materials which have at least one of the dimension between 1- 100 nm are called nanomaterials.Any substance in
which at least one dimension is less than 100nm is called nanomaterials.
The improved electronic properties yielded for nanostructured silicon in comparison to its bulk, which led the use of Silicon
Nanocrystals in electronics and optoelectronics fields.
Properties of Silicon Nanocrystals for optoelectronics:
1. Silicon Nano crystal has wider bandgap energy due to quantum confinement.
2. Si NCs shows higher light emission property (Photoluminescence)
3. Si NCs exhibit quantum yield of more than 60%.
4. Si-NCs exhibit tunable electronic structure
5. Larger surface area-volume ratio
Applications:
1. Si NCs are used in neuromorphic computing and down-shifting in photovoltaics.
2. Si NCs are used in the construction of novel solar cells
3. Used in photodetectors
4. Used in optoelectronic synaptic devices.

Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices

Organic compound with π-electron and extensive conjugations are generally used in optoelectronic devices. They can be
broadly classified into 3 categories.
(i) Small molecules
(ii) Oligomers with well-defined structure
(iii) Polymers
(i) Small Molecules: These materials consist of small org molecules with conjugated π system.
Example: Anthracene, Tetracene, Pentacene etc.
Properties:
1. High Purity
Anthracene Tetracene
2.Well defined molecular structure
3. High Crystallinity
4. Extended conjugation
Applications: They are mainly used in OLED as emissive Pentacene
materials to produce light.

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 Dept of Chemistry, CMR Institute of Technology BCHES102/202

[Light absorbing materials – Polythiophenes] (P3HT)

Polythiophenes are an important class of conjugated polymers, environmentally and thermally stable material.
Chemical structure of P3HT Poly(3-hexylthiophene) is a polymer with chemical formula (C10H14S)n. It has hexyl group
attached on each repeating unit.
Properties:
1. P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhibits
conductivity due to holes therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.
2. Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) have great capability as light-absorbing
materials in organic electronic devices.
3. P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport properties required
for Optoelectronics.
4. P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of
2.14 eV.
5. Fundamental bandgap of P3HT is 490nm visible region, corresponding to π
→π* transition, giving electron-hole pair.
Applications:
1. P3HT-ITO forms a p-n junction permit the charge carriers to move in opposite direction and hence, used in
Photovoltaic devices.
2. It can be used as a positive electrode in Lithium batteries.
3. Used in the construction of Organic Solar Cells.
4. Manufacture of smart windows .
5. Used in the fabrication new types of memory devices.

Light emitting material - Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK)]

Properties:
1. P3HT is a semiconducting polymer, hole transport and electron acceptor, converts UV light into electricity.
2. It has energy gap of 3.4 eV, absorption wavelength 350 nm, hence absorbs UV light.
3. PVK film is hydrophobic, thermally stable having Tg of 200 oC
4. It is highly processable polymer.
5. It shows good wettability and provide uniform thin films on glass substrate.
Applications
∙ PVK has been commonly used in OLEDs , light harvesting applications , photorefractive polymer composites and
memory devices
∙ Used in the fabrication of light-emitting diodes and laser printers.
∙ Used in the fabrication of organic solar cells when combined with TIO on glass substrate.
∙ Used in the fabrication of solar cells when combined with Perovskite materials. PVK-Perovskite junction is used in
Light-Emitting Diodes with Enhanced Efficiency and Stability
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 Dept of Chemistry, CMR Institute of Technology BCHES102/202

LIQUID CRYSTALS
The liquid crystals are a unique state of matter between solid (crystalline) and liquid (isotropic) phases.

Classification of liquid crystals

A. Thermotropic liquid crystals
B. Lyotropic liquid crystals

Thermo tropic liquid crystal

A liquid crystal is said to be thermo tropic if molecules orientation is dependent on the temperature. By increasing the
temperature, the increase in energy and thereby movement of constituent molecules, will induce phase changes.

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Thermotropic liquid crystals have been classified into the following types:
1) Nematic liquid crystals
2) Smectic liquid crystals
3) Cholesteric liquid crystals
Nematic (or thread-like liquid crystals)
∙ The molecules move either sideways or up and down. Each molecule can also twist or rotate around its axis giving
rise to a twisted nematic.
∙ Since the molecules are oriented in one direction, they exhibit anisotropy.
∙ In this case, the molecules are readily aligned in the same direction in the
presence of electric and magnetic fields.
∙ The alignment of molecules is temperature sensitive – as the temperature is
increased, the degree of orientation of the nematic crystals decreases and they
change into isotropic liquids.
Examples: p-azoxyphenetole, anisaldazine.
Smectic (or soap-like liquid crystals)
The molecules in smectic crystals are oriented parallel to each other as in the nematic phase but in layers.
These layers can slide pass each other because the force between the layers is weak.
They are denoted by alphabet letter A, B, C, etc. Some common types of smectic liquid crystals are given below.
(a) Smectic A In smectic A, the molecules are aligned perpendicular to the layer planes.
(b) Smectic C The arrangement of molecules is similar to smectic A except that the molecules are slightly tilted.
They have high viscosity and are not suitable for devices.

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Cholesteric liquid crystals

This type of mesophase is formed by derivatives of cholesterol such as cholesteryl esters.
Like the nematic phase, the molecules in this type of crystal are also parallel to each other but arranged in
layers.
The molecules in successive layers are slightly twisted or rotated with respect to the layers above and below
so as to form a continuous helical or spiral pattern.
Cholesteryl benzoate, the first known liquid crystal, is of cholesteric type. Its transition temperature is 146
°C and melting point is 178.5 °C.

Lyotropic liquid crystals

The orientational behaviour of lyotropic crystals is a function of concentration and solvent.
These molecules are amphiphilic – they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends in their molecules.
The hydrophilic end is attracted towards water, whereas the hydrophobic end is water repellent and attracted towards non-
polar solvents.
At low concentrations, these molecules are randomly oriented but as the concentration increases, the molecules start
arranging themselves.
Cell membranes and cell walls are examples of lyotropic liquid
crystals. Soaps and detergents form lyotropic crystals when they
combine with water.

Properties of liquid crystals

1. They exhibit optical anisotropy which is defined as the difference between refractive index parallel to the director
and refractive index perpendicular to the director. These two properties are important for the electro-optic effects
in liquid crystals.
2. The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field.
3. Because the molecules are polar, they interact with an electric field, which causes them to change their
orientation slightly.
4. Liquid Crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.
5. Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.
6. Liquid crystals, like all other kinds of matter, exhibits thermal expansion (Thermal Imaging).

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Applications of liquid crystals

Liquid crystals have a wide range of applications in various fields, including electronics, optics, displays, sensors, and
medicine. Some of the major applications of liquid crystals are:
1. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows for the display of images and text through
the use of electrical currents that control the orientation of the crystals.
2. Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications such as temperature sensing, humidity sensing, and
chemical sensing.
3. Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as variable optical attenuators, phase
shifters, and tunable filters. These devices are used in optical communication systems, spectroscopy, and imaging.
4. Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where the drug is encapsulated in the liquid
crystal matrix and delivered to specific target cells.

Application in Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display technology that uses liquid crystals to produce images. LCDs are
commonly used in electronic devices such as televisions, computer monitors, and mobile phones.
LCD consists of two polarized glass pieces. Two electrodes, one is positive and the other one is negative.
External potential is applied to LCD through this electrodes and it is made up of indium-tin-oxide.
Liquid crystal layer of about 10µm- 20µm is placed between two glass sheets.
The light is passed or blocked by changing the polarization.
Working principles of LCD
1. The working principle of an LCD is based on the optical properties of liquid crystals.
2. An LCD consists of a layer of liquid crystal material sandwiched between two transparent electrodes.
3. When an electric field is applied to the liquid crystal, it twists the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules, which
changes the polarization of the light passing through the liquid crystal.
4. Polarizing filter is placed in front of and behind the liquid crystal layer to control the orientation of the light passing
through it.
5. The LCD also has a backlight, which shines light through the liquid crystal layer to produce an image.
6. The LCD can display images in color by using filters that absorb different colors of light.
7. Each pixel of an LCD contains three sub-pixels that can produce red, green, and blue colors. By adjusting the voltage
applied to each sub-pixel, the LCD can create millions of different colors.

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8. Overall, the working principle of an LCD is based on the manipulation of light using liquid crystals and polarizing
filters to create images.
9. When the external bias is applied the molecular arrangement is disturbed and that area
looks dark and the other area looks clear.
10. In the segment arrangement, the conducting segment looks dark and the other segment
looks clear. To display number 2, the segments A,B,G,E,D are energized.

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s)

“OLEDs are thin film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched between two electrodes. OLEDs operate by
converting electrical current into light via an organic emitter”.
Properties of OLED
Some of the key properties of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)
include:
1. Thinness and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible,
which makes them suitable for use in curved or flexible
displays.
2. High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means
that they can produce deep blacks and bright whites, resulting
in images with vivid and rich colors.
3. Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which
means that they can switch on and off quickly, resulting in
smooth and seamless motion in video content.
4. Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the image quality is maintained even
when viewed from different angles.
5. Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not require a backlight like traditional LCD displays,
resulting in lower power consumption.

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6. Self-emissive: OLEDs are self-emissive, which means that they do not require a separate light source, resulting in a
thinner display.
7. 7. Long lifespan: OLEDs have a long lifespan, as they do not contain a backlight that can degrade over time,
resulting in a longer-lasting display.

Applications
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have a wide range of applications due to their unique properties, including high
contrast, energy efficiency, thinness, and flexibility. Here are some of the applications of OLED:
1. Televisions and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and other electronic
devices.
2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including automotive lighting,
street lighting, and architectural lighting.
3. Wearable devices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes them suitable for use in wearable devices, such as
smartwatches and fitness trackers.
4. Automotive: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dashboard displays, interior lighting, and
taillights.
5. Medical: OLEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in surgical lighting and medical imaging. They offer
bright and highly accurate lighting options that can help improve medical procedures and diagnosis.

Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLED’s)

Quantum dot light emitting diodes are a form of light emitting technology consist of quantum dots as light emitting layer to
enhance the colour performance of displays.
Properties of QLED
∙ Accurate and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and vibrant colors due to their use of
quantum dots, which emit light of a specific color when they are excited by a light source or an electrical current.
∙ Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays because they do not require as
much backlighting.
∙ High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the difference between the darkest and
brightest areas of the display is greater, resulting in more detailed and lifelike images.
∙ Long lifespan: QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays because they do not suffer from the same
issues of backlight burnout or color fading over time.
∙ Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which means that they can display fast-moving images
without motion blur or ghosting.
∙ Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the creation of flexible displays that can be
bent or curved.
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Applications of QLED
∙ Televisions and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and other
electronic devices. They offer superior image quality and color accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.
∙ Lighting: QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including automotive lighting,
street lighting, and architectural lighting. They offer energy-efficient and highly customizable lighting options.
∙ Medical imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines, to produce high-
resolution and accurate images.
∙ Virtual and augmented reality: QLED displays are suitable for use in virtual and augmented reality applications due
to their ability to produce vibrant and accurate colors, which can enhance the immersive experience.
∙ Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising displays, such as digital billboards and signage, to
produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals.

Light emitting electrochemical cells (LECs)

Light Emitting Electrochemical Cells (LECs) are a type of organic light-emitting diode (OLED) that operate via
electrochemical doping of a semiconducting polymer. They generate light using electrochemical processes.
Properties of LECs:
Light Emitting Electrochemical Cells (LECs) have several unique properties that make them attractive for
lighting and display applications.
• Solution processability: LECs can be fabricated from solution-processable materials, which can be deposited
on flexible substrates such as plastic or paper, making them a promising technology for low-cost, large-area
lighting and display applications.
• High efficiency: LECs can exhibit high internal quantum efficiency, which is the efficiency of converting
electrical energy into light. This high efficiency is due to the electrochemical doping process, which allows
for a high density of emissive centers in the device.
• Color tunability: The emission color of LECs can be easily tuned by changing the chemical structure of the
semiconducting polymer or by using different doping ions. This property allows for the fabrication of
multicolor devices without the need for color filters.
• Low operating voltage: LECs can operate at low voltages, typically less than 3 volts, which makes them
suitable for low-power and portable electronic devices.
• Long lifetime: LECs have the potential to exhibit long device lifetimes due to the electrochemical stability
of the device components. The operational lifetime can be further improved by the use of encapsulation
techniques.
• Large-area lighting: The solution processability and flexibility of LECs make them ideal for large-area
lighting applications, such as lighting panels or architectural lighting.

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Application of LECs:
Light Emitting Electrochemical Cells (LECs) have several potential applications in the fields of lighting and
displays. Here are a few examples:
▪ Large-area lighting: The solution-processability and flexibility of LECs make them ideal for large-area
lighting applications, such as lighting panels or architectural lighting.
▪ Flexible displays: LECs can be deposited onto flexible substrates, making them suitable for flexible display
applications such as wearable electronics, flexible screens, and foldable smartphones.
▪ Signage and advertising: LECs can be used for illuminated signage and advertising displays due to their
low cost and easy fabrication.
▪ Backlighting: LECs can be used for backlighting in displays and keyboards, where the low voltage and low
power consumption make them attractive for battery-operated devices.
▪ Interior lighting: LECs can be used for interior lighting applications, such as decorative lighting or ambient
lighting in homes and offices.
▪ Medical applications: LECs have the potential to be used for medical applications such as photodynamic
therapy or biosensing.
▪ Automotive lighting: LECs can be used for automotive lighting, where their flexibility and low power
consumption can make them attractive for use in dashboard displays or interior lighting.

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