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by Lee Pogonowski
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DEVELOPING
SKILLS IN
CRITICAL
THINKING
AND PROBLEM
SOLVING

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of its unexpected waves? Could we understand

buoyancywithout the experience of being held
by the water? Experience is probablythe best
Lee Pogonowski is an associate professor of music at Teachers College, Colurnbia University. New
YorA.
York.

MEJ/February '87 37
 _ -- I -- _1 I L I I -I

foundation for learning. Once we allowed to get involved in it, they strategies, and representations peo-
have tasted the salty seasoning of will want to pursue additional expe- ple use to solve problems, make
the water and felt its power, we can riences that will enhance their un- decisions, and learn new con-
expand what we know through nov- derstanding. cepts."' Richard Paul saw critical
els, encyclopedias, films, and lec- It stands to reason that if future thinking as the ability to see things
tures. If we have never experienced music teachers have not experi- from others' points of view, which
the ocean, we could still read about enced systematic affective/cogni- may be quite novel and even foreign
it, but we would not remember the tive development in the area of with respect to one's own point of
information in quite the same way. critical thinking, they will be unpre- view.2 Generally, the literature sug-
Such information takes on more pared to foster an environment for gests the term refers to higher level
meaning when generated by experi- developing these skills in their stu- reasoning processes that allow for
ence. dents. This article assumes that abstract thinking. A student em-
Testing and organizing informa- critical thinking is the result of ex- ploying critical thinking responds
tion based on experience results in periential learning that embraces to ideas, problems, and issues in a
the use of higher order thinking the learners affective and cognitive more analytical mode than students
skills such as analysis, synthesis, domains. Critical thinking skills will who are simply consuming ideas by
and evaluation, or what are fashion- first be generally defined, then spe- rote memorization.
ably referred to as critical thinking cifically related to music. The expe- Critical thinking skills in music
skills. Critical thinking occurs when rience of problem solving will be help us understand how sound be-
experiences allow us to formulate discussed as the process by which comes music whether we are cre-
impressions that can be related to critical thinking skills can develop. ating it or analyzing someone else's
facts. This process will then be elaborat- composition. At one end of the
The development of critical ed upon with respect to the follow- spectrum, this may involve experi-
thinking skills is linked to problem- ing areas of music teacher prepara- mentation with timbre or with limit-
solving processes that require us to tion: (1) musical problem solving;
subjectively and objectively invest (2) attitudes about teaching and 1. RobertJ. Sternberg,"CriticalThinking:Its Na-
ourselves in some form of experi- learning music; and (3) field obser- ture,Measurement,and Improvement," in Essays
ence. It is the combination of the vations. On TheIntellect,ed. Frances R. Link(Alexandria,
VA:Association for Supervisionand Curriculum
affective and cognitive factors of There are a number of different Development,1985), 46.
the problem-solving process that but closely related definitions of 2. Richard Paul, "Dialogical Thinking:Critical
motivates our critical thinking be- critical thinking. Robert J. Stern- ThoughtEssential to the Acquisitionof Rational
Knowledgeand Passions," in Teaching Thinking
havior. If students are invited to berg stated that, "critical thinking Skills.Theoryand Practice,ed. J. B. Baronand R.
care about their learning, and are comprises the mental processes, J. Sternberg(New York:Freeman,in press).

38 MEJ/February '87
ed pitch and durational materials. solve the ways in which the other significantly different from the stan-
The other extreme would include elements of music can contribute to dard teacher-centered classroom
stylistic analyses, sophisticated the expressive potential of a single where direct instruction is empha-
compositional procedures, and re- pitch class. sized and students play passive
fined performance techniques. All We gradually progress to a com- roles. Prospective teachers must
along the continuum, it is the expe- plete scale system-Balinese, Chi- learn to balance large group work
rience of problem solving with mu- nese, major, minor, whole-tone, with work in pairs, trios, or other
sical materials that enables us to pentatonic, or one of the ecclesias- small group configurations that
develop and apply critical thinking tical modes-with the advent of promote social interaction and peer
skills in music. additional pitches. Approach the cooperation. Teachers can then see
Problem solving is an on-going scale system in the same manner as how music is a social and collabo-
process of analysis, synthesis, and we confronted the single pitch rative enterprise.
evaluation. This process is mani- class. By exploring the various pa- According to research, critical
fested when students actively ex- rameters of music, we can analyze, thinking skills are perhaps the least
plore, experiment, improvise, com- synthesize, and evaluate the many used skills in the classroom. Benja-
pose, perform, listen to their own ways in which rhythm, timbre, and min Bloom suggested that the high-
music, and relate to examples from dynamics influence the musical er order thinking processes of anal-
the standard repertoire. The proc- personality of a particular scale sys- ysis, synthesis, and evaluation are
ess is enhanced when students also tem. Throughout the long-range upper levels in the cognitive devel-
have opportunities to think about musical strategy we are making opment of students that simply are
and discuss the outcome of their sense and seeing meaning as a re- not addressed in most classrooms.
musical problem solving as a means sult of making music. We are look- He states that the second lowest
for promoting constructive analy- ing for cause and effect relation- level of thinking skills-compre-
sis. ships. Experimentation and critiqu- hension-"is the one where the
To illustrate musical problem ing are accomplished where there largest general class of intellectual
solving, let's consider a long-range is interaction between experience abilities and skills are emphasized
musical strategy that deals with and critical thinking. in schools and colleges."3 John
pitch. Because we want to provide Students who are taught a tradi- Goodlad recently supported this
an experience that engages stu- tional, purely theoretical approach statement in a summary of observa-
dents' critical thinking skills, be to musical problem solving miss tions of music and visual art class-
careful not to overload their cir- out on opportunities to develop es. He noted that "practicing the
cuits with restrictive content. The critical thinking skills. When our lower cognitive processes" seems
ultimate goal is to have students initial concerns focus only on theo- to be the status quo.4
work with a complete scale system. retical factors of music, there is no Instead of examining the experi-
We begin, however, with the pitch A musically expressive experience to ences of teaching and learning for
in all its available octaves in order which students can relate. A theo- critical thinking, traditional teacher
to focus on expressive factors. As retical approach may even thwart preparation programs for pre- and
preparation for working with sever- attempts at later problem solving if in-service music education majors
al pitch classes or a complete scale students are conditioned to attend tend to focus on methods and learn-
system, collectively experience to the details of skill development ing content. Music programs in ele-
how timbre, duration, dynamics, before they experience what it mentary and secondary schools of-
and form affect the life of a single means to feel musically expressive, ten emphasize instruction that fo-
pitch class. or understand the aspects of the- cuses exclusively on reading and
As a group, we brainstorm the ory, notation, or technique. performance skills. These skills de-
ways to give this pitch musical When teaching critical thinking mand a low level of affective and
form. "Whatwould happen if" ques- to prospective teachers, keep in cognitive involvement at best. One
tions result in a variety of musical mind that classroom environment of the problems is that these strate-
experiments. We translate verbal is extremely important. Since the gies are isolated from the expres-
responses into performance dem- teacher is placing emphasis on the sive nature that characterizes the
onstrations so students can hear process of musical thinking, the art of music. We need to provide
what is meant. In the process, the ambience of the classroom must experiences that generate incen-
class creates an inventory of ex- encourage student/teacher discus-
pressive treatments for the pitch sion and allow students to experi- 3. BenjaminBloom,ed., TaxonomyOfEducational
class A that can later be retrieved in ment with musical ideas, and find Objectives.HandbookI: CognitiveDomain.(New
York:DavidMcKayCo., 1956), 89.
an improvisational or composition- musical solutions through trial and 4. John I. Goodlad,A Place CalledSchool. (New
al experience. In essence, problem error. This environment would be York:McGraw-Hill BookCo., 1983), 219-20.
 C-

tives for developing reading and affection for music written at or responds to the musical ideas of-
performance skills. beyond this time. His predisposi- fered in an educational setting. Pro-
Teachers' attitudes about music tion was reflected in his choice of spective teachers need opportuni-
are in themselves outcomes of sig- music for the classroom, and re- ties to define music, examine how
nificant experiences. These condi- mained until the reason for his bias they view themselves in relation to
tioned responses affect their selec- became clear. His instrument was this definition, and conceptualize
tion of classroom music and the the modern tuba; music for this the acts of learning and teaching
responses to music produced by medium was not written before the music. This can provide insight into
their students. These attitudes are nineteenth century. Even though it one's own creative musical think-
the outcome of many years of for- was an extreme reaction, he reject- ing, the creative musical thinking of
mal training that often began during ed anything out of the realm of his others, teaching behavior that en-
the elementary school years. If a own performing repertoire. courages critical thinking, and
teacher's attitudes reflect a defini- Our attitudes are summations of learning processes that occur in
tion of music that is narrowed by a our experiences and learnings. critical thinking modes. Without
particular period practice or ethnic While we acknowledge them as be- this, prospective teachers may not
bias, (to the exclusion of other ing positive, negative, or indifferent, develop enough flexibility to accept
types of music), he or she loses the we often do not stop to analyze why a wide range of responses. Any
larger meaning of how music devel- they exist, or if they can be modi- narrowness expressed in a teach-
ops and functions in different soci- fied. Careful evaluation can help us er's behavior is not likely to inspire
eties. to work our way through these atti- students to invest themselves with
For example, one prospective tudes so they will not interfere with enough intensity to result in critical
teacher seemed to lack interest in desired learning outcomes. thinking.
any music composed before the There can be a difference be- Critical thinking about one's atti-
mid-nineteenth century. This lack tween the way one attends to music tudes toward various styles of mu-
of interest was balanced by his avid on a personal level and the way one sic, for example, can be charged by

40 MEJ/February'87
a creative musical strategy that re- implications for teaching music. willing to suspend my agenda in order
quires all students to work with the The residual effect of critical in- to understandand to experiencewhere
same materials, but in a musical quiry is reflected in the problem- the students are. I must be willing and
able to interactwith them.
style they find comfortable. Extend- solving processes that are applied It is unfortunatethat I am havingto
ing the strategy that focused on the to observations of teaching and
learn through [the observed teacher's]
interaction of musical elements us- learning. In field observations, stu- weakness, but we take lessons where
ing a single pitch class, we form dents will recognize a seasoned we find them. Even my own thinking
quintets and create compositions teacher who possesses well-defined process just now demonstrates this
based on the Dorian mode. Upon goals, and has a classroom demean- truth. Something about his approach
completion of the group pieces we or that is a model of control. They that pervaded his course content and
may find one composition flavored will also begin to question impor- his demeanorbotheredme a lot. Until I
with elements of jazz, another may tant issues such as why children's let myselfexperiencethis irritation,and
contain reminiscences of the Ren- agendas appear to be in the way of recognizethat his weaknesses resonat-
the lesson plan rather than a part of ed with my own, I could not appreciate
aissance, while a third might sug- what he could teach me. Suddenly"in-
gest characteristics of twentieth- it. They begin to realize what it
means to be fully present with the telligence" takes on a new meaning.
century minimalism. Our students' The degreeto which I can engagein the
fascination with each other's solu- students-experiencing the lesson
experience will determinethe connec-
tions to compositional problems in- as an interaction with them, and tions and the lessons I will be able to
fluences their degree of openness working with their creative ener- undergowith myself and others.
toward a variety of musical styles gies instead of plodding on in spite
and the myriad responses they will of them. Future teachers may won- The class and lesson the student
get from their own students when der as a result of their own critical teacher had observed met every
they are teaching. thinking experiences why some ap- traditional criterion for earning
The way in which we permit our parently well-prepared teachers honors in an administrator's eyes.
students to experience musical and seem to ignore their pupils as par- The teacher had total control. The
educational issues determines the ticipants, are solicitous with their pupils in the class were models of
degree to which they will apply questions, and are indulgent but not polite robots. There was no feeling
critical thinking skills to teaching really interested in what their stu- communicated by the students-no
and learning. Questions about dents have to say. Students begin to personal investment in or commit-
teaching style beg an analysis of question, "what is the experience?" ment to their learning. During the
those factors that contribute to suc- Does the teacher know how to cre- process of her own critical thinking
cessful implementation of critical ate an environment in which the the student teacher realized that
thinking strategies as students be- students, regardless of age, want to the pupils were ignored as partici-
come increasingly aware of the po- invest themselves in the class? If pants. The reponses to questions
tential for possibility and ingenuity. not, can critical thinking about mu- posed by the teacher were unimagi-
Students begin this process by ana- sic take place? native, studied, and reflected lower-
lyzing their personal strengths in In field observations, students order thinking. There was no expe-
terms of how they might influence problem solve the cause and effect rience to reflect upon, and there-
their effectiveness in the classroom; relationships that transpire in fore, no critical thinking skills were
a few of their personal strengths teaching and learning. They go be- exercised or problem solving be-
are shared by each student in the yond mere identification of what haviors exhibited.
class. This sharing invites collective works or does not work in order to Experiences are essential in
analysis and feedback by fellow understand the "why" of the cir- building the bridge between per-
students. The analysis focuses on cumstances. The students critically sonal understandings and the ca-
how personal characteristics can think through the observation until pacity to teach music. They provide
contribute to teaching effectiveness they understand what transpired in for learning that prepares one to
within the framework of a critical the music room or rehearsal hall. manage both mastery of musical
thinking musical strategy. This per- The following excerpt from a stu- content and the complex social in-
sonal tact dramatizes the need for dent's field observation report illus- teractions of the classroom. The
introspection as one conceptualizes trates this point. experiences with problem solving
and reflects upon the role of the and critical thinking enable us to
It wasn't until the momentof this writ-
teacher. It also helps students to ing that I realized what I would have deepen our engagement with learn-
identify with some of the research done to bringthat lesson to life. I must ing and teaching processes and, at
on teaching and other assigned recognize on the spot when something the same time, maintain the integri-
readings from which they will draw is not workingor makingsense, and be ty of music and ourselves. -A