Application and Development

of Solar Energy

MODULE 2
 Historical Development of Solar Energy
▪ 1839 – 1887: Discovery
▪ 1839 - Photovoltaic effect was discovered by French physicist, Alexandre
Edmond Becquerel.
▪ 1873 - Willoughby Smith discovered the photovoltaic effect in selenium;
▪ Selenium acts as a connective layer between the top cell that absorbs the short-wavelength light
(yellow and violet) and the bottom silicon-based cell that absorbs the longer wavelengths (infra red).

▪ 1886 – first selenium solar cell discovered by William G. Adams;

▪ 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that ultraviolet light changes the voltage at
which sparks between two metal electrodes would be initiated.
 Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory that describes the behavior of nature at and below the scale of atoms

History… (2/3)
► 1900 – 1949: Theoretical Explanation of the Photovoltaic Effect & First Solar Cell

▪ 1904 - Albert Einstein authored the most comprehensive theoretical work about the
photovoltaic effect through Quantum Principles;
▪ 1913: First Solar PV System - Cairo suburb of Maadi, Egypt;
▪ 1918, a Polish scientist Jan Czochralski discovered a method for monocrystalline
silicon production, which enabled monocrystalline solar cell production.
▪ 1941 - The first silicon monocrystalline solar cell was constructed;
▪ 1954 - The first practical silicon photovoltaic cell was developed by Daryl Chapin,
Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson at Bell Laboratories.
▪ 1960 - Hoffman Electronics introduced commercially available solar cells with 10%
efficiency and 14% efficiency a year later.
 History… (3/3)
► 1959 – 1990: Efficiency Development
▪ 1985, University of New South Wales, Australia constructed a solar cell with
more than 20% efficiency. A private company BP Solar built a power plant in
Sydney, Australia and shortly afterwards, another one nearby Madrid.
 Declining Cost
How did solar become so cheap?
• The most influential was the feed-in
tariff policy introduced in Germany
in 2000. The German government • 1975 - $115.3 per watt;
promised to pay renewable • 2010 - $2.15 per watt, and;
electricity producers twice the • 2021 - $0.27 per watt.
market price for 20 years.
Installation of solar was a boom.
• China entered the market leading to Costs have fallen
a rapid increase in the production of by around 20%
solar panels. Prices began to fall every time the
even further. global cumulative
capacity doubles
• The success of China’s contributed
to the growth of competition in this
market.
 Declining Cost: US and Philippines

► Cost of Solar in US and the Philippines:

▪ On average, as of 2021, the cost of a residential solar panel system in the
US ranged from $10,000 to $25,000 per kilowatt (kW) of installed capacity.
▪ Average Solar Panel Prices in the Philippines can range from Php 30,000 to
Php 50,000 per kilowatt (kW) for residential solar panels and Php 20,000 to
Php 30,000 per kW for commercial solar panels.
 Declining Cost: US and Philippines

From as high as USD

5,000 per kW in 2010 to
about USD 876 per kW
in 2022
 Declining Cost: US and Philippines

► Cost of Solar in the Philippines: 2024

▪ 300 Wp is about PhP 7,068
▪ 400 Wp to 500 Wp is about PhP 21,206 – 28,274
▪ PhP 42,412 more efficient panels
▪ 150,000 to 800,000 average cost of PV installations
▪ The investment cost of solar panel pays-off from 5-7 years
▪ The most sought PV panel brand are: Longi, Jinko, Trina and Risen

Source: solarlab.ph
 Capacity and Efficiency
Increased Solar Capacity: Solar energy capacity has been growing rapidly
worldwide. Many countries have set ambitious goals to expand their solar power
installations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote clean energy.
China, the United States, and India are among the leading countries in solar
capacity.
► Inverted Metamorphic Multijunction (IMM) architecture invented at NREL.
▪ NREL scientists previously set a record in 2020 with a 39.2% efficient
six-junction solar cell using III-V materials;
▪ Triple-junction solar cells with 39.5% terrestrial and 34.2% space efficiency
enabled by thick quantum well superlattices,”
 Peta represents 10^15, which
means 1,000,000,000,000,000.

The Potential of Solar Energy:

1. The energy potential of the sun is 120,000 TW at earth surface. At 10%
efficiency and covering less than 2% of earth surface would get us 50 TW;
2. Wind is at 2-4 TW at 10 meters;
3. Nuclear is at 8 TW;
4. Biomass is at 5-7 TW; all cultivatable land not used for food;
5. Geothermal is at 12 TW.
6. Hydropower is 25.48 Peta watt-hours per year (128 TW) – science Direct
► The solution should thus be clear: focus on the sun, nothing else gets the
required numbers.
 The Indirect Forms of Energy from the Sun

Facts:
• Wind, biomass, ocean, and hydro energy resources are all considered indirect
forms of solar energy, as they are ultimately derived from the Sun's energy and
its interactions with Earth's natural systems. In all these cases, the primary
driver of the energy source is the Sun.
• Solar energy is responsible for creating temperature differences, wind patterns,
evaporation, and other natural processes that lead to the availability of the
above indirect forms of energy energy sources.
 The Indirect Forms of Energy… (2/3)

1. Wind Energy: Wind is caused by the uneven heating of Earth's surface by

the Sun. As the Sun heats the Earth's surface, air masses are heated
unevenly, leading to differences in air pressure. These pressure differences
cause air to move, creating wind.
2. Biomass Energy: Biomass refers to organic materials such as wood,
agricultural residues, and waste from plants and animals. These materials
store energy obtained through photosynthesis. When biomass is burned or
converted through other processes like fermentation or gasification, the stored
solar energy is released as heat, which can generate electricity.
 The Indirect Forms of Energy… (3/3)
3. Ocean Energy: Ocean energy encompasses various forms, including tidal
energy and ocean thermal energy. Tides are caused by the gravitational pull
of the Moon and the Sun on Earth's oceans, which is again a result of the
Sun's energy. The temperature differences between the surface and deeper
layers of the ocean also create ocean thermal gradients that can be used to
generate power.
4. Hydro Energy: Hydroelectric power is generated from the movement of
water, which is often driven by the water cycle, another process influenced by
solar energy. Sunlight evaporates water from bodies of water, which then
forms clouds and falls as precipitation. This water flows into rivers and
streams, and the movement of this water can be harnessed using turbines to
generate electricity.
 Solar Technology and Applications
Parabolic Dish
Solar Power Towers

Parabolic Trough Fresnel Lenses

Solar Concentrators
1. Parabolic Trough
2. Parabolic Dish
3. Fresnel Lenses
4. Solar Power Towers
5. Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) Systems
6. Compound Parabolic Concentrators
7. Sundials and Solar Ovens Solar Photovoltaic
 2- Main Type of Solar PV Applications
► There are two main types of solar energy technologies:
1. Photovoltaics (PV)
▪ Photovoltaic solar, often referred to simply as "PV solar" or "solar photovoltaics,"
is a technology that utilizes solar cells or solar panels to capture sunlight and
convert it into electrical energy. These solar cells are typically made from
semiconductor materials like silicon.
2. Concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP).
▪ CSP systems use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a small area,
typically a receiver or heat exchanger. This concentrated sunlight is used to
heat a fluid, often a heat transfer fluid like oil or molten salt. The heated fluid is
then used to produce steam, which drives a turbine connected to a generator,
ultimately producing electricity.
 Difference of Solar Concentrators & Solar
PV
Concentrators Photovoltaic
▪ Uses optical components like mirrors or ▪ Uses semiconductor materials (such as
lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a silicon) to directly convert sunlight into
smaller area to generate heat, typically electricity.
by heating a working fluid.
▪ can achieve higher energy conversion ▪ generally less efficient than CPV systems.
efficiencies that solar PV
▪ require sophisticated tracking systems to ▪ fixed in place and do not require tracking
follow the sun's movement throughout systems, making them simpler and more
the day to ensure that sunlight remains suitable for stationary applications.
focused on the receiver or PV cells.
These systems can be more complex
and costly to install and maintain.
 Material Used in Solar PV
1. Silicon Solar Cells – vast majority of today’s solar cells
▪ Atomic Structure: 14 electrons and 14 protons. Its atomic structure
consists of three energy levels with 2, 8, and 4 electrons in each,
respectively.
▪ Properties: Silicon is a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a metallic luster. It
is a good conductor of electricity, but not as good as metals like copper or
aluminum. It is also a semiconductor, which means its electrical conductivity
can be controlled and modified.
 Materials Used… (2/3)
2. Thin-Film Solar Cells
▪ Thin-film solar cells are made from very thin layers of semiconductor material, such
as cadmium telluride or copper indium gallium diselenide. The thickness of these
cell layers is only a few micrometers.
▪ Types:
1. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si): These cells use non-crystalline silicon, for flexibility and lightweight
construction.
2. Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): are known for their cost-effectiveness; been used in large-scale utility
solar farms.
3. Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS): offers a good balance between efficiency and flexibility
and are used in a variety of applications, including building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV).
► Thin-film solar cells are more adaptable to various surfaces and can be integrated into building materials
like roofing shingles or windows. Generally have lower conversion efficiency compared to crystalline
silicon solar cells. Their lower efficiency is often offset by their lower production costs and greater
flexibility.
 Materials Used… (3/3)
3. III-V solar PV, refers to a type of photovoltaic (PV) technology that uses
semiconductor materials from Group III and Group V elements in the periodic
table. This category includes materials like gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium
phosphide (InP), and other compound semiconductors.
► Advantages of III-V over traditional silicon solar cells:

1. High efficiency: III-V materials have a higher energy bandgap, which allows them to
capture a broader spectrum of light and convert it into electricity more efficiently.
2. Tandem solar cells: III-V materials are often used in tandem or multi-junction solar
cells, where multiple layers of different materials are stacked on top of each other.
Each layer captures a specific portion of the solar spectrum, increasing overall
efficiency.
3. Space applications: III-V solar cells are commonly used in space applications due to
their high efficiency and radiation resistance.
 Solar Concentrators
► Solar concentrators are devices designed to collect and concentrate
sunlight onto a smaller surface area, typically to increase the intensity of
sunlight for more efficient energy conversion.

► Types:
1. Parabolic Troughs: These concentrators use parabolic-shaped
mirrors to focus sunlight onto a receiver tube placed along the focal
line. The receiver tube contains a heat-transfer fluid (usually oil) that
gets heated by the concentrated sunlight. The heated fluid is then
used to generate steam, which drives a turbine to produce electricity.
 Solar Concentrators

2. Parabolic Dish: Parabolic dish concentrators are similar to troughs

but shaped like a dish. They focus sunlight onto a single point,
typically a Stirling engine or a photovoltaic cell. The concentrated
sunlight generates heat or electricity at that focal point.

3. Fresnel Lenses: These concentrators use a series of flat, narrow

lenses arranged in a line to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver.
They are often used in concentrated solar power (CSP) systems to
heat a working fluid that drives a power generator.
 Solar Concentrators
4. Solar Power Towers: In this design, an array of flat mirrors
(heliostats) reflects sunlight onto a central receiver at the top of a
tower. The receiver contains a heat transfer fluid or molten salt,
which absorbs the concentrated sunlight and then transfers the heat
to produce electricity in a power cycle.

5. Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) Systems: CPV systems use

lenses or curved mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto high-efficiency
photovoltaic cells. By increasing the intensity of sunlight, CPV
systems can generate more electricity than traditional photovoltaic
panels.
 Solar Concentrators

6. Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs): CPCs are used for

solar thermal applications. They have a unique shape that allows
them to capture and concentrate sunlight into a small area, often
used for water heating or industrial processes.
7. Sundials and Solar Ovens: primarily serve as timekeeping devices
and educational tools, solar ovens have more diverse and practical
applications, especially in cooking and environmentally conscious
practices. Both technologies continue to have relevance in their
respective domains.
 BSME 4-2

How Solar Concentrator Works

Elements of solar Concentrator
• Solar (Heliostats) Concentration
• Central Receiver
• Heat Transfer & Storage
• Electricity Generation
How It Works:
The pre-heated liquid salt at a
temperature of about 300℃ is pumped
up the tower from a cold storage
tank through the heat-absorbing central
receiver where it is heated up to over
600℃ by the concentrated sunlight and
then flows down the tower with the aid
of gravity into a hot liquid storage tank
and to the heat exchanger, heating the
water which drives the turbines to
produce electricity.
 Solar Concentrator – Solar Towers
Gemasolar is the
world’s first
commercial-scale solar
power plant with a
central tower receiver. It
is also the first solar
plant in the world to use
molten salt heat storage
technology. It is located
in the city of Fuentes de
Andalucía in the Seville
province of Spain. It has
an installed capacity of
19.9MW (80 Gwh/y).

Figure 7. 19.9 MW Solar Concentrator – Seville, Spain, 2011

Parabolic Trough
Parabolic Trough
A parabolic trough is a type of solar
thermal collector that is straight in one
dimension and curved as a parabola in
the other two, lined with a polished
metal mirror.
The sunlight which enters the mirror
parallel to its plane of symmetry is
focused along the focal line (pipe), where
objects are positioned that are intended to
raise the temperature of the fluid inside it.
The operating temperature of the system
is in the range of 400°C - 500°C
 BSME 4-4

Solar Concentrators

394 MW Solar Energy Generating System (SEGS), Northern San Bernardino County, California - 1984.
SEGS I–II (44 MW); SEGS III–VII (150 MW); SEGS VIII–IX (160 MW); (SEGS X, 80 MW)
 Parabolic Dish

Parabolic Dish – is consists of

concentrating mirrors that reflect and
focus the sun’s rays onto a receiver that
converts solar radiation into heat
energy. This thermal energy can then be
used to produce electricity with an
energy conversion device such as a
Figure 8. Parabolic Dish steam turbine or Stirling engine.
 Parabolic Dish
1.5 MW Maricopa Solar Plant

• Location: Peoria, Arizona,

USA. The project
• Inaugurated in January 2010.
• Sun Catcher Technology –
the system is a 38ft wide
parabolic dish with precision
mirrors that automatically
tracks and captures the sun
to concentrate the solar
energy onto the Power
Conversion Unit (PCU)
converting this energy to No water is used in the power conversion process. A Sun Catcher
grid-quality electricity. produces pure AC power
Fresnel Lenses
 Fresnel Lenses
► Same principles in using magnifying lens to focus the Sun's rays on a pile of
paper to start fires.
► Fresnel lenses takes a large area of sunlight and direct it towards a specific
spot which makes it more efficient.
► Unlike solar PV, Fresnel lenses can be spaced farther apart since light can be
focused on each cell.
► Cost less since fewer solar cells is needed;
► Thich glass or plastic can be used over the solar panel to protect it from
micrometeorites.
 Fresnel Lenses
► Here's how Fresnel lenses work:
1. Refraction: When light passes from one medium (e.g., air) into another medium with
a different refractive index (e.g., the material of the lens), it changes direction. This
bending of light is called refraction.
2. Concentration of Light: The grooves or steps on the surface of a Fresnel lens are
designed in such a way that they mimic the curved surface of a traditional lens.
However, instead of being a thick, curved piece of glass, a Fresnel lens achieves the
same effect with a much thinner and lighter design.
3. Focusing or Diverging Light: Depending on the specific design of the Fresnel lens,
it can either concentrate incoming parallel light rays to a focal point (converging lens)
or spread them out (diverging lens). This property makes Fresnel lenses versatile and
useful for various applications.
 Fresnel Lenses

4. Types of Fresnel Lenses: There are two main types of Fresnel lenses:
positive (converging) and negative (diverging). Positive Fresnel lenses are
commonly used in magnifying glasses, lighthouses, and overhead projectors to
concentrate light. Negative Fresnel lenses can be found in devices like
overhead projectors, where they spread out light to create a larger, projected
image.
5. Applications: Fresnel lenses have a wide range of applications, including
lighthouses (where they focus light to increase visibility), camera viewfinders
(for compactness), and even in solar energy systems (to concentrate sunlight
for power generation).
 Fresnel Lenses
30 MW Alamosa Solar Project, San Luis Valley,
Colorado
• Consists of 504 dual-axis, pedestal-mounted
trackers supporting modules that produce
approximately 60 kW each
• The CPV solar trackers contains 7,560 Fresnel
lenses that concentrate sunlight approximately
500 times onto multi-junction solar cells
• A hydraulic system rotates and tilts the
assembly throughout the day so the surface of
each panel maintains an optimal angle with the
sun.
• Projected to generate 76,000 MWh per year
• 1MW on a 7 acres, compared to the
approximately 8 to 10 acres typically needed for
other solar technologies.
• The facility, commissioned in May, 2012
 Solar Photovoltaic System
• Organic photovoltaics
(OPVs) fall into the
thin-film category of
manufacturing, and
typically operate
around the 12%
efficiency range which
is lower than the
12–21% typically seen
by silicon-based PVs.
Figure 6. Solar Cell and PV Array
Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory that describes the behavior of nature at and below the scale of atoms.

What is Photovoltaics
Source: solarschools.net
β

What is Photovoltaic?
The word photovoltaic (PV) comes from the
Greek word "photo" meaning light and the
modern word "Volt" or "Voltage”, a unit of
electrical potential energy (named in honor of
the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta
(1745–1827),
▪ Solar cells depend on a phenomenon known as the photovoltaic effect, discovered by French
physicist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel (1820-1891). It is related to the photoelectric effect, a
phenomenon by which electrons are ejected from a conducting material when light shines on it.
▪ Unlike the photoelectric effect, the photovoltaic effect takes place at the boundary of two
semiconducting plates, not on a single conducting plate.
▪ Albert Einstein (1879-1955) won the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics for his explanation of that
phenomenon, using quantum principles that were new at the time.
 How Solar Cell Works β

The Planck’s Law and Albert Einstein Postulation

▪ According to Planck's law, the energy of the incident photons is inversely proportional to their
wavelength. Short-wavelength radiation occupies the violet end of the spectrum and includes
ultraviolet radiation and gamma rays. On the other hand, long-wavelength radiation occupies
the red end and includes infrared radiation, microwaves and radio waves.
▪ Einstein postulate that: the energy of the electrons ejected from a photoelectric plate
depended – not on light intensity (amplitude), but on frequency, which is the inverse of
wavelength. The shorter the wavelength of incident light, the higher the frequency of the light
and the more energy possessed by ejected electrons.

Planck’s law explains the spectral density of blackbody radiation as a function of its equilibrium Source: sciencing.com
 The Short and Long Wavelengths β

▪ The hot sun radiates at shorter wavelengths Source: scied.ucar.edu

that carry more energy, and the fraction
absorbed by the cooler earth is then
re-radiated at longer wavelengths.
▪ Red light waves have wavelengths around
700 nanometers (nm), while blue and purple
light have even shorter waves with
wavelengths around 400 or 500 nm.
▪ The frequency of a wave is inversely
proportional to its wavelength. That means
that waves with a high frequency have a
short wavelength, while waves with a low
frequency have a longer wavelength.

• Nanometer is one billionth of a meter

• Micrometer is one millionth of a meter.
 How Solar Cell Works β

▪ What Kind of Light Does a Solar Cell Need?

▪ Solar radiation in the blue to violet wavelengths blast a solar cell with enough energy to
create electricity.
▪ Wavelengths in the infrared spectrum have too little of the energy needed to jostle
electrons loose in the solar cell’s silicon, the effect that produces electric current.
Ultraviolet wavelengths have too much energy. These wavelengths simply create heat,
which can reduce a cell’s efficiency.
▪ A typical silicon solar cell responds to most of the visible and infrared parts of the sun’s
light spectrum, but some wavelengths in the yellow and red regions are absorbed poorly

Source: sciencing.com
 How Solar Cell Works β

▪ The Effect of Solar Energy Wavelength on Electron Energy

▪ Some of the infrared and all of the longer wavelengths pass through the solar cell and don’t
produce electricity. Although sunlight contains an entire spectrum of radiation, only light with a
short enough wavelength will produce the photoelectric or photovoltaic effects.
▪ It doesn't matter how bright or dim the light is. It just has to have – at a minimum – the solar
cell wavelength. In the same way, photovoltaic cells are sensitive to wavelength and respond
better to sunlight in some parts of the spectrum than others.
▪ No electrons are actually ejected when light shines. Instead, they accumulate along the
boundary to create a voltage. When you connect the two plates with a conducting wire, a
current will flow in the wire.

Source: sciencing.com
 How Solar Cell Works β

▪ Solar Energy Wavelength and Cell Efficiency

▪ PV cells are sensitive to light from the entire spectrum as long as the wavelength is above the
band gap of the material used for the cell, but extremely short wavelength light is wasted. This
is one of the factors that affects solar cell efficiency. Another is the thickness of the
semiconducting material. If photons have to travel a long way through the material, they lose
energy through collisions with other particles and may not have enough energy to dislodge an
electron.
▪ A third factor affecting efficiency is the reflectivity of the solar cell. A certain fraction of incident
light bounces off the surface of the cell without encountering an electron.
▪ To reduce losses from reflectivity and increase efficiency, solar cell manufacturers usually coat
the cells with a nonreflective, light-absorbing material. This is why solar cells are usually black.

Source: sciencing.com
Inside the Solar Panel
 Details – Inside the PV Cell β

• It has been known for more than 150 years that

light can have an effect on the electrical properties
of some materials. This is called the photoelectric
effect.
• Silicon is special because of the arrangement of
its electrons - it has four out of the possible eight
electrons in its outermost shell.
• Doping adds an impurity to the silicon to change
the way its atoms are bonded together and share
their electrons. Adding small amounts of
phosphorus, which has five electrons in its outer
shell, as compared with silicon’s four, means that
the extra (fifth) electron has nothing to bond to, so
it’s free to roam around and create electric current.

Source: solarschools.net
 Building Integrated PV
► BIPV stands for Building-Integrated Photovoltaics. It's a technology that
integrates solar panels or photovoltaic materials directly into building
components, such as roofs, walls, or windows, to generate electricity. BIPV
systems serve a dual purpose by not only providing renewable energy but also
acting as functional parts of the building's infrastructure, replacing traditional
building materials.
► BIPV systems can take various forms, including solar shingles, solar windows,
and solar facades. They are used in both residential and commercial buildings
to harness solar energy efficiently while blending seamlessly with the overall
architectural design. This technology helps reduce energy costs, lower a
building's carbon footprint, and promote sustainable construction practices.
Building Integrated PV

Figure 12. Intercultural Center, Georgetown Figure 13. APS Factory in Fairfield,
University in Washington, DC California Courtesy of Kiss + Cathcart
 Building Integrated PV

The CIS
Tower in Manchester, England
was clad in PV panels at a cost
of £5.5 million. It started feeding
electricity to the National Grid in
November 2005.
 Building Integrated PV
English: Photovoltaic wall at MNACTEC
Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain
• 26 September 2010
• A 2011 economic assessment and brief
overview of the history of BIPV by
the U.S. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory suggests that there may be
significant technical challenges to
overcome before the installed cost of
BIPV is competitive with photovoltaic
panels.
• Despite the technical promise, social
barriers to widespread use have also
been identified, such as the conservative
culture of the building industry and
integration with high-density urban
design.
 Building Integrated PV
Aerial view of Apple Park,
the corporate
headquarters of Apple
Inc., located in Cupertino,
California. The roof is
covered in solar panels
with an output of 17 MWp,
making it one of
the biggest solar roofs in
the world. Photo taken
from a Cessna 172M.
 Building Integrated PV
BAPV, Madrid
Spain

Photovoltaic
solar facade on
a municipal
building, Social
Services Centre
Jose Villarreal,
located in
Madrid (Spain)
 Building Integrated PV
BAPV, Madrid
Spain

PV Solar
parking canopy
at the
Autonomous
University of
Madrid (UAM),
Spain
 Latest: BIPV in Singapore
BIPV, Design in
Singapore

• Roofs/tiles
• Curtain Walls
• Shading Devices
• Skylights
• Cladding Walls
• Balconies
 Barriers: to BIPV implementation in
Singapore
PARTICULARS

Policy Barriers Difficulties in obtaining government permits

Uncertainties in BIPV policies in the long-term
Low electricity tariff from conventional sources
Lack of standards, codes or guidelines

Economic Barriers The high upfront capital cost of BIPV

The long payback period of BIPV systems
The long payback period of BIPV systems
 Barriers: to BIPV implementation in
Singapore
PARTICULARS GENERAL ISSUES

Product Barriers Lack of BIPV modular products

The low-energy conversion efficiency of BIPV systems
Reliability problem
Heat transfer issues
Difficulties regarding cabling and connection
Unstable power generation quality
The complexity of the BIPV system
 Barriers: to BIPV implementation in
Singapore
PARTICULARS
Human Resource Barriers Lack of professionals
Lack of public education and awareness of BIPV
Lack of information on BIPV products, suppliers and
policies

Information Barriers Lack of life cycle cost analysis knowledge

Lack of BIPV demonstration projects
Lack of design tools
 The First Solar Power Plant

► 1913: First Solar Power Plant System - Cairo suburb of Maadi, Egypt
▪ Frank Shuman, an American inventor, constructed several large
62-meter-long concave mirrors stretched along an adjustable metal
structure to follow the sun from morning to evening, focused the baking
sun into long glass tubes filled with water.
▪ The unforgiving sun boiled the water, whose steam aggressively
powered an approximately 60–70 horsepower engine with around 88
kilowatts of power.
 The First Solar… (2/2)
The 88 KW Cairo
Parabolic Trough
constructed by
Frank Shuman in
1913.
It was used to
pumped out 60,000
gallons of water per
hour from the Nile
and distributed to
the surrounding
water-hungry cotton
fields.
Source: scope empire
 Top 10 Biggest Solar Power Plant in World

1. 2017 - Bhadla Solar Park, India - 2,245 MW

2. 2013 - Huanghe Hydropower Hainan Solar Park, China - 2,200 MW)
3. 2017 - Pavagada Solar Park, India (2,050 MW)
4. 2019 - Benban Solar Park, Egypt (1,650 MW)
5. 2015 - Tengger Desert Solar Park, China (1,547 MW)
6. 2019 - Noor Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (1,177 MW)
7. 2017 - Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park, India - 1,000 MW
8. 2016 - Datong Solar Power Top Runner Base, China (1,000 MW)
9. 2021 - NP Kunta Ultra Mega Solar Park, India (978 MW)
10. 2021 - Copper Mountain Solar Facility, Nevada, United States (802 MW)
 The 2,245 MW Bhadla Solar Park - India
▪ The largest solar park in the world
as of 2023.
▪ Location: Thar Desert of Rajasthan,
India.
▪ It covers an area of 56 km2
▪ The park was developed in four
phases since 2015;
▪ USD 1.4 billion in funding from
different sources.
 The 2,200 Huanghe PV Park - China
▪ The second-biggest solar power
plant in the world
▪ located in Qinghai, China;
▪ 202.9 MW energy storage system;
▪ The project includes an 800 kV
power line of almost 1,600
kilometers for the transmission of
the electricity to the east.
▪ Cost: USD 2.2 billion
▪ Space: 609 km2
 The 2,050 Pavagada Solar Park - India
▪ Area: 53 km2
▪ Location: Pavagada Taluk, Tumkur district,
Karnataka, India.
▪ Completed in 2019;
▪ Estimated investment of Rs16.5bn (USD
2.5 Billion).
▪ Fixed-tilted photovoltaic solar panels with
a tilt angle of 15°.
▪ A total of 166,668 units of Canadian
Solar’s CS6X-300P solar panels and
499,995 units of First Solar’s FS-3100
solar photovoltaic modules were used for
each 50MW block.
 The 1,650 MW Benban Solar Park - Egypt
▪ Location: Benban in the western desert,
approximately 650 km south of Cairo and
40 km northwest of Aswan, Egypt.
▪ The 4th largest solar power plant in the
world.
► the project is implemented by about 40
companies specialized in solar energy and the
investment cost of the project is about 3.4
billion euros and the implementing companies
have completed 90% of the four main stations .
▪ Space: 37.2 km2; subdivided into 41
separate plots.
▪ The project includes four transformer
stations
 1,547 MW Tengger Desert Solar Park - China
▪ Tengger Desert Solar Park
▪ Location: Zhongwei, Ningxia,
China. Inner Mongolia region.
▪ Area: 43 km2.
► It is designed and built as the
image of the Chinese national
treasure – the giant panda
► Year commissioned: 2017
► The project consists of 3,500,000
modules.
 1,177 MW Noor Abu Dhabi Solar Park - UAE
▪ Noor Abu Dhabi Solar Park
▪ Noor Abu Dhabi is the world’s
largest stand-alone operational
solar plant in Abu Dhabi, Sweihan
Region
▪ More than 3.3 million of solar
panels in one site.
▪ Owned and operated by Sweihan
PV Power Company (SPPC)
▪ Commercial operations on April
30, 2019.
▪ Total project cost is USD 870
million
 1,000 MW Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park - India
▪ Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park,
▪ Located in the Kurnool district of
the Indian state of Andhra
Pradesh, inaugurated in 2019
▪ spread over a total area of 24
km2.
▪ Investment: Around USD
880 million
▪ The park utilizes over 4 million
solar panels with capacities of
315 and 320 watts
▪ nearly 2,000 circuit kilometers of
cables
 1,000 MW Datong Solar Power Plant - China
▪ Datong Solar Power Plant
▪ Built in a 1500-acre solar farm in the
shape of a giant panda.
▪ Investment: USD 3.0 Billion
▪ The first Panda is capable of
generating power for more than
10,000 households annually, the plant
was connected to Datong's electricity
grid in June 2017.
▪ The second Panda Power Plant was
completed in Guigang, Guangxi, in
October 2017. It has an installed
capacity of 60 megawatts, enough to
accommodate 6,000 homes per year. The Panda Power Plant in Datong China will stretch 1,500 acres
 978 MW NP Kunta Ultra Mega Solar Park - India

▪ NP Kunta Ultra Mega Solar Park, India

▪ Commissioning 30 April 2021;
▪ Companies:
▪ Sprng Agnitra (250 MW);
▪ Ayana Solar (228.5 MW);
▪ SB Energy Solar (250 MW), and;
▪ NTPC (250 MW).
▪ Tatas (100 MW);
▪ ACME (150 MW);
▪ Azure (50 MW) and FRV Ltd (100
MW) at adjacent Galiveedu Solar
Park
802 MW Copper Mountain Solar Facility,
Nevada
▪ Copper Mountain Solar
Facility, Nevada
▪ more than one million solar
photovoltaic (PV) modules at
the 250-megawatt (MW)

• Unit 1: 10 MW Pilot Project – Sempra U.S. Gas & Power

• Unit 1 Phase 2: 48 MW – Sempra US Gas and Power
• Unit 2 Phase 1: 92 MW – Sempra & Consolidated Edison
• Unit 2 Phase 2: 58 MW – Sempra & Consolidated Edison
• Unit 3: 250 MW – Sempra & Consolidated Edison
• Unit 4: 94 MW – Sempra US Gas and Power
• Unit 5: 250 MW – Consolidated Edison Development
 Top 5 Biggest Solar Plant in the Philippines

Capacity Comm.
Name of Power Plant Location Owner
(MW) Date
1. Concepcion Solar PV Park 150 2019 Concepcion, Tarlac Solar Philippines
2. Helios Solar Power Plant 132.5 2016 Cadiz City, Negros Occi Equis
3. Alaminos Solar PV Park 120 2021 Alaminos City, Laguna ACEN
4. Subic Bay Solar PV Park 100 2016 Subic Bay Emerging Power
5. San Miguel Solar PV Park 80 2021 San Miguel, Bulacan MGEN Renewable Energy
 Top 5… (2/6)

150 MW Concepcion Solar PV Park

• Owner: Solar Philippines Tarlac
Corporation in partnership with Prime
Infra:
• 1st Phase 100 MW – June 2020, with
a total capacity of 100 MW.
• Number of PV Modules: 300,839 pcs
of 100 MWp
 Top 5… (3/6)
132.5 MW Helios Solar PV Plant - Cadiz

• A project for Singapore-based Equis Fund

Group, is one of the largest solar power
facility in Southeast Asia.
• Opened in March 2016, the 176-hectare
facility was built to withstand the toughest
conditions as it is located in a
typhoon-prone area in Cadiz, Negros
Occidental.
• The P10-billion solar farm, located in
Hacienda Paz, Barangay Tinampaan, was
developed through a partnership between
Gregorio Araneta Incorporated (GAI) and
Soleq Holdings Incorporated
 Top 5… (4/6)
120 MW Alaminos Solar PV Park
AC Energy, the renewable energy
development arm of Ayala Corporation,
has connected its operational 120 MW
Alaminos solar photovoltaic project to
the 40 MW/60 MWh Alaminos Energy
Storage system in the Philippines.

The battery energy storage system

consists of two 20 MW storage facilities
that can store power when the demand
for energy is low and provide power
charging and ancillary services to the
national grid for stability.
 Top 5… (5/6)

100 MW Subic Bay Solar PV Park

• The 100-megawatt peak (MWp)
Subic solar farm of Filipino firm
Jobin-SQM, Inc. (JSI) a subsidiary of
Emerging Power, Inc. (EPI), of the
Zamora group;
• The total project cost had been
pegged at P1.034 billion –
comprising of the connection assets
of JSI at P774.029 million; and the
needed upgrade and modification of
the NGCP Subic substation costing
P260.439 million.
 Top 5… (6/6)
50MW Bulacan Solar Power Plant
• The 50-megawatts (MW) solar power
plant of PowerSource First Bulacan
Solar, Inc. (PFBSI) has officially
started commercial operations and
now provides clean and renewable
power to the Luzon grid.
• Located in San Miguel, Bulacan
• Project Cost – PhP4.25-billion
• Joint undertaking of MGen
Renewable Energy, Inc. 60%; and
PowerSource Energy Holdings
Corporation, 40%.
 Latest Development: – Floating Solar PV (1/7)

► What is a Floating Solar?

▪ The clue is in the name—floating solar, sometimes referred to as
‘floatovoltaics’, is the term used to describe solar panel arrays which are
installed on bodies of water, such as reservoirs or lakes, as opposed to
typical land-based solar PV systems. A floating solar panel installation offers
the same clean energy generation as a more conventional land-based
system, with the potential for even greater cost savings and more efficient
power generation.
Floating Solar PV – Thailand (2/7)
45 MW Floating Solar PV – Thailand
• Owned by Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand.
• Location: Ubon Ratchathani Province
• Commercial Operation - October 31 2021
• Features:
• ability to generate electricity from both solar
power during the day, and hydropower from the
existing dam when there is no sunlight, or during
peak power demand at nighttime.
• Placing solar panels on the water surface also
helps reduce the panels’ heat, making it 10-15%
more efficient than solar panels installed on land,
and reduces water evaporation in the dam
around 460,000 m3/year.
 Latest… Floating Solar - Philippines (3/7)
SunAsia and BlueLeaf Energy to build
1.3GW floating solar in the Philippines
• Reason: Land use is becoming a big
issue for renewables, particularly for
solar energy projects
• 10 blocks of lake surface totaling 1,000
hectares.
• Construction is expected in 2025, with
operations to begin gradually between
2026-2030.
• The area to be used for the projects
represents around 2% of the 90,000
hectare area of Laguna Lake.
• BlueLeaf – a subsidiary of Macquarie’s
Green Investment Group The 1.3 GW SunAsia and Blueleaf Floating Solar PV
 Latest… Floating Solar PV – Brazil (4/7)
690 W Floating Solar in Brazil
• A consortium led by Apollo Flutuantes
has energized a floating PV system on
a lake located in Estancia Jatobá, near
Campinas, in the Brazilian state of Sao
Paulo.
• The project functions as a
demonstrator for the standard 7 MW
system with an efficiency is about 17%
• R$2 billion project has a payback
period of less than three years.
• Development Model: Hybridization in
hydroelectric plants, for exploration of
floating solar in hydroelectric
reservoirs.
Brazil’s 690 W Floating Solar bifacial installation
 Latest… World’s Largest Solar Farm
2 GW Al Dhafra Solar Farm - UAE
• The 2 GW solar farm is 22 miles from
Abu Dhabi and features almost 4 million
bifacial solar panels. It will power nearly
200,000 homes and eliminate over 2.4
million tons of carbon emissions
annually.
• Al Dhafra Solar PV is 40% owned by
TAQA, 20% Masdar, while remaining
40% is equally shared by EDF and Jinko
Power.
• The site was fully operational in June
2023 with a total project cost of about 2 GW Al Dhafra solar farm - United Arab Emirates
USD 1.0 Billion

Bifacial panels can boost energy production by up to 30% compared to their monofacial counterparts.
 Latest… World’s Largest Solar Farm
3.5 GW Terra Solar Farm
• The Terra Solar project in Nueva Ecija
and Bulacan consists of a 3,500 MW
Plant and a 4,000-megawatt hour energy
storage system. It is expected to
generate more than five billion
kilowatt-hours of electricity per year.
• The first phase of the project is
scheduled to be delivered by the first
quarter of 2026.
• SPNEC is now controlled by the MVP
group, through Manila Electric Co.
• Total Project cost is about P200-billion
solar project.
3.5 GW Terra Solar Farm – Bulacan and Nueva Ecija
 Latest… World’s Largest Solar Farm
6.0 GW Industrial Solar Power Project
• A $30 billion industrial solar power project in the
Northern Territory was approved by the
Albanese Government on 21 August 2024.
• The project will be located on a 12,000-hectare
property on a pastoral station between Elliot and
Tennant Creek which will provide energy for
domestic use. Two more gigawatts will be sent
to Singapore via undersea cable will supply
about 15 percent of the city-state’s needs.
• It is hoped that energy production will begin in
2030 6.0 GW Australia Solar Project – Northern Territory
• SunCable is the owner of the project backed by
tech billionaire and green activist Mike
Cannon-Brookes.
 Limitations of Solar
1. Low Flux Density.
▪ Requires large surfaces to collect solar energy for large-scale utilization. Also, the
larger the surfaces, the more expensive the delivered energy becomes.
▪ Limited absorption efficiency contributes to the low flux density.
▪ Solar panels can heat up when exposed to intense sunlight, leading to reduced
efficiency. As the temperature of the panels increases, their performance
decreases.
▪ Physical design and architecture of these materials limit their ability to capture and
convert sunlight efficiently.
▪ The angle at which sunlight hits the solar panel also affects its efficiency. When
sunlight strikes a panel at a shallow angle, it has to travel through a thicker layer of
material, reducing the chances of absorption and conversion.
 Limitations of Solar
2. Prohibitive Location.
▪ Most of the solar energy falls on remote areas and would therefore require
some means of transmission to be useful to the industrialized nations.
▪ The highest annual mean irradiance is 300 W/m2 in the Red Sea area.
▪ Typical values of mean annual horizontal surface irradiance are as follows:
Australia, approximately 200 W/m2; United States, 185 W/m2; United
Kingdom, 105 W/m2.
▪ The Philippines' average solar radiation ranges from 128-203 watts per
square meter, or an average of 161.7 watts per square meter, based on
sunlight duration. - NREL
 Limitations of Solar
3. Intermittent Source.
▪ Solar energy has a regular daily cycle owing to the turning of the earth
around its axis and a regular annual cycle.
▪ Bad weather.
▪ The need for storage or a supplementary fuel.
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