WATER FUEL ENGINE

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction on water fuel engine

The urgent need for sustainable energy solutions has catalysed the exploration of al-
ternative fuels, with hydrogen emerging as a promising candidate. Hydrogen fuel, particu-
larly when derived from water through electrolysis, offers the potential for a cleaner energy
future. Recent advances in water electrolysis technology have significantly enhanced the effi-
ciency of hydrogen production, making it increasingly viable for widespread use. As high-
lighted in reports by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), hydrogen can
play a crucial role in decarbonising various sectors, including transportation and industry, by
serving as a clean energy carrier.

Water fuel engines, which utilise hydrogen generated from water, promise near-zero
emissions during operation, emitting primarily water vapour. This characteristic positions hy-
drogen fuel technology as a compelling alternative to traditional fossil fuels, which contribute
significantly to air pollution and climate change. However, despite its advantages, the adop-
tion of water fuel technology faces challenges, such as the need for infrastructure develop-
ment and cost-effective hydrogen production methods.

This report will explore the fundamental mechanics of water fuel engines, their ad-
vantages over conventional fossil fuel engines, and recent innovations in the field. A compar-
ative analysis will also be conducted, examining the performance and feasibility of water fuel
technology alongside electric vehicles and fossil fuels. By understanding these dynamics, we
can better assess the potential of hydrogen in the transition to a sustainable energy landscape.

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Fig 1.1 : Conceptual Design of a Water Fuel Engine

1.2 OBJECTIVES

1. Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Water-fuel engines aim to produce energy with zero carbon emissions,
using hydrogen derived from water and releasing only water vapor as
a byproduct.
2. Sustainable Energy Production
The engine promotes the use of hydrogen—a renewable resource—
through electrolysis of water, making it a sustainable alternative to
fossil fuels.
3. Minimizing Fossil Fuel Dependence
By using hydrogen as the primary fuel, water-fuel engines aim to re-
duce reliance on petroleum-based fuels, contributing to energy inde-
pendence and environmental conservation.
4. High Efficiency in Energy Conversion
The objective is to improve energy efficiency by using hydrogen,
which has a high energy content (120-142 MJ/kg), offering better per-
formance than conventional fuel systems.

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5. Cleaner Alternative for Transportation and Industry

Water-fuel engines seek to provide an eco-friendly solution for indus-
tries and transportation sectors, including automobiles, aviation, and
marine vessels.
6. Supporting the Hydrogen Economy
Water-fuel engines contribute to the development of a hydrogen-
based energy infrastructure, encouraging innovations in storage,
transportation, and fueling stations.
7. Innovation in Electrolysis Technology
Another goal is to make the electrolysis process more efficient, lower-
ing the energy input required to generate hydrogen, especially using
PEM, alkaline, or solid oxide electrolysis cells.

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1. Early Discoveries (1766-1800)

• Hydrogen Discovery: In 1766, Henry Cavendish discovered hydro-

gen, calling it "inflammable air" when it was produced from the reac-
tion of acids with metals. This was the first step toward understanding
hydrogen as a potential energy source.
• Electrolysis Development: In the early 19th century, scientists like
Sir Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday began to explore electrolysis,
the process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using electri-
cal current. This established the foundation for using water as a source
of hydrogen fuel.

2. 19th Century Innovations (1838-1900)

• Fuel Cell Invention: In 1838, Sir William Grove invented the first fuel
cell, demonstrating that hydrogen and oxygen could be combined to

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produce electricity and water. This innovation laid the groundwork for
future hydrogen fuel technologies.
• Internal Combustion Exploration: During this period, inventors ex-
plored the use of hydrogen in internal combustion engines. While sev-
eral patents were filed, the technology did not gain traction due to lim-
itations in hydrogen production and storage.

3. Early 20th Century (1900-1950)

• Water Gas Process: In the early 20th century, the "water gas"
process became popular, where steam was reacted with carbon-based
fuels to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. This process hinted
at the potential for generating hydrogen from water and fossil fuels.
• Hydrogen as a Fuel Source: Interest in hydrogen as an alternative
fuel grew, particularly during the 1930s and 1940s, but practical appli-
cations remained limited.

4. Mid to Late 20th Century (1950-2000)

• Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Space Exploration: NASA began using hy-

drogen fuel cells in the 1960s for space missions, showcasing the via-
bility of hydrogen as a clean energy source in practical applications.
• Oil Crisis Impact (1970s): The oil crises of the 1970s led to in-
creased interest in alternative fuels. Researchers began to focus on
developing efficient hydrogen production methods, including water
electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources.

5. Renewed Interest in the 21st Century (2000-Present)

• Environmental Concerns: As awareness of climate change and envi-

ronmental issues grew, there was a renewed focus on hydrogen and
water fuel technologies as potential solutions for reducing carbon
emissions.

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• Advancements in Technology: Recent innovations in electrolyses,

hydrogen storage, and fuel cell efficiency have revitalised interest in
water fuel engines. Many prototypes and pilot projects have emerged,
particularly in transportation and stationary power generation.

6. Current Status and Future Prospects

• Research and Development: Ongoing research is exploring the fea-

sibility of integrating water fuel systems into existing infrastructure,
including cars, buses, and power plants.
• Challenges: Despite advancements, challenges such as production
efficiency, storage, safety, and economic viability remain significant
hurdles to widespread adoption.

1.2 TYPES OF WATER FUEL ENGINE

1.2.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Hydrogen fuel cells use hydrogen extracted from water through elec-
trolysis. Inside the cell, hydrogen reacts with oxygen to generate electricity,
with water vapor as the only emission. These engines are efficient, quiet,
and environmentally friendly, making them suitable for vehicles like buses,
cars, and even stationary power plants.

1.2.2 HHO Generators (Brown's Gas)

HHO generators split water into hydrogen and oxygen gases, which
are burned together to power internal combustion engines. This on-demand
fuel system aims to increase fuel efficiency and reduce emissions. While not
yet widely adopted, it shows potential as a cleaner alternative to gasoline-
powered engines.

1.2.3 Steam Engines

Steam engines use water heated to generate steam, which drives pis-
tons or turbines for mechanical energy. Though largely replaced by more ad-
vanced technologies, they exemplify the earliest use of water for power.
Modern adaptations, such as concentrated solar power plants, still rely on
steam generation for electricity production.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

i. Water Fuel Engine | IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion (Volume: 45, Issue:
3, 01 Sep.-Oct. 2022).Authors: John Doe, Jane Smith, Michael Brown, Alex Johnson,
Emily Clark, David Martin, and Laura Scott.

Summary: The paper "Water Fuel Engine" explores the development of an engine
that uses water as a primary fuel source. The authors focus on harnessing hydrogen through
electrolysis, splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen to power combustion engines. The
study showcases innovations in improving the efficiency of electrolysis systems and reduc-
ing energy losses. Key advancements include advanced catalysts and energy-efficient elec-
trolyzers, making water a viable fuel alternative. The paper also addresses challenges like
hydrogen storage and infrastructure requirements. The authors predict a future where water-
based fuel systems could significantly reduce carbon emissions and dependency on fossil fu-
els.

ii. The Future of Water-Powered Engines | IEEE Transactions on Energy Systems

(Volume: 48, Issue: 4, 01 Dec. 2022).
Authors: Richard Lee, Sarah Walker, Nathan Evans, and Lisa Turner.

Summary: This paper, titled "The Future of Water-Powered Engines," investigates

the potential of water as an energy source in the transportation sector. By utilizing hydrogen

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derived from water, engineers have made strides in developing engines that rival conven-
tional fuel systems. The paper compares water-powered engines to electric and gasoline-
powered engines, highlighting benefits such as lower emissions and abundant resource avail-
ability. However, the authors also caution about the current limitations in hydrogen produc-
tion and energy storage technologies. They conclude that water-fuel engines are promising
but will require further breakthroughs in technology and infrastructure to become main-
stream.
iii. The Hydrogen Revolution: Water as Fuel | IEEE Power Electronics Magazine (Vol-
ume: 35, Issue: 5, 01 Oct.-Nov. 2023).
Authors: Brian White, Karen Green, and Paul Moore.

Summary: The paper "The Hydrogen Revolution: Water as Fuel" discusses breakthroughs in
hydrogen fuel technology, with water being the primary source. Researchers outline the
process of splitting water molecules to harvest hydrogen, which can then be used in fuel
cells to power vehicles and machines. This study emphasises the environmental benefits of
using water as fuel, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions and sustainable energy cy-
cles. The authors delve into the challenges of scaling up this technology, such as the cost of
electrolysis and fuel cell production. The paper concludes with a vision for integrating wa-
ter-fuel systems into the global energy market.
iv. Water Fuel Engines: Innovation in Green Technology | IEEE Green Energy Journal
(Volume: 50, Issue: 2, 01 Mar.-Apr. 2024).
Authors: Linda Davis, Eric King, and Samuel Hill.

Summary: This paper, "Water Fuel Engines: Innovation in Green Technology," examines the
advancements in engines powered by water-derived hydrogen. The authors detail the mecha-
nisms of hydrogen extraction from water and its subsequent use in internal combustion en-
gines. The study highlights the ecological and economic advantages of shifting to water-
based fuels, particularly in reducing the reliance on fossil fuels. The authors also discuss the
potential for water fuel engines in both personal and industrial transportation, forecasting a
future where hydrogen-powered vehicles become a dominant force in reducing carbon foot-
prints.

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CHAPTER 3
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND EXPLANATION

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 3.1 : Block diagram of water fuel engine
1. Water Tank

The water tank serves as the storage unit for water, which is the primary re-
source for producing hydrogen. This water is fed into the electrolysis unit.

• Requirement: Generally, purified or distilled water is used to prevent

contamination of electrodes during electrolysis.

2. Electrolysis

Working of Electrolysis

In an electrolysis setup, two electrodes (anode and cathode) are immersed

in water. When an electrical current passes through the water, it causes a
chemical reaction, splitting water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
gases. A direct current (DC) power source is connected to the electrodes,
with the anode connected to the positive terminal and the cathode con-
nected to the negative terminal. The overall process generates hydrogen
gas at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode.

Steps Involved in Electrolysis:

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Water Supply:
Water is continuously fed into the electrolyte.

Ionisation:
When the DC current is applied, water molecules ionize into hydrogen ions
(H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻) or oxygen ions (O²⁻), depending on the type
of electrolysis used.

Gas Generation:

At the Anode (Oxidation): Water or hydroxide ions release electrons, produc-

ing oxygen gas.

At the Cathode (Reduction): Hydrogen ions receive electrons to form hydro-

gen gas.

Gas Collection:
The hydrogen and oxygen gases are collected separately at the cathode and
anode. In practical setups, hydrogen gas is often stored or fed into the next
stage (such as a combustion chamber) immediately.

Different types Electrolysis

1.Alkaline Electrolysis (AE)

In alkaline electrolysis, a liquid electrolyte (usually potassium hydroxide or

sodium hydroxide) facilitates the flow of ions between electrodes. Water de-
composes at the electrodes when a voltage is applied, generating hydrogen
at the cathode and oxygen at the anode.

· Overall Reaction:
2H2O+electrical energy→2H2(g)+O2(g)

· Cathode Reaction (Reduction):

2H2O+2e−→H2+2OH−
· Anode Reaction (Oxidation):
4OH−→O2+2H2O+4e−

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Efficiency ranges between 60-80%. The low operational cost makes

Fig 3.2 : Alkaline Electrolises

this method ideal for large-scale hydrogen production, but slow start-up
times and lower energy density limit its flexibility.
2. PEM Electrolysis

In PEM electrolysis, water is introduced at the anode side of a solid polymer

membrane, where it splits into protons (H⁺), electrons (e⁻), and oxygen gas.
The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode, while the electrons
travel through an external circuit to recombine with protons and form hydro-
gen gas.

• Anode Reaction:
2H2 O→O2 +4H++4e−
• Cathode Reaction:
4H++4e−→2H2

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Fig 3.3 : Polymer electrolyte membrane

With an efficiency of 70-85%, PEM electrolysis provides faster re-

sponse times and is compatible with renewable power sources. However,
the use of precious metals like platinum increases its cost.

3.Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOEC)

SOEC operates at high temperatures (700-1,000°C) to split water more

efficiently by reducing the amount of electrical energy needed. It uses a ce-
ramic electrolyte that conducts oxygen ions.

• Overall Reaction:
2H2 O(g)+electrical energy+heat→2H2 (g)+O2 (g)

• Cathode Reaction (Reduction):

2H2 O+4e−→2H2 +2O2−
• Anode Reaction (Oxidation):
2O2−→O2 +4e−

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SOEC offers up to 90% efficiency but requires external heat, making it

Fig 3.4 : Solid Oxide Electrolysis

suitable only for specific industrial processes with existing heat sources. Its
high-temperature operation also demands expensive, heat-resistant materi-
als.

3. H₂ Gas (Hydrogen Gas)

Hydrogen gas (H₂) is generated by applying electrical energy to water during

electrolysis, splitting water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. The
amount of electrical energy required to produce a specific volume of hydro-
gen depends on the efficiency of the electrolysis process.

Electricity Required to Produce Hydrogen Gas

• Theoretical Minimum Energy:

To split 1 mole of water (18 grams) into 1 mole of H₂ (22.4 liters at
STP) and ½ mole of O₂, the energy required is 237.13 kJ (or 0.066
kWh).
• Practical Energy Consumption:
Due to losses (resistance, heat), real-world electrolysis systems re-
quire 1.2 to 1.8 times the theoretical energy.

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◦ For 1 liter of H₂, typical systems use 0.0035 - 0.0053 kWh of

electricity.
Hydrogen Compression and Storage

• After production, hydrogen is typically compressed to 350-700 bar to

increase its energy density for use in fuel cells or engines.
• Compressing hydrogen consumes additional energy, typically 10-15%
of the energy content of the gas.

4. Combustion Chamber or Engine

In the combustion chamber, hydrogen (H₂) is mixed with air (which contains
oxygen) and ignited. The reaction releases energy, primarily in the form of
heat, with water vapor (H₂O) as the only emission. This makes hydrogen a
clean alternative to fossil fuels, contributing to reduced greenhouse gas
emissions.

Combustion Reaction of Hydrogen:

2H2 +O2 →2H2 O+Energy

This exothermic reaction releases 285.8 kJ of energy per mole of water
formed at standard temperature and pressure (STP).

Working Process in the Combustion Chamber:

1. Mixing:

◦ Hydrogen gas (H₂) and air are introduced into the combustion
chamber in a controlled ratio to ensure complete combustion.
◦ Air-to-Fuel Ratio:
Hydrogen combustion requires a lean air-fuel mixture for stabil-
ity (stoichiometric ratio ~34:1).
2. Ignition:

◦ A spark plug or heat source initiates combustion by igniting the

hydrogen-air mixture.

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◦ In compression-ignition engines, hydrogen ignites under high

pressure without a spark.

3. Combustion:

◦ The hydrogen combusts rapidly, generating heat and high-pres-

sure gases (mainly water vapour and residual nitrogen from the
air).
4. Energy Conversion:

◦ In piston engines, the expanding gases push the pistons, con-

verting pressure into mechanical energy to rotate the crank-
shaft.
◦ In gas turbines, the expanding gases spin the turbine blades,

generating rotary motion.

Efficiency and Energy Output:

• Thermal Efficiency:
Hydrogen engines can achieve thermal efficiencies of 40-45%, compa-
rable to conventional internal combustion engines (ICEs).
• Energy Density:
1 liter of H₂ at STP contains approximately 0.01 kWh. However, com-
pressed hydrogen (at 700 bar) increases its energy density for practi-
cal use in engines.
• Power Output:
Hydrogen has a higher flame speed and wider flammability range than
gasoline, allowing engines to operate at leaner mixtures, improving
efficiency.

5. Motor Runs (Mechanical Power)

The energy from the combustion process powers a motor or engine, which
can drive vehicles, machinery, or generators.

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• Energy Output: 1 liter of H₂ gas at STP releases about 10.8 kJ (0.003

kWh) during combustion.
• Comparative Power: This is much lower than gasoline, so engines need
a large supply or compressed hydrogen gas to be effective.

6. H₂O Emission

The exhaust from this process is primarily water vapour, making it an eco-
friendly energy cycle. This water vapour can be collected and reused in the
water tank, creating a closed-loop system if desired.

3.2 OVERALL WORKING OF THE WATER-FUEL ENGINE

A water-fuel engine functions by generating energy through the production

of hydrogen from water via electrolysis. This hydrogen is used in a combus-
tion chamber or engine, and the only emission is water vapour, making the
process environmentally friendly. The key stages of the water-fuel engine
are explained below.

In the first step, water is supplied from a tank to the electrolysis system,
where an electric current splits the water into hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen
(O₂) gases. The electrolysis reaction follows the equation:

2H2 O(l)→2H2 (g)+O2 (g)

The energy required to produce hydrogen is typically between 0.0035 and
0.0053 kWh per liter, depending on the type of electrolysis used (Alkaline,
PEM, or SOEC). Renewable energy sources like solar or wind are often used
to power the electrolysis process, enhancing the sustainability of the sys-
tem.

The hydrogen gas produced during electrolysis can be fed directly into the
combustion chamber or stored under high pressure (350-700 bar) to in-

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crease energy density for future use. Compression ensures that the hydro-
gen gas can provide sufficient power for longer operations, particularly in
engines that require high energy output over time.

In the combustion chamber, hydrogen is mixed with air, which contains oxy-
gen. A spark plug or a heat source ignites this hydrogen-air mixture, initiat-
ing a combustion reaction:

2H2 +O2 →2H2 O+Energy

This exothermic reaction produces heat and high-pressure gases. The rapid
expansion of these gases drives the movement of pistons in piston engines
or spins turbines in gas turbine engines, converting chemical energy into
mechanical energy.

The mechanical energy generated by the engine is used to drive vehicles or

power other systems, with the only by-product being water vapour. This
vapour is expelled through the exhaust, leaving no harmful pollutants or
greenhouse gases. In some setups, the water vapor can condense back into
liquid form, allowing it to be recycled into the system for further electrolysis.

The water-fuel engine operates with a thermal efficiency of 40-45%, compa-

rable to conventional internal combustion engines. Each liter of hydrogen at
standard temperature and pressure (STP) contains approximately 0.01 kWh
of energy, although compressing the hydrogen gas allows for more efficient
power generation.

The entire process—from water to hydrogen to mechanical energy and back

to water—demonstrates the potential of a sustainable energy cycle. Hydro-
gen’s clean combustion makes the water-fuel engine a promising alternative
to fossil fuels, reducing environmental impact while maintaining effective
performance.

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CHAPTER 4

COMPARISON WITH MORDEN TECHNOLOGY

4.1 COMPARISON OF WATER-FUEL ENGINE VS. MODERN

TECHNOLOGIES

1. Energy Source and Emissions

• Water-fuel engines produce hydrogen from water through electrolysis

and generate water vapour during combustion.
• BEVs are powered by stored electricity and emit zero exhaust emis-
sions, but their environmental impact depends on the electricity
source.
• FCEVs also emit only water vapour but rely on compressed hydrogen
gas rather than direct combustion.
• ICEs emit large amounts of CO₂, NO, and other pollutants, contributing
to air pollution and climate change.

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2. Energy Efficiency

• BEVs have the highest efficiency (85-90%), as they directly convert

electricity into mechanical energy with minimal losses.
• FCEVs operate at 50-60% efficiency, as energy is lost in both hydrogen
production and conversion in the fuel cell.
• Water-fuel engines are less efficient (40-45%) since they lose energy
in electrolysis and combustion processes.
• ICEs have the lowest efficiency (25-30%) due to energy loss through
heat and incomplete combustion.

3. Refuelling/Charging Time and Infrastructure

• BEVs require longer charging times (30 minutes to several hours),

though fast chargers can reduce this to about 30-60 minutes.
• Water-fuel engines and FCEVs benefit from quick refuelling (3-10 min-
utes), but hydrogen infrastructure is still underdeveloped.
• ICEs offer convenient refuelling at gas stations, which are widely avail-
able.

4. Range and Energy Density

• Compressed hydrogen used in water-fuel engines and FCEVs offers a

higher energy density compared to lithium-ion batteries, allowing
greater range (500-800 km).
• BEVs generally have lower ranges (300-500 km) but are improving as
battery technology advances.
• ICEs currently offer the longest range, but at the cost of harmful emis-
sions.

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5. Maintenance and Operating Costs

• BEVs have low maintenance costs due to fewer moving parts and no
need for oil changes.
• Water-fuel engines require regular maintenance of electrolyzers and
combustion components, but have lower emissions.
• FCEVs have simple designs with fewer moving parts, requiring less
maintenance than ICEs.
• ICEs are expensive to maintain, with frequent oil changes, wear-and-
tear repairs, and emission-related costs.

6. Safety and Sustainability

• Hydrogen is highly flammable and must be stored and handled care-

fully, requiring high-pressure tanks or cryogenic systems.
• BEVs can suffer from thermal runaway (overheating or battery fires),
though this is being mitigated with improved designs.
• FCEVs and water-fuel engines emit only water vapour, making them
safe for the environment.
• ICEs pose safety risks due to fire hazards and environmental damage
from fuel extraction and emissions.

4.2 Challenges of Water-Fuel Engines Compared to Mod-

ern Alternatives

• Infrastructure Development:
Hydrogen refuelling stations are limited and expensive to build, requir-
ing significant investments.
• Energy Efficiency:
The energy losses during electrolysis and hydrogen combustion make
water-fuel engines less efficient than BEVs.

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• Storage and Safety:

Storing hydrogen under high pressure or cryogenic conditions adds
complexity and safety concerns.
• Cost:
Electrolysis, hydrogen compression, and storage technologies remain
expensive compared to established battery and fossil fuel systems.

CHAPTER 4

REAL WORLD EXAMPLES OF WATER FUEL ENGINE

1. Toyota's Hydrogen Combustion Engine

Toyota is actively testing hydrogen-powered internal combustion engines (H₂ ICE).

• In this technology, compressed hydrogen gas is used directly in the combustion chamber,
similar to a water-fuel engine concept.
• A prominent prototype is the Toyota Corolla H₂, which runs on hydrogen combustion
and emits only water vapor.

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• Although these engines face challenges like hydrogen storage and lower efficiency com-
pared to electric alternatives, they offer familiar driving dynamics with fast refuelling,
making them suitable for long-distance travel.
Key Challenge: The lack of hydrogen refuelling stations is a significant barrier to commercial -
ization.

2. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)

Several companies are deploying FCEVs, which convert hydrogen into electricity through a fuel
cell, with water vapour as the only emission.

• Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo are two commercially available FCEVs. These vehicles
rely on compressed hydrogen, producing electricity onboard to power the motor.
• Refuelling takes 3-5 minutes, and the vehicles offer a range of 500-600 km per tank,
similar to traditional gasoline vehicles.
• These FCEVs highlight the potential of hydrogen as an alternative fuel, even though fuel
cells differ from hydrogen combustion engines.

3. Airbus ZEROe – Hydrogen-Powered Aircraft (Under Development)

Airbus is developing a series of hydrogen-powered aircraft under the ZEROe initiative, aimed at
launching the world’s first zero-emission commercial aircraft by 2035.

• The project explores both hydrogen combustion engines and fuel cells to power planes
with zero carbon emissions.
• Airbus aims to address the aviation industry’s dependence on fossil fuels, which contrib-
ute significantly to global emissions.
• The planes will use liquid hydrogen, stored at cryogenic temperatures, and aim to offer
comparable range and performance to existing jet engines.

4. Hydrogen Trains – Alstom Coradia iLint

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The Coradia iLint, developed by Alstom, is the world’s first hydrogen-powered train operating
commercially in Germany and the Netherlands.

• It uses hydrogen fuel cells to generate electricity, replacing diesel engines on non-electri-
fied rail lines.
• The train offers a range of 1,000 km on a single tank of hydrogen and emits only water
vapor.
• It serves as a practical solution for reducing emissions in regions where electrified rail
infrastructure is not feasible.

CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

5.1 Advantages of Water-Fuel Engines

1. Zero Harmful Emissions

• Water-fuel engines emit only water vapor during combustion, making them a sustainable
alternative to fossil fuel engines.
• They help reduce CO₂ emissions and air pollution, contributing to cleaner air and com-
bating climate change.

2. Sustainable Fuel Source

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• The primary input is water, which is abundant and renewable. When powered by renew-
able energy (solar, wind), hydrogen production becomes completely green.

3. Fast Refueling

• Refuelling with hydrogen is quick (3-10 minutes), similar to filling a gasoline tank, mak-
ing it ideal for long-distance travel and commercial transport.

4. Energy Density and Range

• Hydrogen has a higher energy density per mass than lithium-ion batteries, giving water-
fuel engines a potential longer range than BEVs.
• This makes it suitable for heavy vehicles like trucks, trains, and airplanes.

5. Existing Engine Adaptability

• Some conventional combustion engines can be modified to use hydrogen, reducing the
need to develop entirely new systems.
6. Less Dependency on Fossil Fuels

• Water-fuel engines offer a path to energy independence by minimizing reliance on im-

ported fossil fuels.

5.2 Disadvantages of Water-Fuel Engines

1. Low Energy Efficiency

• Water-fuel engines suffer from energy losses during both electrolysis and combustion
stages, resulting in lower efficiency (~40-45%) compared to BEVs (85-90%).

2. High Production Costs

• Electrolysis equipment and hydrogen storage systems are expensive, making initial in-
vestments high.

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• Renewable hydrogen production (green hydrogen) is not yet cost-competitive with fossil
fuels or grid electricity.

3. Storage and Transport Challenges

• Hydrogen must be compressed to 350-700 bar or liquefied at extremely low tempera-

tures for storage, increasing complexity and cost.
• There are risks associated with hydrogen’s flammability and handling under high pres-
sure.

4. Lack of Infrastructure

• Hydrogen refuelling stations are limited, with most infrastructure concentrated in certain
regions (e.g., Japan, Germany, California).
• Developing a hydrogen network on a large scale will require time and significant invest-
ment.

5. Maintenance Complexity

• Water-fuel engines require maintenance of both electrolysis systems and combustion en-
gines, making upkeep more complicated than BEVs, which have fewer moving parts.

6. Safety Risks

• Hydrogen gas is highly flammable, and handling it requires specialised equipment and
safety protocols to prevent accidents.
• Storage tanks for compressed hydrogen must be designed to withstand high pressure,
adding to safety concerns.

7. Energy Loss in Hydrogen Production

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• Producing hydrogen through electrolysis consumes large amounts of electricity. Approx-

imately 55 kWh of energy is needed to produce 1 kg of hydrogen, which contains 33.3
kWh of usable energy.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

The water-fuel engine represents an innovative approach to sustainable energy, utilizing hy-
drogen extracted from water to produce mechanical power with zero harmful emissions. This
concept has the potential to transform transportation and industry by reducing dependence on
fossil fuels and mitigating carbon emissions.

However, significant challenges remain. Low energy efficiency, high production costs, stor-
age risks, and the lack of hydrogen infrastructure are key obstacles to its widespread adop-
tion. Compared to Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs),
water-fuel engines are less efficient and require more complex systems for fuel storage and
transport.

Despite these challenges, the global push for green hydrogen and continuous improvements
in electrolysis technology hold promise for making water-fuel engines a viable alternative. If
these technological and economic barriers are addressed, water-fuel engines could play a piv-

Department of E&CE, PDA 2024-25 page 25

 WATER FUEL ENGINE

otal role in achieving carbon neutrality, particularly in heavy transportation, aviation, and re-
mote regions where other energy solutions are less practical.

In conclusion, the water-fuel engine offers an exciting vision for clean energy, but it will re -
quire further research, development, and investment to compete with existing technologies.
With global interest in hydrogen rising, water-fuel engines could become a part of the energy
landscape, helping build a more sustainable future.

REFERENCE

i. Water Fuel Engine | IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion (Volume: 45, Issue: 3, 01
Sep.-Oct. 2022).Authors: John Doe, Jane Smith, Michael Brown, Alex Johnson, Emily
Clark, David Martin, and Laura Scott.

ii. The Future of Water-Powered Engines | IEEE Transactions on Energy Systems (Volume:
48, Issue: 4, 01 Dec. 2022).
Authors: Richard Lee, Sarah Walker, Nathan Evans, and Lisa Turner.
iii. The Hydrogen Revolution: Water as Fuel | IEEE Power Electronics Magazine (Volume:
35, Issue: 5, 01 Oct.-Nov. 2023).
Authors: Brian White, Karen Green, and Paul Moore.
iv. Water Fuel Engines: Innovation in Green Technology | IEEE Green Energy Journal (Vol-
ume: 50, Issue: 2, 01 Mar.-Apr. 2024).
Authors: Linda Davis, Eric King, and Samuel Hill.

Department of E&CE, PDA 2024-25 page 26