UNIT–II

CONSTRUCTION OF DC GENERATOR
DC GENERATOR:
An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is
called an electrical Generator.

INPUT ENERGY OUTPUT ENERGY

The total construction is classified into three parts:

1) Basic Parts:
2) Supporting Parts
3) Protecting Parts
Basic Parts:
1) Stator
2) Rotor
Stator:
1) Stator Core
2) Stator windings
Stator Core:
1) Poles
2) Pole Shoes
Poles:
1) These are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
2) They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them

Pole shoes:
To serve two purposes:
a) They support field coils and
b) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
Stator windings (or) Field Winding:
1) They are usually made of copper.
2) Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole and are connected in series.
3) They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South
poles.
Rotor
1) Rotor Core
2) Rotor windings
3) Commutator
4) Brushes
Rotor Core (or) Armature Core
1) Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine.
2) It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding.
3) It is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducingeddy current losses.
4) It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes.
5) Armature is keyed (fixed) to the shaft.

Rotor windings (or)Armature Winding

1) It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
2) The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
3) Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
Commutator:
1) Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator-brush
arrangement.
2) The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current generated in
armature conductors.

Brushes:
1) Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite.
2) They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates
keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
Supporting Parts
Frame (or) Yoke:
1) It provides protection to the rotating and otherparts of the machine from moisture, dust and
mechanical damage etc.
2) It provides the mechanical support for the poles.
3) It is an iron body which provides the low reluctance path for the flux. This is essential to
complete the magnetic circuit.
Shaft:
1) Shaft is a solid long rod like structure, which place by support of bearing in alignment for
proper rotation.
2) It help to support and rotate rotor.
Eyebolt:
1) Eyebolt is used to Lift and transport DC Generator from one place to another place.
2) It is fixed to the frame or yoke .
Bearings:
1) These are placed between frame or yoke and shaft to reduce friction between frame or yoke and
shaft.
2) Two types Ball bearings and Roller bearings
Base:
1) It is the bottom part of the Machine.
2) It is used to install the machine at required location.
3) It is also fixed to the frame or yoke.
Protecting Parts
Terminal Box:
1) All internal end connections of stator and rotor windings are brought out and connected at terminal
box.
2) It is also fixed to the frame or yoke.
Insulation:
1) Insulation is provided between turn to turn of each and every coil of stator windings
2) Insulation is provided between turn to turn of each and every coil of rotor windings
3) Insulation is provided between stator core and stator windings
4) Insulation is provided between rotor core and rotor windings.
Cooling Fan:
A fan type arrangement is fixed to shaft of the DC Generator for cooling purpose during running of the
machine.
Cooling Ducts (or) Ventilating Grills:
Cooling Ducts (or) Ventilating Grills provided on the Frame (or) Yoke for free flow of air during running
of the machine for cooling purpose.
PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR
Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor moves through
a magnetic field, an electric current is induced in it. Fleming’s right-hand rule is used to
determine the direction of the induced current.

Fleming's Right hand Rule states that if we stretch the thumb, middle finger, and an index
finger in such a way that they are mutually perpendicular to each other.
Then the direction for each finger is represented as follows:
Thumb : It is along the direction of motion of the conductor.
Middle finger : It points in the direction of the induced current.
Index finger : It points in the direction of the magnetic field.
Need of a Split ring commutator:

According to Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever
the direction of motion of the conductor changes.
Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving
upward. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that
particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the direction of current in every
armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at the above figure, you will know how
the direction of the induced current is alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split
ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also gets reversed when the
current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.
 APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATORS
1) Used as supply source of DC motors
2) Used for general lighting.
3) used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output voltage.
4) used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
5) used for small power supply (such as a portable generator).
6) used for supplying field excitation current
7) used as boosters
8) used for driving a motor.
9) Used to power supply for hotels, offices, homes and lodges,
10) Used for arc welding
CONSTRUCTION OF DC M O T O R
DC MOTOR:
An electrical machine which converts an electrical energy into mechanical energy is
called an electrical motor.

.
INPUT ENERGY OUTPUT ENERGY

The total construction is classified into three parts:

1) Basic Parts:
2) Supporting Parts
3) Protecting Parts
Basic Parts:
Stator and Rotor
Stator:
Stator Core and Stator windings
Stator Core:
Poles and Pole Shoes
Poles:
1) These are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
2) They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them
Pole shoes:
To serve two purposes:
They support field coils and spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
Stator windings (or) Field Winding:
They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole and are
connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate
North and South poles.
Rotor
Rotor Core, Rotor windings , Commutator and Brushes
Rotor Core (or) Armature Core
1) Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine.
2) It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding.
3) It is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducingeddy current losses.
4) It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes.
5) Armature is keyed (fixed) to the shaft.

Rotor windings (or)Armature Winding

1) It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
2) The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
3) Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
Commutator:
1) Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator-brush
arrangement.
2) The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current generated in
armature conductors.

Brushes:
1) Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite.
2) They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator
rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
Supporting Parts
Frame (or) Yoke:
1) It provides protection to the rotating and otherparts of the machine from moisture, dust and
mechanical damage etc.
2) It provides the mechanical support for the poles.
3) It is an iron body which provides the low reluctance path for the flux. This is essential to
complete the magnetic circuit.
Shaft:
1) Shaft is a solid long rod like structure, which place by support of bearing in alignment for
proper rotation.
2) It help to support and rotate rotor.
 Eyebolt:
1) Eyebolt is used to Lift and transport DC Generator from one place to another place.
2) It is fixed to the frame or yoke .
Bearings:
1) These are placed between frame or yoke and shaft to reduce friction between frame or yoke and
shaft.
2) Two types Ball bearings and Roller bearings
Base:
1) It is the bottom part of the Machine.
2) It is used to install the machine at required location.
3) It is also fixed to the frame or yoke.
Protecting Parts
Terminal Box:
1) All internal end connections of stator and rotor windings are brought out and connected at terminal
box.
2) It is also fixed to the frame or yoke.
Insulation:
1) Insulation is provided between turn to turn of each and every coil of stator windings
2) Insulation is provided between turn to turn of each and every coil of rotor windings
3) Insulation is provided between stator core and stator windings
4) Insulation is provided between rotor core and rotor windings.
Cooling Fan:
A fan type arrangement is fixed to shaft of the DC Generator for cooling purpose during running of the
machine.
Cooling Ducts (or) Ventilating Grills:
Cooling Ducts (or) Ventilating Grills provided on the Frame (or) Yoke for free flow of air during running
of the machine for cooling purpose.
PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF DC MOTOR
Fleming's Left Hand Rule:

Fleming’s left- hand rule states that if we stretch the thumb, middle finger and the the index
finger of the left hand in such a way that they make an angle of 90 degrees (Perpendicular to
each other) and the conductor placed in the magnetic field experiences Magnetic force.
Then the direction for each finger is represented as follows:

Thumb : It points towards the direction of force (F)

Middle finger : It represents the direction of the current (I)
Index finger : It represents the direction of the magnetic field (B)
Force experienced by the current carrying conductor.
F = BIL Newtons
B = magnetic flux density, I = current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic
field.
When armature winding is connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the
winding. Permanent magnets or field winding (electromagnetism) provides the magnetic
field. In this case, current carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the
magnetic field, according to the principle stated above.
The Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the
direction of force would have reversed every time when the direction of movement of the
conductor is reversed in the magnetic field. This is how a DC motor works!
 A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is energised. The
created magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field
enters the armature from the North pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from
the field coil’s South pole side.
The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same intensity but
in the opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque that causes the motor
armature to rotate.
APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS
1) Electric cranes
2) Paper machines
3) Ship propulsion
4) Steel rolling mills
5) Air compressors
6) Electric Locomotives
7) Hoists
8) Sewing machines
9) Vacuum cleaner
10) Blowers
11) Centrifugal Pumps
12) Fans
13) Lathe Machines
14) Lifts
15) Conveyors
TRANSFORMER
Transformer:
It is defined as a static energy conversion device which transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another circuit through electromagnetic induction principle without change in
frequency.
CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER
The main components involved in the construction of transformer are as follows
1) Transformer core
2) Windings
3) Transformer Tank and Insulating Oil
4) Oil conservator
5) Breather
6) Cooling tubes
7) Buchholz Relay
Transformer Core
The transformer core is mainly used for two purposes:
1. To Provide mechanical support forthe entire transformer
2. To provide a path for the flow of magnetic flux.
The core is built up of soft iron (or) silicon steel laminations to provide a low reluctancepath
to the magnetic flux.
Windings
1) The transformer has two windings primary windings and secondary winding.
a) The primary winding is connected to the power supply
b) Secondary winding is connected to the load.
2) The winding having More number of turns are called high voltage(HV) winding.
3) The winding having Less number of turns are called Low voltage(LV) winding.
4) The windings are wound over the core.
Transformer Tank and Insulating Oil
1) The transformer core and winding arrangement are immersed in a tank containing
insulating oil.
2) The tank gives protection to the core and windings.
3) Cooling tubes are welded with the tank for cooling purposes.
4) The insulating oil act as an insulation medium for core and windings.
5) It is also used forabsorbing the heat in the windings and core.
Oil conservator
1) The transformer tank is connected through a pipe to a small tank called the conservator.
2) The Conservator is designed to act as a reservoir for the transformer oil. An increase in
temperature causes the oil in the transformer to expand.
3) The conservator provides space for this expansion of the oil.
4) The main function of the oil conservator is to keep the transformer tank completely filled
with oil at all conditions.
Breather
1) Breather is a part of a large-sized transformer.
2) During the change in temperature inside the tank, the oil expands and contracts.
3) For example, when the temperature goes down, it will make the oil to contract. So,
atmospheric air gets absorbed inside a transformer tank. This process is similar to
breathing in human beings and so-called as a breather.
4) Breather consists of silica gel, which prevents any atmospheric moisture from entering
the tank from the outside world. All the moisture gets absorbed by the silica gel.
Cooling Tubes
1) The heat is produced in the windings and core due to copper loss in the conductors,
hysteresis and eddy current loss in the transformer core.
2) This heat has to be dissipatedto operate the transformer efficiently.
3) The cooling tubes are used to remove the heat from the transformer oil and tank.
Through this cooling tube, coolants in the form of oil or air are passed inside a
transformer. The cooling method may be natural or forced cooling, which depends on
the size of a transformer.
Buchholz Relay
1. Buchholz Relay is an important part of the construction of transformer.
2. Buchholz Relay is a device used to protect the transformer from faults occurring inside
the tank. It is agas and oil actuated relay.
3. The relay is placed between the transformer tank and the conservator.
PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Self-induced EMF:
is the electromagnetic force induced in the coil when the current in a coil or conductor
changes. The changing flux when linked to a coil turn, it produces EMF in the coil. Thus, the
induced emf in the coil depends upon the rate of change of linked flux.
Mutually -Induced EMF:
The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by another neighboring coil
linking to it, is called Mutually Induced emf. Let us take an example to understand the
phenomenon of mutually induced emf.
The core laminations are joined in the form of strips.
The two coils have high mutual inductance.
When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a varying magnetic
flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces
an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is linked to the core having a
primary coil. This is mutual induction.
Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:
1. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another
2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction.
 APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are used in a variety of applications, including power generation, transmission

and distribution, lighting, audio systems, and electronic equipment.
1. Power generation:
Transformers are used in power plants to increase the voltage of the electricity generated
by the plant before it is sent to the grid.
2. Transmission and distribution:
Transformers are used in the transmission and distribution of electricity to increase or
decrease the voltage of electricity as it is sent from power plants to homes and businesses.
3. Lighting:
Transformers are used in lighting systems to decrease the voltage of electricity before it
is sent to light bulbs.
4. Audio systems:
Transformers are used in audio systems to increase or decrease the voltage of electricity
before it is sent to speakers.
5. Electronic equipment:
Transformers are used in a variety of electronic devices, including computers, TVs, radios,
and cell phones.
Transformers are a vital part of the electrical grid and are used in a variety of applications
to ensure that electricity is delivered safely and efficiently.
THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR
1) Alternator (or) Synchronous Generator is a machine which convertsthe mechanical power or
energy into electrical power.
2) Alternators are the primary source of all the electrical energy we consume.
3) These machines are the largest energy converters found in the world.
4) They convert mechanical energy into AC energy.
CONSTRUCTIONAL OF AN THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR

The construction of an alternator is very similar to the DC generator but the main difference
between them in DC generator the armature winding is the rotating part and field winding is
the stationary part whereas in an alternator the armature winding is stationary and field
winding is the rotary part.
The total construction is classified into three parts:
1) Basic Parts:
2) Supporting Parts
3) Protecting Parts
Basic Parts:
Stator, Rotor and Brushes
Stator:

) As the name suggests it is the stationary part of the machine and it is made up of special
magnetic material which can allow high magnetic permeability and lowmagnetic hysteresis
such as fabricated steel.
) The stator core is laminated to minimize the effect of eddy current losses.
) The lamination is insulated from each other by a thin coating of an oxide and has space
between them to allow passage of cool air flow.
) The slots are provided in the inner periphery of the core and the armature conductorsor coils
are assembled in it.
) Generally, open slots are used permitting easy installation or removal of the statorcoil.
) The fractional number of slots per pole is used in order to eliminate the harmonic inthe
waveform.
) The armature winding of an alternator is usually connected in star and its neutral is
connected to the ground.
Rotor

1) The revolving field structure of the electrical machine is called as the rotor. In a synchronous
generator, the rotor carries a field winding which is supplied by the DC source.
The DC source is also called an exciter which is generally a small d.c shunt or compounded
generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
2) There are two types of rotor construction
Salient Pole Type and Cylindrical Type
Brushes:
1) Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite.
2) They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates
keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
Supporting Parts
Frame (or) Yoke:
1) It provides protection to the rotating and otherparts of the machine from moisture, dust and
mechanical damage etc.
2) It provides the mechanical support for the poles.
3) It is an iron body which provides the low reluctance path for the flux. This is essential to
complete the magnetic circuit.
Shaft:
1) Shaft is a solid long rod like structure, which place by support of bearing in alignment for
proper rotation.
2) It help to support and rotate rotor.
Eyebolt:
3) Eyebolt is used to Lift and transport DC Generator from one place to another place.
4) It is fixed to the frame or yoke .
Bearings:
1) These are placed between frame or yoke and shaft to reduce friction between frame or yoke and
shaft.
2) Two types Ball bearings and Roller bearings
Base:
1) It is the bottom part of the Machine.
2) It is used to install the machine at required location.
3) It is also fixed to the frame or yoke.
Protecting Parts
Terminal Box:
1) All internal end connections of stator and rotor windings are brought out and connected at terminal
box.
2) It is also fixed to the frame or yoke.
Insulation:
1) Insulation is provided between turn to turn of each and every coil of stator windings
2) Insulation is provided between turn to turn of each and every coil of rotor windings
3) Insulation is provided between stator core and stator windings
4) Insulation is provided between rotor core and rotor windings.
Cooling Fan:
A fan type arrangement is fixed to shaft of the DC Generator for cooling purpose during running of the
machine.
Cooling Ducts (or) Ventilating Grills:
Cooling Ducts (or) Ventilating Grills provided on the Frame (or) Yoke for free flow of air during running
of the machine for cooling purpose.
PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF A 3-PHASE ALTERNATOR
1. The working of an alternator is based on the principle that when the flux linking a
conductor changes, an emf is induced in the conductor.
2. An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle of electromagnetic induction as a
DC generator.
3. The working of an alternator is based on the principle that when the flux linking a conductor
changes, an emf is induced in the conductor.
Alternator Operation
The rotor winding is energized from the DC exciter and alternate N and S poles are developed
on the rotor.
When the rotor is rotated in the anti-clockwise direction by a prime mover, the stator orarmature
conductors are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles. Consequently, e.m.f. is induced in the
armature conductors due to electromagnetic induction.
The induced e.m.f. is alternating since N and S poles of rotor alternately pass the armature
conductors.
The direction of induced e.m.f. can be found by Fleming right-hand rule
and frequency is given by;
f = PN / 120
where N = speed of the rotor in r.p.m.P = number of rotor poles
The magnitude of the voltage induced in each phase depends upon the rotor flux, the number
and position of the conductors in the phase and the speed of the rotor.
When the rotor is rotated, a 3-phase voltage is induced in the armature winding.
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. depends upon the speed of rotation and the DC exciting current.
The magnitude of e.m.f. in each phase of the armature winding is the same.
However, they differ in phase by 120° electrical.
 CONSTRUCTION OF A THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Stator:
In 3 phase motors parts, the stator is the most integral component. It is the stationary part
that influences the rotor to move in the direction of magnetic fields. This part of 3 phase
motor further has the following sub-divisions;
• Core:
Inside the stator, the laminated structure is present, which is known as the stator core. The
stator core has paired slots depending on the number of poles of the electric motor. Some
motors have 2 poles and 3 slots or 3 poles and 4 slots, etc. The speed of the motor is inversely
proportional to the number of poles. If the number of poles is greater, the speed will be less
and vice versa.
• Stator frame:
The outer covering of the stator is called the stator frame. The stator frame is made up of
high-grade material and 100% stainless steel to protect internal parts. It also ensures long
life and durability.
• Stator winding:
The stator winding generates magnetic fields in the stator. The three phases get excited
when connected to the power supply and start producing magnetic fields. The stator
windings are insulated and resistive to ensure protection in unfavorable conditions.
Rotor:
Rotor is another important component in parts of 3 phase motor. The moving part that
rotates in the direction of magnetic fields is called a rotor. The rotor of three phase motors
carries the current to move the shaft. The three phase motor is further classified into two
major categories based on rotor structure;
• Slip ring or wound-type:
The wound-type rotor generally consists of the slotted armature and slip rings. These
motors provide high and constant starting torque; therefore, these motors are widely used
in heavy load industries because it allows external resistance to reduce initial current.
Figure 2: Rotor of Slip-Ring Induction Motor
• Squirrel cage motor rotor:
The squirrel cage motor is the most widely used 3-phase induction motor due to its simple
cage rotor construction. The cage-type rotor comprises aluminum or copper bars fixed
inside the slots. This type of three-phase motor is used for low-grade commercial and
domestic purposes.

Figure 3: Rotor of squirrel cage induction motor

Terminal box:
The terminal box is also prominent in 3 phase motor parts. The terminal box provides a
three-phase power supply through an external electrical supply. The stator windings are
connected to the terminal box via delta or star connection.
Fan:
For heat dissipation and cooling, a fan is considered a significant part of 3 phase induction
motors. It maintains the temperature and cools down other internal parts of 3 phase
induction motor.

PRINCIPLE AND WORKING OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

An AC current is applied in the stator armature which generates a flux in the stator magnetic
circuit. This flux induces an emf in the conducting bars of rotor as they are “cut” by the flux while
the magnet is being moved (E = BVL (Faraday’s Law)).
A current flow in the rotor circuit due to the induced emf, which in term produces a force, (F =
BIL) can be changed to the torque as the output.
In a 3-phase induction motor, the three-phase currents ia, ib and ic, each of equal magnitude,
but differing in phase by 120°. Each phase current produces a magnetic flux and there is physical
120 °shift between each flux. The total flux in the machine is the sum of the three fluxes. The
summation of the three ac fluxes results in a rotating flux, which turns with constant speed and
has constant amplitude. Such a magnetic flux produced by balanced three phase currents flowing
in three-phase windings is called a rotating magnetic flux or rotating magnetic field (RMF).RMF
rotates with a constant speed (Synchronous Speed). Existence of a RFM is an essential condition
for the operation of an induction motor.
If stator is energized by an ac current, RMF is generated due to the applied current to the stator
winding. This flux produces magnetic field and the field revolves in the air gap between stator and
rotor. So, the magnetic field induces a voltage in the short circuited bars of the rotor. This voltage
drives current through the bars. The interaction of the rotating flux and the rotor current generates
a force that drives the motor and a torque is developed consequently. The torque is proportional
with the flux density and the rotor 6 bar current (F=BLI). The motor speed is less than the
synchronous speed. The direction of the rotation of the rotor is the same as the direction of the
rotation of the revolving magnetic field in the air gap.
However, for these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor and the speed of the
rotating magnetic field in the stator must be different, or else the magnetic field will not be moving
relative to the rotor conductors and no currents will be induced. If by some chance this happens,
the rotor typically slows slightly until a current is re induced and then the rotor continuesas before.
This difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator
is called slip. It is unit less and is the ratio between the relative speed of the magnetic field as seen
by the rotor the (slip speed) to the speed of the rotating stator field. Due to this an induction motor
is sometimes referred to as an asynchronous machine.
A typical motor consists of two parts namely stator and rotor like other type of motors.
a) An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating
magnetic field,
b) An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.
APPLICATIONS OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
The machine interfaces with the external world through two connections (ports) one mechanical
and one electrical. The mechanical port is in the form of a rotating shaft and the electrical port is
in the form of terminals where AC supply is connected.Its most common type of motor used in
industrial, commercial or residential settings. It is a three phase AC motor.
Due to the robust construction and ease of control, three-phase asynchronous motors are widely
preferred over many other motors for the AC motor driven applications.
This three-phase motor is accountable for larger load operations in several applications like goods
and lift hoists, conveyors, compressors, pumps, ventilation systems, industrial fan controllers, etc.
With the invention of adjustable speed drives and several other types of motor starters, three-phase
motors have become favourable drives for variable speed applications.
As these motors are important in load driving, it is also important to ensure their safety &
protection against starting inrush currents, overloads, single phasing, overheating and other faulty
conditions. Before going into the details of these motors and their protection systems, let us look
on three-phase motor basics.
➢ Squirrel cage motor can be used for applications which demand low starting torque.
Examples are pumps, compressors.
➢ Slip ring motors allow for increased starting torque by adding resistance to rotor winding
through external circuitry while starting.
Examples are in grinding mills, crane hoists.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
The indicating instruments are those instruments whose function is to give the
instantaneous value of the electrical quantities. Quantities like potential difference, current
etc.
In order to ensure the proper operation of the indicating instruments , the following three
torques are required.
1. Deflecting Torque
2. Controlling Torque
3. Damping Torque
These three torques are explained below:
Deflecting Torque
The deflecting torque is produced by utilizing other effect
like magnetic, electrostatic, electrodynamics, thermal or inductive etc.
This deflectingtorque causes the moving system to move from its zero position or when the
instrument is disconnected from the supply.
Controlling Torque
This torque faces the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection of the moving
system. The pointer moves on its rest position when these two opposing torques are equal.
During the absence of a restoring torque, the pointer doesn’t return to its zero position when
the supply is removed from the instrument. The controlling or balancing torque in indicating
instruments is obtained by two methods which are described below:
Damping torque
It is a force of an instrument which acts on the moving system of the instrument when it
starts moving and it opposes its motion. This damping force is necessary for the
instrument to bring the pointer on a rest position because the pointer takes some time to
move from its rest position. If the damping force is increased, it will make the
instrument very slow. The damping force is produced by air frictions, eddy currents and
fluid frictions.
PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF PMMC INSTRUMENTS

Working Principle
Whenever a current caring conductor is located within a magnetic field, then it experiences
a force that is perpendicular to the current & the field. Based on the rule of “Fleming left
hand”, if the thumbnail of the left hand, middle and forefinger are at 90 degrees with each
other.
After that the magnetic field will be in the forefinger, flow of current will be across the middle
finger and finally, the force will be through the thumb finger.
Once the current flow within the coil on the aluminum former, the magnetic field can be
generated in the coil in proportion to the current flow.
So damping force can be generated within the system through the aluminum core movement
of the magnetic field. It maintains the pointer stable to a point. Once it attains equilibrium
by controlling & deflection torque to provide accuracy in measurement.
The electromagnetic force throughout the fixed magnetic field from the permanent magnet
generates the deflection force within the coil. After that the spring generates the force to
resist additional deflection; therefore it helps to balance the pointer.
Construction of PMMC Instrument:
The moving coil and permanent magnet are the main part of the PMMC instrument. The parts
of the PMMC instruments are explained below in details.
Moving Coil:
The coil is the current carrying part of the instruments which is freely moved between the
stationary field of the permanent magnet. The current passes through the coil deflects it due
to which the magnitude of the current or voltage is determined.
The coil is mounted on the rectangular former which is made up of aluminum. The former
increases the radial and uniform magnetic field between the air gap of the poles. The coil is
wound with the silk cover copper wire between the poles of a magnet.
Magnet System
The PMMC instrument using the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnets.
The Alcomax and Alnico material are used for creating the permanent magnet because this
magnet has the high coercive force (The coercive force changes the magnetization property
of the magnet). Also, the magnet has high field intensities.
Control System:

In PMMC instrument the controlling torque is because of the springs. The springs are made
up of phosphorous bronze and placed between the two jewel bearings. The spring also
provides the path to the lead current to flow in and out of the moving coil.
The controlling torque is mainly because of the suspension of the ribbon.
Damping:
The damping torque is used for keeping the movement of the coil in rest. This damping
torque is induced because of the movement of the aluminium core which is moving between
the poles of the permanent magnet.
Damping Torque is produced by the movement of Aluminum former in the magnetic field of
Permanent Magnet. Due to movement of Aluminum former an eddy current is developed on
the former which produces a damping torque.
Pointer & Scale:

The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The pointer notices the deflection of the coil, and
the magnitude of their deviation is shown on the scale.
The pointer is made of the lightweight material, and hence it is easily deflected with the
movement of the coil.
Sometimes the parallax error occurs in the instrument which is easily reduced by correctly
aligning the blade of the pointer.
Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument
The deflecting torque induces because of the movement of the coil. The deflecting torque is
expressed by the equation shown below.
Td = F x Distance
F = BIL (per conductor)
 F = N (BIL) (For Coil)
Td = NBIL * d
Td =IBAN (A= L*d)
Td =( I*B*A*N) ---(1)
Where, N – Number of turns of coil
B – flux density in the air gap
A =Area of Cross-section of the Coil (A = L*d)
L,d are the vertical and horizontal length of the Coil-side
I –C urrent through the coil.
Lets consider G = NBA---(2)
Td = GI
Td is proportional to I
𝞱 = Angle of Deflection
Tc= Controlling Torque
Tc Proportional to 𝞱
Tc =( K * 𝞱)
Tc = Td
GI = K𝞱
𝞱 = GI/K
I = (K𝞱/G)
The above equation shows that the deflection torque is directly proportional to the current
passing through the coil.
Advantages of PMMC Instruments
1. The scale of the PMMC instruments is correctly divided.
2. The power consumption of the devices is very less.
3. The PMMC instruments have high accuracy because of the high torque weight ratio.
4. The single device measures the different range of voltage and current. This can be done by
the use of multipliers and shunts.
5. The PMMC instruments use shelf shielding magnet which is useful for the aerospace
applications.

Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments:

1. The PMMC instruments are only used for the direct current. The alternating current varies
with the time. The rapid variation of the current varies the torque of the coil. But the pointer
can not follow the fast reversal and the deflection of the torque. Thus, it cannot use for AC.
2. The cost of the PPMC instruments is much higher as compared to the moving coil
instruments.
The moving coil itself provides the electromagnetic damping. The electromagnetic damping
opposes the motion of the coil which is because of the reaction of the eddy current and the
magnetic field.
Applications of PMMC Instrument Ammeter
• Galvanometer
• Ohmmeter
• Voltmeter.
PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF MOVING IRON ISTRUMENTS
Definition:
The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of current or
voltage is known as the moving iron instrument. It works on the principle that the iron
place near the magnet attracts towards it. The force of attraction depends on the
strength of the magnet field. The magnetic field induces by the electromagnet whose
strength depends on the magnitude of the current passes through it.
Construction of Moving Iron Instrument
The plate or vane of soft iron is used as the moving element of the instrument. The vane is
so placed that it can freely move in the magnetic field of the stationary coil. The conductor
makes the stationary coil, and it is excited by the voltage or current whose magnitude is used
to be measured.
The moving iron instrument uses the stationary coil as an electromagnet. The electromagnet
is the temporary magnet whose magnetic field strength increases or decreases with the
magnitude of the current passes through it.
Working of the Moving Iron Instrument
The moving iron instruments use the stationary coil of copper or aluminium wire which acts
as an electromagnet when an electric current passes through it. The strength of the magnetic
field induces by the electromagnet is directly proportional to the current passes through it.
The plates or vane of the iron pass through the coil increases the inductance of the stationary
coil (the inductance is the property of the conductor which increases their electromotive
force when the varying current passes through it).
The electromagnet attracts the iron vane. The vane passes through the coil tries to occupy
the minimum reluctance path (the reluctance is the property of the magnet which opposes
the flow of electric current).
The vane passes through the coil experience a force of repulsion caused by the
electromagnet. The repulsion force increases the strength of the coil inductance.
This happens because the inductance and reluctances are inversely proportional to each
other.
Classification of the Moving Iron Instruments
The attraction and the repulsion are the types of the moving iron instruments. Their detail
explanation is shown below.
1. Attraction Type – The instrument in which the iron plate attracts from the weaker field
towards the stronger field such type of instrument is known as the attraction type
instrument.
Construction of Attraction Type Instrument – The stationary coil of the attraction type
instrument is flat and has a narrow opening. The moving element is the flat disc of the iron
core. The current flow through the stationary coil produced the magnetic field which attracts
the iron coil.
Attraction-type-instruments:

The iron vane deflects from the low magnetic field to the high magnetic field, and the
strength of the deflection is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flow
through it. In short, we can say that the iron coil attracts towards in.
The attraction type instruments use spring, which provided the controlling torque. The
deflection of the coil is reduced by the aluminium piston which is attached to the moving coil.
2. Repulsion Type Instruments – The repulsion type instrument has two vanes or iron
plates. One is fixed, and the other one is movable. The vanes become magnetised when the
current passes through the stationary coil and the force of repulsion occur between them.
Because of a repulsive force, the moving coil starts moving away from the fixed vane.
repulsion-type-instruments
The spring provides the controlling torque. The air friction induces the damping torque,
which opposes the movement of the coil. The repulsion type instrument is a non-polarized
instrument, i.e., free from the direction of current passes through it. Thus, it is used for both
AC and DC.
Advantages of the MI Instruments
1) Universal use – The MI instrument is independent of the direction of current and hence
usedfor both AC and DC.
2) Less Friction Error – The friction error is very less in the moving iron instrument because
their torque weight ratio is high. The torque weight ratio is high because their current
carrying part is stationary and the moving parts are lighter in weight.
3) Cheapness – The MI instruments require less number of turns as compared to PMMC
instrument. Thus, it is cheaper.
4) Robustness – The instrument is robust because of their simple construction. And also
because their current carrying part is stationary.
Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments.
1) Accuracy – The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform, and hence the
accurateresult is not possible.
2) Errors – Some serious error occurs in the instruments because of the hysteresis,
frequency and stray magnetic field.
3) Waveform Error – In MI instrument the deflection torque is not directly proportional to
thesquare of the current. Because of which the waveforms error occurs in the instrument.
Applications:
The applications of moving iron instruments include the following.
1. These instruments are mainly used as an ammeter, voltmeter & wattmeter which can
work on both AC & DC.
2. These are used for measuring alternating currents & voltages.
3. These types of Instruments are used at power frequencies within laboratories.
4. These MI instruments are extensively used in switchboards & labs.

VOLTMETER AMMETER METHOD FOR MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

Resistance is classified into three categories for the sake of Measurement.
Different categories of Resistance are measured by different technique. That’s why they are
classified. They are classified as
Low Resistance: Resistance having value 1Ω or below are kept under this category.
Medium Resistance: This category includes Resistance from 1Ω to 0.1 MΩ.
High Resistance: Resistance of the order of 0.1 MΩ and above is classified as High resistance.
Ammeter Voltmeter Method:
There are two possible connections for the measurement of Medium Resistance using
Ammeter Voltmeter Method as shown in figure below:
In both the cases, the reading of Voltmeter and Ammeter is taken. If the Voltmeter reading
is V and Ammeter reading is I then the measured Resistance will be
Rm = V/I
This measured Resistance Rm will be the true value of the Resistance if and only if the
Resistance of Ammeter is zero and that of Voltmeter is infinite. But actually this is not
possible to achieve zero resistance Ammeter and infinite Resistance Voltmeter. Therefore
measured value of resistance Rm will deviate from the true value R (Say).
So we will discuss both the circuit individually and will calculate the percentage error in the
measurement.
Case1:

We consider first kind of connection as shown in figure 1 above. It is clear from the figure
that Voltmeter is measuring the Voltage drop across the Ammeter as well as resistor. So V =
Va + Vr
Let current measured by Ammeter = I
Therefore, measured Resistance Rm = V/I
So, Rm = (Va+Vr) / I =(IRa+IR) / I = Ra+R
Therefore, the measured Resistance is the sum of Resistance of Ammeter and true
Resistance. Therefore measured value will only represent true value if Ammeter Resistance
Ra is Zero.
True value of Resistance R = Rm –Ra
= Rm(1-Ra/Rm)
Relative Error = (Rm-R)/R = Ra/R
Therefore, Relative Error will be less if the true value of Resistance to be measured is
high as compared to the internal Resistance of Ammeter. That’s why this method
should be adopted when measuring high Resistance but it should be under Medium
Resistance category.
Case2:
We will consider second connection in which Voltmeter is connected in which Voltmeter is
connected toward Resistance R whose value is to be measured.

It is obvious from figure that Ammeter will read the current flowing through the Voltmeter
and Resistance R. Therefore current measured by Ammeter Ia = Iv+Ir
So, Ia = Iv+Ir
= V/Rv+V/R where Rv is Resistance of Voltmeter and V is Voltmeter reading.
Measured Resistance Rm = V/Ia
= V/(V/Rv+V/R)
= RvR/(R+Rv)
= R/(1+R/Rv) ….Dividing Numerator and Denominator by Rv
Therefore, true value of Resistance R = RmRv/(Rv-Rm) = Rm(1-Rm/Rv)
Therefore, true value of Resistance will only be equal to measured value if the value
of Voltmeter Resistance Rv is infinite.