SAP Chap. 3 Theory Fifth Semester Electrical Engineering Industrial Ac Machine

Unit-III
Protective Relays
Topics and Sub-topics
What are Relays?
Relays are electrical switches

that open or close another
circuit under certain conditions.
Relay Purpose
u Isolate controlling circuit from controlled circuit.
u Control high voltage system with low voltage.
u Control high current system with low current.
u Logic Functions.
How A Relay Works?
https://youtu.be/Ca20ktPygY8
Operating Principle..
Relay Operates on the following principle..
Consider,
F=Net Force,
F0= Operating Force and
Fr=Restraining Force
Net Force acting on relay is given by
F = F0 – Fr
Relay operates
When F=0
or F0 = Fr
Relay Types...
They work on the following two main operating principles
u Electromagnetic Attraction
(i) Hinged Attracted armature type relay
(ii) Solenoid type relay
(iii) Balanced beam type relay
u Induction Relay/Electromagnetic Induction
(i) Induction type overcurrent Relay(Non Directional
Relay)
(ii) Induction Cup Relay (Directional Relay)
Hinged Attracted armature type relay…
In this relay, the armature
is attracted to the pole of a
magnet. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fhyM75vPiXc
The electromagnetic
force exerted on the moving
element is proportional to
the square of the current
flow through the coil. This
relay responds to both the
alternating and direct
current.
Solenoid type relay…
https://youtu.be/i3lGy3MjUhY
Solenoid type relay
Balanced beam type relay…
This balanced
beam type
relay shown in
the figure
consists of a
horizontal
beam pivoted
centrally, with one armature attached to either side. There are two
coils, one on each side. The beam remains horizontal till the
operating force becomes greater than the restraining force. Current
in coil gives the operating force and in the other, the restraining
force. When the operating force or torque increases, the beam tilts
and then the contact closes.
Balanced beam type relay
Operating principle of balanced beam
Neglecting Spring effect

Net torque is given by
T=K1I12 – K2I22
Where,
I1=Current in operating Coil
I2=Current in restraining Coil
Induction type overcurrent Relay(Non
Directional Relay)…
Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of
induction motor and are widely used for protective relaying
purposes involving A.C. quantities. They are not used with d.c.
quantities owing to the principle of operation. An induction relay
essentially consists of a pivoted Aluminum disc placed in two
alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency but displaced in
time and space. The torque is produced in the disc by the
interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents induced
in the disc by the other.
To understand the production of torque in an induction relay,
refer to the elementary arrangement shown in below figure. The
two A.C. fluxes Φ2 and Φ1 differing in phase by an angle α induce
e.m.f. in the disc and cause the circulation of eddy currents i2 and
i1 respectively. These currents lag behind their respective fluxes
by 90°.
Referring to Fig. (i) &
(ii) where the two a.c.
fluxes and induced
currents are shown
separately for clarity, Let
Where Φ1 and Φ2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes and Φ2

leads Φ1 by an angle α.
Assuming that the paths in which the rotor currents flow have
negligible self-inductance, the rotor currents will be in phase with
their voltages.
Fig (ii) shows that the two forces are in opposition.
Net force F at the instant considered is
Where Φ1 and Φ2 are the RMS values of the fluxes.

The following points may be noted from exp. (i):
Ø The greater the phase angle a between the fluxes, the greater
is the net force applied to the disc. Obviously, the maximum
force will be produced when the two fluxes are 90° out of
Ø The net force is the same at every instant.
Ø The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion
of the disc depends upon which flux is leading.
The following three types of structures are commonly used for
obtaining the phase difference in the fluxes and hence the
operating torque in induction relays:
a. Shaded-pole structure
b. Watt hour-meter or double winding structure
c. Induction cup structure
a. Shaded-pole structure: The general arrangement of

shaded-pole structure is shown in below figure.
Shaded-pole structure consists of a pivoted aluminium disc free to
rotate in the air-gap of
an electromagnet.
One-half of each pole
of the magnet is
surrounded by a copper
band known as shading
ring. The alternating
flux Φs in the shaded
portion of the poles
will, owing to the reaction of the current induced in the ring, lag
behind the flux Φu in the unshaded portion by an angle α. These
two a.c.fluxes differing in phase will produce the necessary torque
to rotate the disc. As proved earlier, the driving torque T is given
by
Assuming the fluxes Φs and Φu to be proportional to the current I in
the relay coil,
This shows that driving torque is proportional to the square of
current in the relay coil.
b.Watt hour-meter or double winding structure: This structure
gets its name from the fact that it is used in watt-hour meters. The
general arrangement of this type of relay is shown in below figure.
It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc
arranged to rotate freely between the
poles of two electromagnets. The upper
electromagnet carries two windings ; the
primary and the secondary. The primary
winding carries the relay current I1 while
the secondary winding is connected to the
Figure: Induction Type

Non-Directional
Overcurrent Relay
winding of the lower magnet. The primary current induces e.m.f.
in the secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it. The flux
Φ2 induced in the lower magnet by the current in the secondary
winding of the upper magnet will lag behind Φ1 by an angle α. The
two fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 differing in phase by α will produce a driving
torque on the disc proportional to Φ1Φ2 sin α.
c. Induction cup structure: Below figure shows the general
arrangement of an induction cup structure. It most closely
resembles an induction motor, except that the rotor iron is
stationary, only the rotor conductor portion being free to rotate.
The moving element is a hollow cylindrical rotor which turns on its
axis. The rotating field To trip circuit is
produced by two St pairs of coils wound
on four poles as shown. The rotating field
induces currents in the cup to provide
the necessary driving torque. If Φ1 and
Φ2 represent the fluxes produced by the
respective pairs of poles, then torque
produced is proportional to Φ1Φ2 sin α.
where α is the phase difference between the two fluxes.
A control spring and the back stop for closing of the contacts
carried on an arm are attached to the spindle of the cup to prevent
the continuous rotation.
Plug Setting Multiplier & Time Setting
Multiplier (PSM & TSM)…
Figure shows constructional details
of a typical non-directional
induction type overcurrent relay.
The upper electromagnet has a
primary and a secondary winding.
The primary is connected to the
secondary of a C.T. in the line to be
protected and is tapped at intervals.
The tappings are connected to a
plug-setting bridge by which the
number of active turns on the relay operating coil can be varied,
thereby giving the desired current setting. This is also referred as
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM). The controlling torque, is provided
by a spiral spring.
The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges
two fixed contacts (connected to trip circuit) when the disc rotates
through a pre-set angle. This angle can be adjusted to any value
between 0° and 3600 or from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec. By
adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving contact can be
adjusted and hence the relay can be set any desired time
setting.This is Time Setting Multiplier (TSM).
The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges
two fixed contacts (connected to trip circuit) when the disc rotates
through a pre-set angle. This angle can be adjusted to any value
between 0° and 3600 or from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec. By
adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving contact can be
adjusted and hence the relay can be set any desired time
setting.This is Time Setting Multiplier (TSM).
The operating time of relay depends upon two factors :
i. How long distance to be travelled by the moving parts of the
relay for closing relay contacts and
ii. How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
The adjustment of moving contact mounted on rotating disc known
as time setting. This adjustment is commonly known as time
setting multiplier of relay.
The speed of moving contact/disc depends upon the magnitude
of fault current in the relay coil. In other words, the time of
operation of the relay also depends upon plug setting multiplier.
Plug setting multiplier of relay is referred as ratio of fault
current in the relay to its pick up current.
Induction Type Directional overcurrent
Relay
Constructional details:
Figure shows the constructional
details of a typical Induction
Type Directional Overcurrent
Relay.
It consists of two relay elements
mounted on a common case viz.
i. Directional element
ii. Non-directional element.
Relay
i. Directional element: Directional power relay operates when power
flows in a specific direction. The potential coil of this element is
connected through P.T. to the system voltage. The current coil of the
element is energized through C.T. by the circuit current. This winding
is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional element. The
trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element are connected in
series with the secondary circuit of the overcurrent element.
Therefore, the later element cannot start to operate until its
secondary circuit is completed. In other words, the directional
element must operate first (i.e. contacts I and 2 should close) in order
to operate the overcurrent element.
Relay
ii.Non-directional element: It is an overcurrent element similar
in all respects to a non-directional overcurrent relay. The spindle
of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which closes
the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of
directional element.
It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the
relay for current setting but has been omitted in the figure for
clarity and simplicity. The tappings are provided on the upper
magnet of overcurrent element and are connected to the bridge.
Relay
Operation: Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the
normal direction in the circuit protected by the relay. Therefore,
Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay (upper element)
does not operate, thereby keeping the overcurrent element
(lower element) de-energised. However, when a short-circuit
occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the
reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper
element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This
completes the circuit for overcurrent element.
The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact
attached to it closes the trip circuit. This operates the C.B. which
Relay
isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements are so
arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by them is
not made till the following Three conditions are satisfied :
a. Current flows in a direction such as to operate the
directional element.
b. Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
c. Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the
time setting of overcurrent element.
Requirements of Protection System OR
Desirable Qualities of Protection System…
The fundamental requirements for protection system are as follows:
1. Selectivity
2. Speed
3. Sensitivity
4. Stability
5. Reliability
6. Simplicity
7. Economy
1. Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective system to select
correctly faulty part of the system and disconnect the faulty
part without disturbing the rest of the healthy system. This
quality is also called ‘Discrimination’.
2. Speed: The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as
fast as possible to minimise the damage of the system.
3. Sensitivity: It is the ability of the protection system to operate
with minimum (low) value of actuating quantity. It is desirable
that relay system should be sensitive so that it operates with
low values of volt-ampere input.
4. Stability: It is the quality of any protection system to remain
stable within a set of defined operating scenarios and
procedures. Protection system should not operate unnecessary.
5. Reliability: It is the ability of the Protective Relay system to
operate under the pre-determined conditions.
6. Simplicity: The relaying system should be simple so that it can
be easily maintained. Reliability is closely related to simplicity.
The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its
reliability.
7. Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a
particular protection scheme is the economic aspect. Sometimes
it is economically unjustified to use an ideal scheme of
protection and a compromise method has to be adopted. As a
rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of total
cost. However, when the apparatus to be protected is of utmost
importance (e.g. generator, main transmission line etc.),
economic considerations are often subordinated to reliability.
Basic Relay Terminology…
The various terminologies used in the protective relaying are,
i. Protective Relay
ii. Relay Time
iii. Breaker Time
iv. Fault Clearing Time
v. Pickup
vi. Pickup Value
vii. Reset or Dropout
viii.Time Delay
ix. Current Setting
x. Trip Circuit
xi. Phase Fault
xii. Earth Fault
xiii.Protective Scheme
xiv.Protective System
xv. Unit Protection
xvi.Reach
i.Protective Relay : This is a master mind control of an electrical
relay, which closes its contacts when an actuating quantity (the
value of incoming current or voltage) reaches a certain preset
value. It contains some mechanical switch i.e closing contacts and
opening contacts typically NO and NCs. Due to closing of contacts,
relay initiates a trip circuit of circuit breaker or an alarm circuit.
ii.Relay Time : Each relays are having its own characteristics. The
time between the instant of fault occurrence and the instant of
closure of relay contacts.
iii. Breaker Time: It is the time between the instant at circuit
breaker operates and opens the contacts, to the instant of
extinguishing the arc completely.
iv. Fault Clearing Time: The total time required between the
instant of fault and the instant of final are interruption in the
circuit breaker is fault clearing time. It is sum of the relay time
and circuit breaker times.
v. Pickup : A relay is said to be picked up when it moves from the
‘OFF’ position to ‘ON’ position. Thus when relay operates it is said
that relay has picked up.
vi. Pickup Value: It is the minimum value of an actuating
quantity at which relay starts operating, in most of the relays
actuating quantity is current in the relay coil and pickup value of
current is indicated along with the relay
vii. Reset or Dropout : A relay is said to dropout or reset when it
comes back to original position i.e. when relay contacts open
from its closed position. The value of an actuating
quantity current or voltage below which the relay resets is called
reset value of that relay.
viii. Time Delay: The time taken by relay to operate after it has
sensed the fault is called time delay of relay. Some relays are
instantaneous while in some relays intentionally a time delay is
provided.
ix. Current Setting: The pickup value of current can be adjusted to
the required level in the relays which is called current setting of
that relay. It is achieved by use of tapings on the relay coil, which
are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in the Figure. The tap
values are expressed in terms of percentage full load rating of C.T.
with which relay is associated.
The current setting of relay is expressed in percentage ratio of
relay pick up current to the rated secondary current of CT.
x. Trip Circuit: The opening operation of circuit breaker is

controlled by a circuit which consists of trip coil, relay contacts,
auxiliary switch, battery supply etc. which is called trip circuit
xi. Phase Fault: The fault which does not involve earth is
called phase fault. Example: Line to Line fault.
xii. Earth Fault: The fault involving earth is called earth fault.
Example: Single line to ground fault, double line to ground fault
etc.
xiii. Protective Scheme: The combination of various protective
systems covering a particular zone for a equipment is called
protective scheme. For example a generator may be provided
with protective systems like overcurrent, differential, earth
fault etc. The combination of all these systems is
called generator protective scheme.
xiv. Protective System : The combination of circuit breakers,
trip circuits, CT. and other protective relaying equipments is
called protective system.
Basic Relay Terminology
xv. Unit Protection: A protective system in which the protection
zone is clearly defined by the C.T. boundaries is called unit
protection. Such systems work for internal faults only.
xvi. Reach: The limiting distance in which protective system
responds to the faults is called reach of the protective system. The
operation beyond the set distance is called over-reach while
failure of distance relay within set distance is called under-reach.
Induction O/c Relay Video
u https://youtu.be/gCZmeAiBOE4
Over Current Relay…
Working Principle : In an over current relay or o/c relay the
actuating quantity is only current. There is only one current
operated element in the relay, no voltage coil etc. are required to
construct this protective relay.
Over current relay consist of only current coil. When normal
current flows through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by
the coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of the relay,
because restraining force is greater than operating (deflecting)
force. But when the current through the coil increases, the
magnetic effect increases, and after a certain level of current,the
Over Current Relay
operating force generated due to magnetic effect of the coil,
crosses the restraining force. As a result, the moving element
starts moving to change the contact position in the relay. Although
there are different types of over current relays but basic working
principle of over current relay is more or less same for all.
Types of Over Current Relay: Depending upon time of operation,
there are Three types of Over Current relays
i. Instantaneous over current relay.
ii. Definite time over current relay.
iii. Inverse time over current relay.
Instantaneous Over Current Relay…
i. Instantaneous over current relay:Construction and working
principle of instantaneous over current relay is quite simple.
Here generally a magnetic core is wound by a current coil. A
piece of iron is so fitted by hinge support and restraining spring in
the relay, that when there is not sufficient current in the coil, the
‘NO’ contacts remain open. When the current in the coil crosses a
preset value, the attractive force becomes enough to pull the iron
piece towards the magnetic core, and consequently, the ‘NO’
contacts get closed.
Instantaneous Over Current Relay…
An instantaneous overcurrent
relay is one in which no
intentional time delay is
provided for operation. In
such a relay, the relay
contacts close immediately
after the current in the relay
coil exceeds that for which it
is set. Although there will be a
short time interval between
the instant of pick-up and the
Instantaneous Over Current Relay
closing of the relay
contacts, no intentional
time delay is provided.
In practice, the
operating time of an
instantaneous relay is of
the order of a few
milliseconds.
As shown in the Time-Current Characteristics, the relay
operates as soon as the current gets higher than a preset
value.
Definite time Over Current Relay
ii.Definite time over current relay: This relay is created by
applying intentional time
delay after crossing pick up
the value of the current. A
definite time overcurrent
relay can be adjusted to
issue a trip output at an
exact amount of time after it
picks up. Thus, it has a time
setting adjustment and
pickup adjustment.
Inverse time Over Current Relay…
iii. Inverse time over current relay: Inverse time is a natural
character of any induction
type rotating device. Here,
the speed of rotation of
rotating part of the device is
faster if the input current is
more. In other words, time
of operation inversely
varies with input current.
If the fault is severe, it will clear the fault faster.
Inverse time Over Current Relay…
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Over Current Relay:
Ideal inverse time characteristics cannot be achieved, in an
overcurrent relay. As the current in the system increases, the
secondary current of the current transformer is increased
proportionally. The secondary current enters the relay current
coil. But when the CT becomes saturated, there would not be a
further proportional increase of CT secondary current with
increased system current. From this phenomenon, it is clear that
from trick value to certain range of faulty level, an inverse time
relay shows specific inverse characteristic. But after this level of
fault, the CT becomes saturated and relay current does not
Inverse time Over Current Relay
increase further with increasing faulty level of the system. As the
relay current does not increase further, there would not be any
further reduction in time of operation in the relay. We define this
time as the minimum time of operation. Hence, the characteristic
is inverse in the initial part, which tends to a definite minimum
operating time as the current becomes very high. That is why the
relay is referred as inverse definite minimum time over current
relay or simply IDMT relay.
Thermal Relay…
The thermal relay works on the principle of the thermal effect of
electrical energy.
The important parts of the thermal relay are bimetallic strips,
heating coil, Insulated Contact arm, Relay Contact and Current
transformers.
The current transformer supplies the current to the coils of the
heater as shown in the figure . The thermal energy of the heater
coils heated the bimetallic strips. The bimetallic strips are made of
the alloy of nickel and steel. The alloy of the nickel and steel has
high steel resistivity, and also they are free from thermal ageing.
Thermal Relay…
The insulated contact arm is
connected to the trip coil along
with the spring ‘S’ and the
bimetallic strips. The tension of
the spring is varied by the help
of the sector-shaped plate ‘A’.
When the system is in normal
operating condition, the spring
remains straight.
When the fault occurs on the system, the bimetallic spring is heated
and getting bent. The tension of the spring becomes releases which
trip the relay contacts. Thus the relay operating temperature
Thermal Relay
can be varied by varying the tension of the spring ‘S’. The contact
of the relay energizes the trip circuit because of which the
contacts of the circuit breaker close. Thus, the system remains
safe.
The thermal relay is mainly used in the low voltage Squirrel
Cage induction motor and in low output rating DC motor. The
thermal relay has low overloading capability. It is designed to
operate under 6 to 7 times more than the full load current.
Such type of relay is not used under short-circuit condition.
Static Relay or Solid State Relay …
Main difference between Electromechanical Relays and Solid
State Relays is electromechanical relays have moving parts,
whereas solid state relays have no moving parts.
Definition: Solid State Relay (Static Relay) is an electrical
relay in which the response is developed by
electronic/magnetic/optical, without mechanical motion of
components.
However additional electromechanical relay units may be used
in output stage as auxiliary relays. A protective system is formed
by static relays and electromechanical auxiliary relays. Therefore
solid state relays are also called as static relays.
Block Diagram & Working of Solid State Relay:
Figure shows the

essential components
in a static relay. The
output of CT’s or PT’s
or transducers is
rectified in rectifier.
The rectified output
is fed to the relay
measuring unit.
The measuring unit comprises comparators, level detectors, filters,

logic circuits. The output is initiated when input reaches the
threshold value.
The output of measuring unit is amplified by Amplifier. The
amplified output is given to the output unit which energizes the trip
coil only when relay operates.
In conventional electromagnetic the measurement is carried out
by comparing operating torque/force with restraining torque/force.
The electro-mechanical relay operates when operating torque/force
exceeds the restraining torque/force. The pick-up of relay is
obtained by movement of movable element in the relay. In a static

relay the measurement is performed by static circuits.
Static relays can be arranged to respond to electrical as well as
other inputs. The quantities voltage, current also quantities like
heat, light, magnetic field, travelling waves etc. can be suitably
converted into equivalent analogue or digital signals and then fed to
the static relay. When the quantity to be measured reaches certain
well defined value, the output device is triggered. Thereby current
flows in the trip circuit of the circuit-breaker
Static Relay or Solid State Relay
Multi-input static relay can accept several inputs. The logic
circuit in the multi-input digital static relay can determine the
conditions for relay response and sequence of events in the
response.
A programmable protection and control system has a
microprocessor or microcomputer in its circuit. With the help of the
logic circuits and the microprocessor the integrated protection and
control system can perform several functions of data acquisition,
data processing, data transmission, protection and control. Earlier,
for each of these functions, separate electromechanical or static
units were used along with complex wiring.
Static Overcurrent Relay…
Multi-input static relay can accept several inputs. The logic
Static Overcurrent Relay
Microprocessor Based Protection Relays…
Introduction
Microprocessor relays provide many functions that were not
available in electromechanical or solid-state designs. Relay logic is
very important to understand the microprocessor-based relay. The
relay can be ON or OFF, that is, it has only two stable states.
Block Diagram:
Block Diagram &
Operation of Microprocessor Based Relay:
Operation of Microprocessor Based Relay:
Microprocessor Based Over Current Relay:
Advantages of microprocessor based relay:
1. Very efficient and reliable.

2. Highly accurate.
3. Very fast in operation.
4. Programmable in nature.
5. A unit can perform retransmission of several systems.
6. economical for large systems.
7. Useful for centrally coordinated backup protection.
Microprocessor Based Protection Relays
Advantages of microprocessor based relay:
u Only care that must be taken is that the microprocessor unit
must be properly shielded as it gets affected by external
interferences and environment Proper care of earthing must also
be taken.
Distance or Impedance Relaying…
Principle of Operation of Impedance Relay:
In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage
is more than the current. But when the fault occurs on the line the
magnitude of the current rises and the voltage becomes less. The
line current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the
transmission line. Thus, the impedance decreases because of which
the impedance relay starts operating.
The relays in which the operation is governed by the ratio of
applied voltage (V) to current (I) in the protected circuit are called
Distance Relays or Impedance Relays. In an impedance relay, the
torque produced by a current element (operating) is opposed by
the torque produced by a voltage element (restraining). The relay
will operate when the ratio V/I (Impedance) is less than a
predetermined value.
Above Fig. illustrates the basic principle of operation of an
distance/impedance relay. The voltage element of the relay is
excited through a potential transformer (P.T.) from the line to be
protected. The current element of the relay is excited from a
current transformer (C.T.) in series with the line. The portion AB of
the line is the protected zone. Under normal operating conditions,
the impedance of the protected zone is ZL. The relay is so designed
that it closes its contacts whenever impedance of the protected
section falls below the pre-determined value i.e. ZL in this case.
Now suppose a fault occurs at point F1 in the protected zone.
The impedance Z (=V/I) between the point where the relay is
installed and the point of fault will be less than ZL and hence the
relay operates and CB opens the faulty line.
If the fault occur beyond the protected zone (say point F2), the
impedance Z will be greater than ZL and the relay does not
operate.
Types of Distance Relays or Impedance Relays:
A distance or impedance relay is essentially an ohmmeter and
operates whenever the impedance of the protected zone falls
below a pre-determined value. There are two types of distance
relays in use for the protection of power supply, namely ;
i. Definite-Distance relay: which operates instantaneously for
fault up to a pre-determined distance from the relay.
ii. Time-Distance relay: in which the time of operation is
proportional to the distance of fault from the relay point. A fault
nearer to the relay will operate it earlier than a fault farther
away from the relay.
i. Definite-Distance relay: Fig. shows the schematic arrangement
of a Definite Distance Type Impedance Relay. It consists of a
pivoted beam F and two electromagnets energized respectively by
a current and voltage transformer in the protected circuit. The
armatures of the two
electromagnets are
mechanically coupled to
the beam on the opposite
sides of the fulcrum. The
beam is provided with a
bridging piece for the trip
contacts. The relay is so
designed that the torques produced by the two electromagnets are
in the opposite direction.
Operation: Under normal operating conditions of this Relay, the
pull due to the voltage element is greater than that of the current
element. Therefore, the relay contacts remain open. However,
when a fault occurs in the protected zone, the applied voltage to
the relay decreases whereas the current increases. The ratio of
voltage to current (i.e. impedance) falls below the pre-determined
value. Therefore, the pull of the current element will exceed than
the voltage element and this causes the beam to tilt in a direction
to close the trip contacts.
ii. Time-Distance relay: A time-distance impedance relay is one
which automatically adjusts its operating time according to the
distance of the relay from the fault point.
Construction: Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of a typical
induction type time-distance impedance relay. It consists of a
current driven induction element. The spindle carrying the disc of
this element is connected by means of a spiral spring coupling to a
second spindle which carries the bridging piece of the relay trip
contacts. The bridge is normally held in the open position by an
armature held against the pole face of an electromagnet excited
by the voltage of the circuit to be protected.
Operation: Under normal load
conditions, the pull of the armature is
more than that of the induction
element and hence the trip circuit
contacts remain open. However, on
the occurrence of a short-circuit, the
disc of the induction current element
starts to rotate at a speed depending
upon the operating current. As the
rotation of the disc proceeds, the
spiral spring coupling is wound up till
the tension of the spring is sufficient
Distance or Impedance Relaying
to pull the armature away from the pole face of the voltage-
excited magnet. Immediately this occurs, the spindle carrying the
armature and bridging piece moves rapidly in response to the
tension of the spring and trip contacts are closed. This opens the
circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.
The speed of rotation of the disc is approximately proportional
to the operating current, neglecting the effect of control spring.
Also the time of operation of the relay is directly proportional to
the pull of the voltage-excited magnet and hence to the line
voltage V at the point where the relay is connected. Therefore,
the time of operation of relay would vary as V/I i.e. as Z or
distance.
Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay:
The impedance relay is a double actuating quantity relay and
essentially consists of two elements-current-operated element and
voltage-operated element. The current element produces a
positive or pick-up torque while the voltage element develops a
negative or reset torque. Taking spring control effect as – K3 the
torque equation of the relay is –
T = K1l2 – K2 V2 – K3
Where, V and I are the RMS values of voltage and current
respectively. At balance point, when the relay is on the verge of
operating, the net torque is zero, and
It is customary to neglect the effect of control spring, since its

effect is noticeable only at current magnitudes well below those
normally encountered. Hence taking K3 = 0, the relay torque
equation becomes-
The operating characteristic in term of voltage V and current I is

shown in Figure, where the effect of control spring is shown as
causing a noticeable bend in the characteristic only at the low-
current end. For all practical purposes, the dash line, which
represents a constant value of Z, may be considered the
operating characteristic.
The relay will pick up for any
combination of V and I represented
by a point above the characteristic
in the positive-torque region, or, in
other words, for any value of
impedance less than constant value
represented by the operating
characteristic.
By adjustment, the slope of the operating characteristic can be
changed so that the relay will respond to all values of impedance
less than any desired upper limit.
The more convenient way of describing the operating
characteristic of a distance relay is by means of ‘impedance
diagram’ or R-X diagram, as illustrated in figure. The numerical
value of the ratio of V to I is shown as the length of the radius
vector, such as Z, and the phase angle θ between V and I
determines the position of vector, as shown.
Since the operation of the impedance relay is practically or
actually independent of the phase angle θ, the operating
characteristic is a circle with its centre at the origin.
Any value of impedance less than
the radius of the circle will result in
positive torque and any value of
impedance greater that this radius
will result in negative torque. The
impedance relays normally used are
high speed relays.
Directional Impedance Relays:
The directional feature to the impedance relay can be provided
by employing the impedance relay along with a directional unit as
is done in the case of a simple over-current relay to operate as a
directional over-current relay. This means the impedance unit will
operate only when the directional unit has operated.
Directional feature senses the direction in which fault power
flows with respect to the location of CT and PT.
Directional impedance relays operate for the following
conditions:
1. Impedance between the fault point and relay location is less
than the relay setting Z.
2. The fault power flows in a particular direction from relay.
The directional unit permits
tripping only in the positive torque
region the active portion of the
impedance unit characteristic is
shown shaded. The relay will
operate only for fault points that
are in the shaded part of the
circle.
Figure: Characteristics of Directional Impedance Relay

Differential Relay…
Differential protective relaying is the most positive in selectivity
and in action. It operates on the principle of comparison between the
phase angle and magnitudes of two or more-similar electrical
quantities.
For example, in comparison of the current entering a line and the
current leaving it, if more current enters the protected line than
leaves it, the extra current must flow in the fault. The difference
between the two electrical quantities can operate a relay to isolate
the circuit.
A differential relay is defined as the relay that operates when the
phasor difference of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds
a predetermined amount.
This means that for a differential relay, it should have:
(i) Two or more similar electrical quantities and
(ii) These quantities should have phase displacement (normally
approximately 180°) for the operation of the relay.
Differential protection is unit protection. The protected zone is
exactly determined by the location of CTs and PTs. The phasor
difference is achieved by suitable connections of secondary's of CTs
or PTs.
Applications of Differential Protection: protection of generators,
generator-transformer units, transformers, feeders (transmission
lines), large motors and bus-bars.
Types of Differential Relays:
1. Current Differential Relays
2. Voltage Balance Differential Relay:
1. Current Differential Relays:
Principle of circulating current differential (MERZ-PRIZE) protection:
The figure below illustrates the principle of differential protection
of generator and transformer, X is the winding of the protected
machine. Where there is no internal fault, the current entering in X is
equal in phase and magnitude to current leaving X. The CT's have such
a ratio that during the normal conditions or for external faults
(Through Faults) the secondary current of CT's are equal.
These current say I1 and I2 circulate in the pilot wire. The polarity
connections are such the current I1 and I2 are in the same direction of
pilot wire during normal condition or external faults. Relay operating
coil is connected at the mid point of pilot wires.
During normal condition and external fault the protection system is
balanced and the CT's ratios are such that secondary currents are
equal. These current circulate in pilot wires. The vector differential
current I1-I2 which flow through the relay coil is zero. I1-I2 = 0 (normal
condition or external faults) This balance is disturbed for internal
faults. When fault occurs in the protected zone, the current entering
the protected winding is no more equal to the leaving the winding
because some current flows to the fault. The difference I1-I2 flows
through the relay operating coil and the relay operates if the operating
torque is more than the restraining torque. The current I1 and I2
circulate in the secondary circuit. Hence CT's does not get damaged.
Polarities of CT's should be proper, in order to avoid mal operation of
the relay during normal operation of the power system.
v When this system is applied to electrical equipment (Generator
stator windings, Transformer, Bus bars etc.) it is called differential
current protection.
v When it is applied to lines and cables it is called pilot differential
protection.
v Circulating current balance methods are widely used for apparatus
protection where CTs are within the same substation area and
interconnecting leads between CTs are short (e.g. generator stator
windings, Transformer, Bus bars etc.)
v The circulating current balance method is also called longitudinal
differential protection or Merz-Price differential protection system.
Demerits of a Differential Relay ( Merz Price Scheme)
o C.T. Ratio Error
o Ratio change due to tap change of transformer
o Difference in pilot wires length
o Magnetizing inrush current
o C.T. Ratio Error: There exist difference in the C.T. characteristics
due to ratio error at high values of short circuit currents. This causes
an appreciable difference in the secondary currents which can operate
the relay. So the relay operates for through external faults.
This difficulty is overcome by using percentage differential relay. In
this relay, the difference in current due to the ratio error exists and
flows through relay coil. But at the same time the average current ( I1
+ I2/2) flows through the restraining coil which produces enough
restraining torque. Hence relay becomes inoperative for the through
faults.
o Ratio change due to tap change of transformer: To adjust the load
voltage during heavy load, automatic tap changers are provided on
transformer hv side, but this effectively alters the turns ratio of CTs.
o Difference in pilot wires length: Due to the difference in lengths of
the pilot wires on both sides, the unbalance condition may result. The
difficulty is overcome by connecting the adjustable resistors in pilot
wires on both sides. These are called balancing resistors. With the help
of these resistors, equi-potential points on the pilot wires can be
adjusted.
o Magnetizing inrush current: This current may be as high as 10 times
the full load current of the transformer. This may operate differential
protection of the transformer falsely, because of the temporary
difference in magnitude of the primary and secondary currents during
switching-ON operation of transformer.
To avoid this Harmonic Restraint Relay is provided while switching-
ON of transformer.
2. Voltage Balance Differential Relay: In this arrangement the current
transformer are connected either side of the equipment in such a
manner that EMF induced in the secondary of both current
transformers will oppose each other. That means the secondary of the
current transformers from both sides of the equipment (such as feeder)
are connected in series with opposite polarity.
The differential relay coil is inserted somewhere in the loop created
by series connection of secondary of current transformers as shown in
the figure. In normal operating conditions and also in through fault
conditions, the EMFs induced in both of the CT secondary are equal
and opposite of each other and hence there would be no current
Differential Relay
flowing through the relay coil. But as soon as any internal fault occurs
in the equipment under protection, these EMFs are no longer balanced
hence current starts flowing through the relay coil thereby trips circuit
breaker.

SAP Chap. 3 Theory Fifth Semester Electrical Engineering Industrial Ac Machine

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SAP Chap. 3 Theory Fifth Semester Electrical Engineering Industrial Ac Machine

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Unit-III

Relays are electrical switches

Neglecting Spring effect

Where Φ1 and Φ2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes and Φ2

Where Φ1 and Φ2 are the RMS values of the fluxes.

a. Shaded-pole structure: The general arrangement of

Figure: Induction Type

x. Trip Circuit: The opening operation of circuit breaker is

Figure shows the

The measuring unit comprises comparators, level detectors, filters,

obtained by movement of movable element in the relay. In a static

1. Very efficient and reliable.

It is customary to neglect the effect of control spring, since its

The operating characteristic in term of voltage V and current I is

Figure: Characteristics of Directional Impedance Relay

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