New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology

Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)

Branch: CSE Semester: V

New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology

Subject: Computer Networks

Subject Code: 3150710
Branch: CSE
Semester: V

 Faculty Name:
o Assistant Professor: Bhaumik Gelani

 Teaching and Examination Scheme:

Unit Unit Title %

No. Weightage
1 Introduction to computer networks and 15
Internet
2 Application Layer 17
3 Transport Layer 25
4 Network Layer 25
5 The Link layer and Local Area Networks 18

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 1

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Unit – 1 Introduction to computer networks and Internet

1. What is Topology? List out and explain various network topology.

2. Explain Wired media.
OR
Q. Explain Twisted -pair cable, Coaxial cable and Fiber Optics cable.
3. What is Transmission Media? Explain Unguided media.
OR
Q. Explain Radio waves, Micro waves and Infrared.
4. What is Transmission Media? Explain Switched Networks.
OR
Q. Explain Circuit & Packet Switching
5. Explain OSI Reference Model with Diagram. (Brief Description of Each
Layer).
6. Explain TCP/IP Reference Model with Diagram. (Brief Description of
Each Layer).
7. What is Delay? Explain types of Delays.
8. Write a short note on Botnet.
9. Explain Different types of Networking Connecting Devices (Repeater,
Hub, Switch, Bridge, Router and Gateways).
10. Difference Between:
a. Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex (Transmission modes)
b. LAN, MAN and WAN
c. Circuit & Packet Switching (Explain Switched Networks)
d. OSI and TCP/IP

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 2

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Unit - 2 Application Layer

11. Draw Structure of Email. Explain Working of E-mail.

12. Write a short note on SMTP.
13. Explain MIME Header.
14. Draw and explain Working Diagram of MIME Protocol.
15. Write a short note following protocols:
a. POP3 and IMAP.
b. FTP and CMIP.
c. SNMP and HTTP.
16. Explain Request Message and Response Message Format of HTTP.
17. What is DNS? List and explain types of DNS.
18. Write a short note: WWW and TFTP.
19. What is HTTP? Explain Types of HTTP Connections.
20. Write a short note: Socket Programming
21. Difference Between:
a. FTP and TFTP
b. Persistent and Non-Persistent Connections.
c. POP3 and IMAP.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 3

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Unit - 3 Transport Layer

22. Write a short note: Transport Layer.

23. Explain Multiplexing and Demultiplexing.
24. Draw and explain UDP Header format.
25. Explain Stop and Wait Protocol.
26. Explain Sliding Window Protocols.
27. Explain Stop and Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request).
28. Explain Go-Back-N ARQ
29. Explain Selective Reject ARQ.
30. Draw and explain TCP Header format.
31. Explain TCP Connection (A 3-way handshake).
32. Explain TCP Termination (A 4-way handshake).
33. What is Congestion Control? Explain Types of Congestion control
algorithms.
OR
Q. Explain Leaky Bucket Algorithm.
Q. Explain Token bucket Algorithm.
34. Write a short note: Piggybacking.
35. Write a short note: Proxy Server.
36. Difference Between:
a. Stop and Wait Protocol and Sliding Window Protocols.
b. GO-BACK-N and Selective Reject / Selective Repeat ARQ
c. Stop and Wait, Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat
d. Leaky Bucket and Token Bucket
e. Flow Control and Congestion Control

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 4

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Unit - 4 Network Layer

37. Explain Functions of Network Layer.

38. Explain Network Layer Design Issues.
39. What is Packet Forwarding? Explain Packet Forwarding Techniques.
40. What is Routing? Explain Types of Routing.
41. Write a short note: Network Service Models.
42. Draw and explain Router Architecture.
43. List out Network Layer Protocols. Explain ARP and RARP.
OR
Q. Explain Physical addresses and Logical addresses.
44. Write a short note: ICMP and IGMP.
45. Draw and explain IPv4 Datagram Header.
46. Draw and explain IPv6 Datagram Header.
47. Explain Classification of IP Addresses (Classful Addressing).
48. Explain Classless Addressing (CIDR).
49. Explain Classify Binary and Hexadecimal Representation of IPv6
address.
50. Explain Convert the given IPv4 address to IPv6 address.
51. Write a short note on Network Transmission Types.
52. Write a short note: NAT (Network Address Translation).
53. Explain Routing protocols: Distance vector routing, Link state routing
and Path vector Routing.
OR
Q. Explain Distance vector routing (Bellman ford) Algorithm with
Example.
Q. Explain Link state routing (Dijsktra) Algorithm with Example.
Q. Explain Path vector Routing Algorithm with Example.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 5

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
54. Difference between:
a. Virtual Circuit and Datagram Networks
b. IPv4 and IPv6
c. Classful Addressing and Classless Addressing
d. Distance Vector Routing and Link State Routing
e. Broadcast and Multicast

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 6

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Unit - 5 The Link layer and Local Area Networks

55. Explain Functions of Data Link Layer and List out Services of Data Link
Layer.
56. What is Error Detection? Explain Types of Errors.
OR
Q. Explain Single-Bit Error and Burst Error.
57. What is Error Detection? Explain Error Detecting Techniques.
OR
Q. Explain Single parity check and Two-dimensional parity check.
Q. Explain Checksum and Cyclic redundancy check.
58. Write a short note: Hamming Code.
59. Write a short note: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC).
OR
Q. Draw and Explain HDLC frame format.
60. Explain HDLC frames types.
61. Write a short note: Multiple Access Protocols.
OR
Q. What is Aloha Protocol? Explain Types of Aloha Protocols.
Q. Explain Channelization Protocols (FDMA, TDMA and CDMA).
Q. Write a short note: CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
Q. Write a short note: CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA.
62. Explain Ethernet (IEEE standards 802.3).
63. Explain Token bus (IEEE standards 802.4) and Token ring (IEEE
standards 802.5)
64. Write a short note: FDDI and DQDB (IEEE standards 802.6).
65. Write a short note: VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network).

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 7

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
66. Explain Different types of Networking Connecting Devices (Repeater,
Hub, Switch, Bridge, Router and Gateways).
67. Difference Between:
a. Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA
b. FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA
c. Token Bus and the Token Ring

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 8

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology

Subject: Computer Networks

Subject Code: 3150710
Branch: CSE
Semester: V

 Faculty Name:
o Assistant Professor: Bhaumik Gelani

 Teaching and Examination Scheme:

Unit Unit Title %

No. Weightage
1 Introduction to computer networks and 15
Internet
2 Application Layer 17
3 Transport Layer 25
4 Network Layer 25
5 The Link layer and Local Area Networks 18

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 1

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Unit – 1 Introduction to computer networks and Internet

1. What is Topology? List out and explain various network topology.

Ans:
 Topology:
o Topology described the actual layout of network transmission media.
o Network topology is the arrangement of the various components (Links, Nodes,
Printer etc.) of a computer network.
 Types Network Topology:
o Bus Topology
o Ring Topology
o Tree Topology
o Star Topology
o Mesh Topology
o Hybrid Topology
 Bus Topology:
o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.

o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network.
o All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has
been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 2

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o Advantages of Bus topology:
Low-cost cable:
 In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub.
 Moderate data speeds:
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support upto 10 Mbps.
 Limited failure:
 A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
o Disadvantages of Bus topology:
 Extensive cabling:
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
 Difficult troubleshooting:
 It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.
 If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
 Signal interference:
 If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
 Ring Topology:
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to
the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 3

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing:
 It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
 Token:
 It is a frame that circulates around the network.
o Advantages of Ring topology:
 Network Management:
 Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing
the network down.
 Cost:
 Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
 Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
 Reliable:
 It is a more reliable network because the communication system is
not dependent on the single host computer.
 Star Topology:
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected
to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to
the server are known as clients.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 4

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
o Advantages of Star topology:
 Network control:
 Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the
star topology.
 Limited failure:
 As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
 Easily expandable:
 It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports
on the hub.
 Cost effective:
 Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
o Disadvantages of Star topology:
 A Central point of failure:
 If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes
will not be able to communicate with each other.
 Cable:
 Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant
amount of routing is required.
 Mesh Topology:
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 5

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Advantages of Mesh topology:
 Reliable:
 The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected
computers.
 Fast Communication:
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Easier Reconfiguration:
 Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between
other devices.
o Disadvantages of Mesh topology:
 Cost:
 A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such
as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
 Management:
 Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain
and manage.

 Tree Topology:
o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 6

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.
o Advantages of Tree topology:
 Easily expandable:
 We can add the new device to the existing network.
 Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
 Error detection:
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
 Limited failure:
 The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
 Point-to-point wiring:
 It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
o Disadvantages of Tree topology:
 Difficult troubleshooting:
 If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
 High cost:
 Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
 Failure:
 A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main
bus cable will damage the overall network.
 Hybrid Topology:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 7

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o A hybrid topology is a kind of network topology that is a combination of two or

more network topologies, such as mesh topology, bus topology, and ring topology.
o Its usage and choice are dependent on its deployments and requirements like the
performance of the desired network, and the number of computers, their location.
o However, a variety of technologies are needed for its physical implementation, and
it offers a complex structure.
o Also, it includes an advantage as increasing flexibility; it can increase fault
tolerance, and allows new basic topologies to be added or removed easily.
o The hybrid topology is more useful when you need to fulfill diversity in Computer
Network.
o In this topology, all network sections can include the configuration of different
Network Topology.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 8

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

2. What is Transmission Media? Explain Wired media.

OR
Q. Explain Twisted -pair cable, Coaxial cable and Fiber Optics cable.
 Transmission Media:
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from
the sender to the receiver.
o Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.

 Guided media (Wired media):

o Guided media, the waves are guided along a solid medium.
o Guided media are those that provide a wired-channel from one device to another.
o Three Guided media commonly used for data transmission are:

 Twisted Pair Cable:

o Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
o A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
o Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
o The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 9

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Types of Twisted pair:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

 An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.

 Ordinary telephone wired.
 Less expensive.
 Weak immunity against noise & interferences.
 Most used in two categories: Cat-3 & Cat-5.
o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

 A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the
wire that allows the higher transmission rate.
 An extra metallic shield on each pair.
 Relatively more expensive.
 Better performance than UTP.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 10

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Coaxial Cable:

o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media.

o Outer conductor is braided shield.
o Inner conductor is solid metal.
o Separated by insulating material.
o Used in television, long distance telephone transmission.
o High bandwidth and excellent noise immunity.
o Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
 The data can be transmitted at high speed.
 It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.
o Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
 It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
 If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

 Fiber-optic cable:

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to
send the data by pulses of light.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 11

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable:

 Faster speed
 Used Longer distances
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
o Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 12

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

3. What is Transmission Media? Explain Unguided media.

OR
Q. Explain Radio waves, Micro waves and Infrared.
 Transmission Media:
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from
the sender to the receiver.
o Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.

 Unguided media (wireless):

o Unguided media, the waves propagate in the atmosphere and in outer space.
o Unguided media transmit electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor, This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
 Radio wave
 Micro wave
 Infrared Wave

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 13

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Radio wave:

o Highly regulated
o Omnidirectional antennas
o Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television,
and paging systems
o Penetrate through walls
 Micro Wave:

o Use directional antennas-point to point line of sight communications

o Used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks
o Higher frequency ranges can not efficiently penetrate walls
 Infrared Wave:

o Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using
line-of-sight propagation
o Used on Televisions, DVDs, and stereos all use infrared communication.
o Cheap, Easy to build but they do not pass through solid objects
o Relatively directional

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 14

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

4. Explain Switched Networks.

OR
Q. Explain Circuit & Packet Switching .
Ans:

 Circuit switching:
o Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:
 Circuit Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Circuit Disconnect

o Network resources (e.g., bandwidth) divided into “pieces”

 Pieces allocated to calls
 Resource piece idle if not used by owning call (no sharing)
 Dividing link bandwidth into “pieces”
 Frequency division
 Time division

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 15

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Circuit-Switched Networks:

o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between

sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path.
o After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

 Packet Switching Network:

o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
o Packet Switching:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 16

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message
will be sent.
o There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
 Datagram Packet switching
 Virtual Circuit Switching
o Datagram Packet switching:
 It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram.
 Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
 The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
 In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
 Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Virtual Circuit Switching:
 Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
 In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established
before the messages are sent.
 Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.
 In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 17

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
5. Explain OSI Reference Model with Diagram. (Brief Description of Each
Layer).
Ans:
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnect.
 A system that implements open protocols is called an open system
 A set of protocols is open if protocol details are publicly available.
 OSI Reference Model:

 Physical layer
o The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.
 Data link layer
o The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next.
o Groups of bits its called Frame.
 Network layer
o The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
o Groups of Frame its called Packets.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 18

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Transport layer
o The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process
to another.
 Session layer
o The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

 Presentation layer
o The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
o Data translation ,compression and encryption.
o Encrypt data to hide it.
o Compress data from last message to small no of messages.
 Application layer
o The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
o Login password checking, file transfer are some of the application.
o Provide direct access to network device.
o Interface between user and system.
o Examples: File transfer, Emails, www

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 19

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

6. Explain TCP/IP Reference Model with Diagram. (Brief Description of

Each Layer).
Ans:
 TCP/IP Reference Model:

 Physical layer
o The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.
 Data link layer
o The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next.
o Groups of bits its called Frame.
 Network layer
o The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
o Groups of Frame its called Packets.
o Network layer protocols : IP, ICMP, ARP and RARP.
o IP ( Internetwork Protocol):

IP is transmission mechanism used. It is connectionless and unreliable
protocol. packets in the IP layer called datagram.
o ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
 ICMP used to handle, control and error message in the IP layer.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 20

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o ARP ( Address Resolution Protocol ):
 ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when the IP
address is known

o RARP ( Reverse Address Resolution Protocol ):

 RARP is used to find the IP Address of the node when its physical
address is known.
 Transport layer:
o The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process
to another.
o Transport layer protocols : TCP and UDP
o Both Protocols Use Port to Port Communication
o TCP ( Transmission Control Protocol ) :
 TCP provides full transport layer to applications.
 It is Connection oriented protocol .
 The packet in this layer is called segment.
 TCP provides error control, flow control, multiplexing.
o UDP ( User Datagram Protocol ) :
 UDP is Connectionless protocol.
 The packet produces by UDP is called User Datagram.
 UDP provides only multiplexing
 Application layer
o The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
o Login password checking, file transfer are some of the application.
o Interface between user and system.
 Examples: File transfer, Emails, www
o Application layer protocols: SMTP, FTP, SNMP and TELNET
 SMTP ( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ) :
 SMTP supports E-mail on the internet. SMTP is use Mailing.
 FTP ( File Transfer protocol ):
 FTP is provided for copy file form one computer to another
computer.
 To copy file some problem must occurs to solved by FTP
 SNMP ( Simple Network Management Protocol ) :
 SNMP provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and
maintaining devices in internet.
 TELNET ( Terminal Network ) :
 TELNET is a general purpose Client – Server application program,
TELNET is use Remote access login .

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 21

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

7. What is Delay? Explain types of Delays.

 Delay:
o As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the sub sequent node (host or
router) along this path, the packet suffers from several types of delays at each node
along the path.

 Types of Delays:

 Processing Delay
o The time required to examine the packet sheared and determine where to direct the
packet.
o To check bit level error.
o Determine output link.
o Delay in terms of microseconds.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 22

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Queuing Delay
o A time to waits at output link for transmission.
o Depends on congestion level of router.
o If queue empty then delay will be zero.
o If queue full–heavy traffic then delay will be long.
o Delay in terms of microsecond to millisecond.
 Transmission Delay
o An amount of time required for the router to transmit the packet.
o Its depends on packet length(L) and transmission rate(R) of link.
 Propagation Delay
o A time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to router B.
o Depends on the length of physical medium(d) link and propagation speed(s) of link.
o Delay in terms of millisecond.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 23

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
8. Write a short note on Botnet.
Ans:
 Botnet:
o Botnet refers to a network of hijacked internet-connected devices that are
installed with malicious codes known as malware.
o Each of these infected devices is known as Bots, and a hacker/cybercriminal known
as the "Bot herder" remotely controls them.
o A bot is also called a zombie, and a botnet is referred to as a zombie army.

 Working:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 24

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Stage 1 - Prepare and Expose
o At this stage, the bad actor figures out the vulnerability to introduce into the user’s
device.
o The vulnerability hunting takes place in the website, human behavior, and
application. By doing so, the hacker prepares a set-up to lure the target to get
exposed to malware, knowingly or unknowingly.
o Most commonly, hackers figure out the vulnerabilities in websites and the
software.
o Additionally, malware is delivered via emails or random messages.
 Stage 2 - Infecting the user via malware
o The next action that the botnet performs is activating the malware so that the end-
user is infected and has compromised security.
o The process of infecting the device usually takes place via the Trojan virus or social
engineering method.
o Some attackers adopt a more hostile approach and deploy drive-by-download
techniques to infect the device.
o Using all these methods, attackers corrupt the targeted device with botnet malware.
 Stage 3 - Controlling the targeted devices
o The last stage of botnet working methodology is gaining control over each device.
o Hackers systematize the involved infected machines in the botnet and design a
methodology to manage them remotely.
o In general, around thousands of devices are controlled in the process via a huge
zombie network.
o Once the stage is successfully completed, the bad actor is able to gain admin-like
access to the targeted devices or computers.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 25

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

9. Explain Different types of Networking Connecting Devices (Repeater,

Hub, Switch, Bridge, Router and Gateways).
Ans:
 Different types of Networking Connecting Devices are:
1. Repeater
2. Hub
3. Switch
4. Bridge
5. Router
6. Gateways
 Repeater:

o A repeater operates at the physical layer.

o Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes
too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network.
o An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.
o When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at
the original strength.
o It is a 2-port device.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 26

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Hub:

o A hub is basically a multiport repeater.

o A hub works at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model.
o A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches.
o Types of Hub
 Active Hub :-
 These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean
, boost and relay the signal along the network.
 These are used to extend maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub :-
 These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from active hub.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 27

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Bridge:

o A bridge operates at data link layer.

o A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of filtering content by reading the
MAC addresses of source and destination.
o It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
o It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2-port device.
 Switch:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 28

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Switch is data link layer device.

o A switch is a multi-port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency (large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.
o Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to correct port only.
o In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain
remains same.
 Routers:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 29

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o Router is mainly a Network Layer device.
o A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
o Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets.
o Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
 Gateway:

o Gateway is mainly used All seven Layer in OSI Model.

o A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that
may work upon different networking models.
o They basically works as the messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
o Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 30

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

10. Difference Between:

a. Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex (Transmission modes)

b. LAN, MAN and WAN

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 31

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

c. Circuit & Packet Switching (Explain Switched Networks)

d. OSI and TCP/IP

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 32

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Unit - 2 Application Layer

11. Draw Structure of Email. Explain Working of E-mail.

Ans:
 Structure of Email:
o Electronic mail is often referred to as E-mail and it is a method used for exchanging
digital messages.
o Electronic mail is mainly designed for human use.
o It allows a message to includes text, image, audio as well as video.
o This service allows one message to be sent to one or more than one recipient.

 Working of E-mail:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 33

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Email working follows the client server approach. In this client is the mailer i.e. the
mail application or mail program and server is a device that manages emails.
o Following example will take you through the basic steps involved in sending and
receiving emails and will give you a better understanding of working of email
system:
 Suppose person A wants to send an email message to person B.
 Person A composes the messages using a mailer program i.e. mail client and
then select Send option.
 The message is routed to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol to person B’s
mail server.
 The mail server stores the email message on disk in an area designated for
person B.
 Now, suppose person B is running a POP client and knows how to
communicate with B’s mail server.
 It will periodically poll the POP server to check if any new email has arrived
for B.As in this case, person B has sent an email for person B, so email is
forwarded over the network to B’s PC. This is message is now stored on
person B’s PC.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 34

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

12. Write a short note on SMTP.

 SMTP:
o SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
o SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an
electronic mail over the internet is called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
o It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users based on e-mail
addresses.
o It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different computers, and
it also supports:
 It can send a single message to one or more recipients.
 Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.
 It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet.
o The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules between
servers.

o Components of SMTP:
 First, we will break the SMTP client and SMTP server into two
components such as user agent (UA) and mail transfer agent (MTA).
 The user agent (UA) prepares the message, creates the envelope and then
puts the message in the envelope. The mail transfer agent (MTA) transfers
this mail across the internet.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 35

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o SMTP allows a more complex system by adding a relaying system.

o Instead of just having one MTA at sending side and one at receiving side, more
MTAs can be added, acting either as a client or server to relay the email.

o The relaying system without TCP/IP protocol can also be used to send the emails
to users, and this is achieved by the use of the mail gateway.
o The mail gateway is a relay MTA that can be used to receive an email.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 36

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

13. Explain MIME Header.

Ans:
o MIME stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions.
o It is used to extend the capabilities of Internet e-mail protocols such as SMTP.
o The MIME protocol allows the users to exchange various types of digital content
such as:
 Pictures, audio, video, and various types of documents and files in the e-
mail.
o MIME is an e-mail extension protocol, i.e., it does not operate independently, but it
helps to extend the capabilities of e-mail in collaboration with other protocols such
as SMTP.

o MIME Header:
 MIME adds five additional fields to the header portion of the actual e-mail
to extend the properties of the simple email protocol.

o These fields are as follows:

1. MIME Version
2. Content Type
3. Content Type Encoding
4. Content Id
5. Content description
o MIME-Version:
 Defines the version of the MIME protocol.
 It must have the parameter Value 1.0, which indicates that message is
formatted using MIME.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 37

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Content-Type:
 Type of data used in the body of the message.
 They are of different types like text data (plain, HTML), audio content, or
video content.
o Content-Type Encoding:
 It defines the method used for encoding the message.
 Like 7-bit encoding, 8-bit encoding, etc.
o Content Id:
 It is used for uniquely identifying the message.
o Content description:
 It defines whether the body is actually an image, video, or audio.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 38

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

14. Draw and explain Working Diagram of MIME Protocol.

Ans:
 Working Diagram of MIME Protocol:

o MIME-Version:
 Defines the version of the MIME protocol.
 It must have the parameter Value 1.0, which indicates that message is
formatted using MIME.
o Content-Type:
 Type of data used in the body of the message.
 They are of different types like text data (plain, HTML), audio content, or
video content.
o Content-Type Encoding:
 It defines the method used for encoding the message.
 Like 7-bit encoding, 8-bit encoding, etc.
o Content Id:
 It is used for uniquely identifying the message.
o Content description:
 It defines whether the body is actually an image, video, or audio.

 Features of MIME Protocol

o It supports multiple attachments in a single e-mail.
o It supports the non-ASCII characters.
o It supports unlimited e-mail length.
o It supports multiple languages.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 39

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

15. Write a short note following protocols:

a. POP3 and IMAP.
b. FTP and CMIP.
c. SNMP and HTTP.
Ans:
a. POP3 and IMAP.
 POP: Post Office Protocol – Version 3
 IMAP: Internet Mail Access Protocol

 POP3 and IMAP are the protocols that are used to retrieve mail from the mailbox at the
mail server to the recipient’s computer. Both are message accessing agents (MAA).
 The two protocols POP3 and IMAP are used when both the sender and recipient of mail
are connected to the mail server by WAN or LAN.
 The SMTP protocol transfers the mail from client’s computer to the mail server and
from one mail server to another mail server.
 POP3 has a limited functionality whereas, the IMAP has extra features over POP3.
 IMAP follows Client-server Architecture and is the most commonly used email
protocol.
 It is a combination of client and server process running on other computers that are
connected through a network.
 This protocol resides over the TCP/IP protocol for communication.
 Once the communication is set up the server listens on port 143 by default which is
non-encrypted.
 For the secure encrypted communication port, 993 is used.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 40

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

b. FTP and CMIP.

 FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
 FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files from
one host to another.
 It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer that
acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
 It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
 Objectives of FTP
o It provides the sharing of files.
o It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
o It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

 The FTP client has three components:

o The user interface, control process, and data transfer process.
 The server has two components:
o The server control process and the server data transfer process.
 There are two types of connections in FTP:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 41

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Control Connection:
o The control connection uses very simple rules for communication.
o Through control connection, we can transfer a line of command or line of response
at a time.
o The control connection is made between the control processes.
o The control connection remains connected during the entire interactive FTP session.
 Data Connection:
o The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types may vary.
o The data connection is made between data transfer processes.
o The data connection opens when a command comes for transferring the files and
closes when the file is transferred.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 42

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

c. SNMP and HTTP.

 SNMP
o SNMP Stand for Simple Network Management Protocol.
o SNMP was defined by IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force).
o It is used to manage the network. It is an internet standard protocol that monitors
devices in IP networks and collects and organizes the information (data) of these
devices.
o SNMP is supported by most network devices such as the hub, switch, router,
bridge, server, modem, and printer, etc.
o The concept of SNMP is based on the manager and agent.
o A manager is like a host that controls a group of agents, such as routers.

o SNMP Manager:
 It is a computer system that monitors network traffic by the SNMP agent,
and it queries these agents, takes answers, and controls them.
o SNMP Agent:
 It is a software program that is located in a network element.
 It collects real-time information from the device and passes this information
to the SNMP manager.
o Management components
 It has two components
 SMI
 MIB

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 43

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o SNMP:
 It defines the structure of packets that is shared between a manager and an
agent.
o SMI (Structure of Management Information):
 SMI is a network management component that defines the standard rules for
the naming object and object type (including range and length) and also
shows how to encode objects and values.
o MIB (Management Information Base):
 MIB is the second component of the network management.
 It is virtual information storage where management information is stored.

 HTTP:
o HTTP is one of the protocols used at the Application Layer.
o The HTTP is similar to FTP because HTTP is used to transfer the files and it
mainly uses the services of TCP.
o Also, HTTP is much simpler than FTP because there is only one TCP connection.
o In HTTP, there is no separate control connection, as only data is transferred
between the client and the server.
o SMTP messages are stored and then forwarded while the HTTP messages
are delivered immediately.
o The HTTP mainly uses the services of the TCP on the well-known port that is port
80.
o HTTP is a stateless protocol.
o In HTTP, the client initializes the transaction by sending a request message, and
the server replies by sending a response.
o Working of HTTP:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 44

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o The HTTP makes use of Client-server architecture.

o As we have already told you that the browser acts as the HTTP client and this client
mainly communicates with the webserver that is hosting the website.
o The format of the request and the response message is similar.
o The Request Message mainly consists of a request line, a header, and a body
sometimes.
o A Response message consists of the status line, a header, and sometimes a body.
o At the time when a client makes a request for some information (say client clicks
on the hyperlink) to the webserver.
o The browser then sends a request message to the HTTP server for the requested
objects.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 45

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

16. Explain Request Message and Response Message Format of HTTP.

Ans:
 Request Message and Response Message Format of HTTP:

 Request Line and Status line

o The first line in the Request message is known as the request line, while the first
line in the Response message is known as the Status line.

 Request Type
o This field is used in the request line.
o The are several request types that are defined and these are mentioned in the table
given below;

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 46

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 URL:
o URL is a Uniform Resource locator and it is mainly a standard way of specifying
any kind of information on the Internet.
 HTTP Version:
o The current version of the HTTP is 1.1.
 Status Code:
o The status code is the field of the response message.The status code consists of three
digits.
 Status Phrase:
o This field is also used in the response message and it is used to explain the status
code in the form of text.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 47

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

17. What is DNS? List and explain Types of DNS.

Ans:
 DNS:
o DNS stands for Domain Name System.
o DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host
on the network and its numerical address.
o Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of
symbols specified by (.) dots.
o DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses.

 Types of DNS:
o The domain name space is divided into three different sections:
 Generic Domains.
 Country Domains.
 Inverse Domain.
 Generic Domains:
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 48

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Country Domains:
o The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character
country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three character
organizational abbreviations.
o Country domain uses two character country abbreviations.
o Second labels can be more specific, national designation.
o For example,
o Australia the country domain is “.au”, Inida is “.in” and UK is “.uk”etc.

 Inverse Domains:
o The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name.
o When the server has received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of
only authorized clients.
o To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a query to the DNS
server and ask for mapping an address to the name.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 49

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

18. Write a short note: WWW and TFTP.

Ans:
 WWW:
o WWW Stand for World Wide Web.
o World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or
web pages stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the
internet.
o These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc.
o Users can access the content of these sites from any part of the world over the
internet using their devices such as computers, laptops, cell phones, etc.
o The WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media
to your device.

o Components of the Web:

 There are 3 components of the web:
 Uniform Resource Locator (URL):
o serves as a system for resources on the web.
 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
o specifies communication of browser and server.
 Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML):
o defines the structure, organization and content of a webpage.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 50

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 TFTP:
o Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple protocol used for transferring
files.
o TFTP uses the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) which enables data to be sent
between communication partners without sharing a fixed connection.
o TFTP is mostly used to read and write files/mail to or from a remote server.
o It is also possible to implement the TFTP based on other protocols.
o TFTP is a simpler version of FTP and it doesn’t have all its functions for example,
you cannot list, delete or rename files or directories on a remote server.
o In fact, TFTP can only be used to send and receive files between the two computers.
o TFTP doesn’t support user authentication and all data is sent in clear text.
 TFTP messages:

 TFTP messages come in five types:

o RRQ (read request): to request devices to read files
o WRQ (write request): to request devices to write files
o DATA: to carry file blocks
o ACK (acknowledge): to acknowledge received file blocks
o ERROR: to tell the sending device when an operation cannot be performed.
 Advantages:
o It utilizes the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocol.
o It is very easy to use and implement.
o It needs minimum memory utilization.
o It is a faster file transfer protocol.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 51

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
19. What is HTTP? Explain Types of HTTP Connections.
Ans:
 HTTP:
o HTTP is one of the protocols used at the Application Layer.
o The HTTP is similar to FTP because HTTP is used to transfer the files and it
mainly uses the services of TCP.
o In HTTP, there is no separate control connection, as only data is transferred
between the client and the server.
o HTTP port number is 80.
o HTTP is a stateless protocol.
o In HTTP, the client initializes the transaction by sending a request message, and
the server replies by sending a response.
o Working of HTTP:

 HTTP connections are broadly categorized into two types:

o Persistent
o Non-Persistent

***Explanation Referred Difference Between***

Persistent and Non-Persistent Connections
Q.21 (B)

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 52

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

20. Write a short note: Socket Programming.

Ans:
 Socket
o “A socket is one endpoint of a two-way communication link between two programs
running on the network.”
o An Socket is combination of an IP address and a port number.

 Network connection identified by a 5-tuple:

o src ip, src port, dst ip, dst port, protocol.
 Client – Server Communication:
o Two machines must connect
o Server waits for connection
o Client initiates connection
o Server responds to the client request

 Two kinds of Internet transport services provided to applications.

o Connection-oriented (TCP)
o Connectionless (UDP)

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 53

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
• TCP/IP Server Program:

• TCP/IP Client Program:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 54

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
21. Difference Between:
a. FTP and TFTP
b. Persistent and Non-Persistent Connections.
c. POP3 and IMAP.
Ans:
a. FTP and TFTP

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 55

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

b. Persistent and Non-Persistent Connections.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 56

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

c. POP3 and IMAP.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 57

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Unit - 3 Transport Layer

22. Write a short note: Transport Layer.

Ans:
 Transport Layer:

o The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process
to another.
o Transport Layer is the fourth layer from the top in OSI Model which provide
communication services to the application processes that was running on different
hosts.
o Transport Layer provides the services to the session layer and it receives the
services from network layer.
o The services provided by transport layer includes error correction as well as
segmenting and De-segmenting data before and after it's sent on the network.
o Transport layer also provides the flow control functionality and ensures that
segmented data is delivered across the network in the right sequence.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 58

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o At the sender’s side:
 At the sender's end, transport layer collect data from application layer i.e
message and performs segmentations to divide the message into segments
and then adds the port number of source and destination in header and send
that message to network layer.
o At the receiver’s side:
 At the receiver's end, transport layer collects data from network layer
and then reassembles the segmented data and identifies port number by
reading its header to send that message to appropriate port in the session
layer.
o The two main Transport layer protocols are:
 Transmission Control Protocol
 It provides reliable communication between two hosts.
 User Datagram Protocol
 It provides unreliable communication between two hosts.
o The services provided by the transport layer protocols can be divided into five
categories:
 End-to-end delivery
 Addressing
 Reliable delivery
 Flow control
 Multiplexing

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 59

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

23. Explain Multiplexing and Demultiplexing.

Ans:
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing services are provided in almost every protocol
architecture ever designed.
 UDP and TCP perform the demultiplexing and multiplexing jobs by including two special
fields in the segment headers: the source port number field and the destination port
number field.

 Multiplexing:
o Multiplexing is the process of collecting the data from multiple application
processes of the sender, enveloping that data with headers and sending them as a
whole to the intended receiver.
o In Multiplexing at the Transport Layer, the data is collected from various
application processes. These segments contain the source port number, destination
port number, header files, and data.
o These segments are passed to the Network Layer which adds the source and
destination IP address to get the datagram.
 Demultiplexing
o Delivering the received segments at the receiver side to the correct app layer
processes is called demultiplexing.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 60

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o The destination host receives the IP datagrams; each datagram has a source IP
address and a destination IP address.
o Each datagram carries 1 transport layer segment.
o Each segment has the source and destination port number.
o The destination host uses the IP addresses and port numbers to direct the segment
to the appropriate socket.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 61

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

24. Draw and explain UDP Header format.

Ans:
 Connection Less Transport (UDP)
o UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.
o UDP is a simple protocol and it provides non-sequenced transport functionality.
o UDP is a connectionless protocol.
o This type of protocol is used when reliability and security are less important than
speed and size.
o UDP is an end-to-end transport level protocol that adds transport-level addresses,
checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
o The packet produced by the UDP protocol is known as a user datagram.
o UDP Header
 UDP header is 8-bytes fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary
from 20 bytes to 60 bytes.
 First 8 Bytes contains all necessary header information and remaining part
consist of data.

o UDP port number fields are each 16 bits long, therefore range for port numbers
defined from 0 to 65535; port number 0 is reserved.
o Port numbers help to distinguish different user requests or process.
o Source port address:
 It defines the address of the application process that has delivered a
message.
 The source port address is of 16 bits address.
o Destination port address:
 It defines the address of the application process that will receive the
message.
 The destination port address is of a 16-bit address.
o Total length:
 It defines the total length of the user datagram in bytes.
 It is a 16-bit field.
o Checksum:
 The checksum is a 16-bit field which is used in error detection.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 62

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

25. Explain Stop and Wait Protocol.

Ans:
 stop and wait means, whatever the data that sender wants to send, he sends the data to
the receiver.
 After sending the data, he stops and waits until he receives the acknowledgment from
the receiver.
 The stop and wait protocol is a flow control protocol where flow control is one of the
services of the data link layer.
 It is a data-link layer protocol which is used for transmitting the data over the
noiseless channels.
 It provides unidirectional data transmission which means that either sending or
receiving of data will take place at a time.
 It provides flow-control mechanism but does not provide any error control
mechanism.

 The primitives of stop and wait protocol are:

o Sender side:
 Rule 1: Sender sends one data packet at a time.
 Rule 2: Sender sends the next packet only when it receives the
acknowledgment of the previous packet.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 63

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Therefore, the idea of stop and wait protocol in the sender's side is very simple, i.e.,
send one packet at a time, and do not send another packet before receiving the
acknowledgment.
o Receiver side
 Rule 1: Receive and then consume the data packet.
 Rule 2: When the data packet is consumed, receiver sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.
 Stop-and-Wait is a simple protocol used for transmitting data between two devices over
a communication channel.
 In this protocol, the sender sends a packet of data to the receiver and then waits for the
receiver to acknowledge the packet before sending the next packet.
 The receiver sends an acknowledgement to the sender indicating that the packet has
been received and is error-free.
 Problems:
o Lost Data
o Lost Acknowledgement

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 64

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

26. Explain Sliding Window Protocols.

Ans:
 The sliding window protocol is a method designed in the network model that allows data
exchange more efficiently and within the scope of clearly defined steps in the channel.

 The sliding window protocol is a method designed in the network model that allows data
exchange more efficiently and within the scope of clearly defined steps in the channel.
 This protocol allows sharing multiple data frames from the sender before receiving any
acknowledgment from the receiver side.
 Each of the frames in the network model is assigned a sequence number to increase the
transmission efficiency.
 Working of the Sliding Window Protocol:
o The working of the sliding window protocol can be divided into two steps sender
steps, and the receiver steps and also some important values are needed in a
network model for smooth transmission of the data frames are:
o Sender and the receiver side
o Window Size
o The total data frames to be transmitted
o Proper sequencing of the frames
 Steps for the Sender Side:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 65

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o To begin with, the sender side will share data frames with the receiver side per the
window size assigned to the model.
o The sliding window will appear on the frames transmitted over to the receiver side.
o Then the sender will wait for an acknowledgment from the receiver side for the
shared frames, as mentioned in figure 1.

o When the receiver transmits the acknowledgment of the first transmitted frame, the
sliding window will shift from the acknowledged frame.
 Steps for the Receiver Side:

o On receiving the data frames from the sender side, the receiver will use the frames
in the network model.
o After the receiver uses the frame, it will transmit the acknowledgement to the sender
side for that data frame.
o Then, the receiver side will receive the next data frame from the sender side, as
mentioned in figure2.
o This process continues until all the frames are transmitted from the sender side to
the receiver side, and the receiver side transmits the acknowledgment of all the
received frames.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 66

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

27. Explain Stop and Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request).

Ans:
 Problems:
o Lost Data
o Lost Acknowledgement
 Above 2 problems are resolved by Stop and Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) that
does both error control and flow control.

 Stop and Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request):

 Sender A sends a data frame or packet with sequence number 0.

 Receiver B, after receiving data frame, sends and acknowledgement with sequence number
1 (sequence number of next expected data frame or packet)
 There is only one bit sequence number that implies that both sender and receiver have
buffer for one frame or packet only.
 Characteristics:
o Used in Connection-oriented communication.
o It offers error and flow control

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 67

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o It is used in Data Link and Transport Layers
o Stop and Wait ARQ mainly implements Sliding Window Protocol concept with
Window Size 1.
 Resolved Problems:
o Time Out
o Sequence Number

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 68

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
28. Explain Go-Back-N ARQ.
Ans:
 Error Control is a technique of error detection and retransmission.

 Go-Back-N ARQ:
o In Go-Back-N ARQ protocol, if one frame is lost or damaged, then it retransmits
all the frames after which it does not receive the positive ACK.
o Three possibilities can occur for retransmission:
 Damaged Frame
 Lost Data Frame
 Lost Acknowledgement

 Damaged Frame:
o When the frame is damaged, then the receiver sends a NAK frame.
o In the above figure, three frames have been transmitted before an error discovered
in the third frame.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 69

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o In this case, ACK 2 has been returned telling that the frames 0,1 have been received
successfully without any error.
o The receiver discovers the error in data 2 frame, so it returns the NAK 2 frame.
o The frame 3 is also discarded as it is transmitted after the damaged frame.
o Therefore, the sender retransmits the frames 2,3.
 Lost Data Frame:
o In Sliding window protocols, data frames are sent sequentially.
o If any of the frames is lost, then the next frame arrive at the receiver is out of
sequence.
o The receiver checks the sequence number of each of the frame, discovers the frame
that has been skipped, and returns the NAK for the missing frame.
o The sending device retransmits the frame indicated by NAK as well as the frames
transmitted after the lost frame.
 Lost Acknowledgement:
o The sender can send as many frames as the windows allow before waiting for any
acknowledgement.
o Once the limit of the window is reached, the sender has no more frames to send; it
must wait for the acknowledgement.
o If the acknowledgement is lost, then the sender could wait forever.
o To avoid such situation, the sender is equipped with the timer that starts counting
whenever the window capacity is reached.
o If the acknowledgement has not been received within the time limit, then the sender
retransmits the frame since the last ACK.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 70

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

29. Explain Selective Reject ARQ.

Ans:

 Selective Repeat ARQ technique is more efficient than Go-Back-n ARQ.

 Selective Repeat is also the sliding window protocol which detects or corrects the error
occurred in the datalink layer.
 The selective repeat protocol retransmits only that frame which is damaged or lost.
 In selective repeat protocol, the retransmitted framed is received out of sequence.
 The selective repeat protocol can perform the following actions:
a. In this technique, only those frames are retransmitted for which negative
acknowledgement (NAK) has been received.
b. The receiver storage buffer keeps all the damaged frames on hold until the frame in
error is correctly received.
c. The receiver must have an appropriate logic for reinserting the frames in a correct
order.
d. The sender must consist of a searching mechanism that selects only the requested
frame for retransmission.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 71

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

30. Draw and explain TCP Header format.

Ans:
 Connection Oriented Transport (TCP):
o TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.
o It provides full transport layer services to applications.
o It is a connection-oriented protocol means the connection established between both
the ends of the transmission.
o TCP segment consists of data bytes to be sent and a header that is added to the data
by TCP as shown:

o Source port address:

 It is used to define the address of the application program in a source
computer.
 It is a 16-bit field.
o Destination port address:
 It is used to define the address of the application program in a destination
computer.
 It is a 16-bit field.
o Sequence number:
 A stream of data is divided into two or more TCP segments.
 The 32-bit sequence number field represents the position of the data in an
original data stream.
o Acknowledgement number:
 A 32-field acknowledgement number acknowledge the data from other
communicating devices.
 If ACK field is set to 1, then it specifies the sequence number that the
receiver is expecting to receive.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 72

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o Header Length (HLEN):
 It specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words.
 The minimum size of the header is 5 words, and the maximum size of the
header is 15 words.
 Therefore, the maximum size of the TCP header is 60 bytes, and the
minimum size of the TCP header is 20 bytes.
o Reserved:
 It is a six-bit field which is reserved for future use.
o Control bits:
 Each bit of a control field functions individually and independently.
 A control bit defines the use of a segment or serves as a validity check for
other fields.
 There are total six types of flags in control field:

o Window Size:
 The window is a 16-bit field that defines the size of the window.
o Checksum:
 The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o Urgent pointer:
 If URG flag is set to 1, then this 16-bit field is an offset from the sequence
number indicating that it is a last urgent data byte.
o Options and padding:
 It defines the optional fields that convey the additional information to the
receiver.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 73

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

31. Explain TCP Connection (A 3-way handshake).

Ans:
 TCP Connection (A 3-way handshake):

o Handshake refers to the process to establish connection between the client and
server.
o Handshake is simply defined as the process to establish a communication link.
o To transmit a packet, TCP needs a three way handshake before it starts sending
data.
o The reliable communication in TCP is termed as PAR (Positive Acknowledgement
Re-transmission).
o The positive acknowledgement from the receiver establishes a successful
connection.
o Step 1 (SYN):
 In the first step, the client wants to establish a connection with a server, so
it sends a segment with SYN(Synchronize Sequence Number) which
informs the server that the client is likely to start communication and with
what sequence number it starts segments with.
o Step 2 (SYN + ACK):
 Server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal bits set.
 Acknowledgement(ACK) signifies the response of the segment it received
and SYN signifies with what sequence number it is likely to start the
segments with.
o Step 3 (ACK):
 In the final part client acknowledges the response of the server and they
both establish a reliable connection with which they will start the actual
data transfer,

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 74

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

32. Explain TCP Termination (A 4-way handshake).

Ans:
 TCP Termination (A 4-way handshake):
o Any device establishes a connection before proceeding with the termination.
o TCP requires 3-way handshake to establish a connection between the client and
server before sending the data.
o Similarly, to terminate or stop the data transmission, it requires a 4-way
handshake.
o The segments required for TCP termination are similar to the segments to build a
TCP connection (ACK and SYN) except the FIN segment.
o The FIN segment specifies a termination request sent by one device to the other.
o The client is the data transmitter and the server is a receiver in a data
transmission process between the sender and receiver.

a. Firstly, from one side of the connection, either from the client or the server the FIN
flag will be sent as the request for the termination of the connection.
b. In the second step, whoever receives the FIN flag will then be sending an ACK flag
as the acknowledgment for the closing request to the other side.
c. And, at the Later step, the server will also send a FIN flag as the closing signal to
the other side.
d. In the final step, the TCP, who received the final FIN flag, will be sending an ACK
flag as the final Acknowledgement for the suggested connection closing.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 75

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

33. What is Congestion Control? Explain Types of Congestion control

algorithms.
OR
Q. Explain Leaky Bucket Algorithm.
Q. Explain Token bucket Algorithm.
Ans:
 A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it slows
down network response time.
 Effects of Congestion:
o As delay increases, performance decreases.
o If delay increases, retransmission occurs, making situation worse.
 Congestion control algorithms:
o Leaky Bucket Algorithm
o Token bucket Algorithm
 Leaky Bucket Algorithm:
o The leaky bucket algorithm discovers its use in the context of network traffic
shaping or rate-limiting.
o A leaky bucket execution and a token bucket execution are predominantly used for
traffic shaping algorithms.
o This algorithm is used to control the rate at which traffic is sent to the network and
shape the burst traffic to a steady traffic stream.
o The disadvantages compared with the leaky-bucket algorithm are the inefficient
use of available network resources.
o The large area of network resources such as bandwidth is not being used
effectively.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 76

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Steps are involved in leaky bucket algorithm:

o When host wants to send packet, packet is thrown into the bucket.
o The bucket leaks at a constant rate, meaning the network interface transmits
packets at a constant rate.
o Bursty traffic is converted to a uniform traffic by the leaky bucket.
o In practice the bucket is a finite queue that outputs at a finite rate.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 77

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Token bucket Algorithm

o The leaky bucket algorithm enforces output pattern at the average rate, no matter
how bursty the traffic is.
o So in order to deal with the bursty traffic we need a flexible algorithm so that the
data is not lost.
o One such algorithm is token bucket algorithm.
 Steps of this algorithm can be described as follows:
o In regular intervals tokens are thrown into the bucket. ƒ
o The bucket has a maximum capacity. ƒ
o If there is a ready packet, a token is removed from the bucket, and the packet is
send.
o If there is no token in the bucket, the packet cannot be send.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 78

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Let’s understand with an example,
o In figure (A) we see a bucket holding three tokens, with five packets waiting to be
transmitted.
o For a packet to be transmitted, it must capture and destroy one token.
o In figure (B) We see that three of the five packets have gotten through, but the other
two are stuck waiting for more tokens to be generated.

 Formula:
M*s=C+ρ*s
o Where,
 S – is time taken
 M – Maximum output rate
 ρ – Token arrival rate
 C – Capacity of the token bucket in byte

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 79

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

34. Write a short note: Piggybacking.

Ans:
 Piggybacking is a process of attaching acknowledgment with the data packet to be
sent.
 It is an efficient solution for reducing the bandwidth utilization of the network.
 TCP is a full-duplex communication protocol, so piggybacking is used to transmit
packets.

 As we can see in the figure, we can see with piggybacking, a single message (ACK +
DATA) over the wire in place of two separate messages.
 Piggybacking improves the efficiency of the bidirectional protocols.
o If Host A has both acknowledgment and data, which it wants to send, then the
data frame will be sent with the ack field which contains the sequence number of
the frame.
o If Host A contains only one acknowledgment, then it will wait for some time,
then in the case, if it finds any data frame, it piggybacks the acknowledgment,
otherwise, it will send the ACK frame.
o If Host A left with only a data frame, then it will add the last acknowledgment
to it. Host A can send a data frame with an ack field containing no
acknowledgment bit.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 80

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

35. Write a short note: Proxy Server.

Ans:
 The proxy server is a computer on the internet that accepts the incoming requests
from the client and forwards those requests to the destination server.
 It works as a gateway between the end-user and the internet.
 It has its own IP address.
 It separates the client system and web server from the global network.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 81

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 If the requested data or page already exists in the local cache, the proxy server itself
provides the required retrieval to the client.
 If the requested data or page does not exist in the local cache, the proxy server forwards
that request to the destination server.
 The proxy servers transfer the replies to the client and also being cached to them.
 Need of Proxy Server
o It reduces the chances of data breaches.
o It adds a subsidiary layer of security between server and outside traffic.
o It also protects from hackers.
o It filters the requests.
 Advantages of Proxy Server:
o It improves the security and enhances the privacy of the user.
o It hides the identity (IP address) of the user.
o It controls the traffic and prevents crashes.
o Also, saves bandwidth by caching files and compressing incoming traffic.
o Protect our network from malware.
o Allows access to the restricted content.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 82

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

36. Difference Between:

a. Stop and Wait Protocol and Sliding Window Protocols.
b. GO-BACK-N and Selective Reject / Selective Repeat ARQ
c. Stop and Wait, Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat
d. Leaky Bucket and Token Bucket
e. Flow Control and Congestion Control
Ans:
a. Stop and Wait Protocol and Sliding Window Protocols.

b. GO-BACK-N and Selective Reject / Selective Repeat ARQ

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 83

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

c. Stop and Wait, Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 84

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
d. Leaky Bucket and Token Bucket

e. Flow Control and Congestion Control

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 85

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
Unit - 4 Network Layer

37. Explain Functions of Network Layer.

Ans:
 Network Layer:

 The Network Layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two different
networks.
 If the two devices communicating are on the same network, then the network layer is
unnecessary.
 The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into smaller units,
called packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling these packets on the receiving
device.
 Addressing:
o Maintains both the source and destination addresses at the frame header.
o The network layer performs addressing to find out the specific devices on the
network.
 Packetizing:
o The network layer works on the conversion of packets those received from its
upper layer.
o This feature is accomplished by Internet Protocol (IP).
 Routing:
o Being considered as the major functionality, the network layer chooses the best
path for data transmission from a source point to the destination.
 Internetworking:
o Internetworking works to deliver a logical connection across multiple devices.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 86

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

38. Explain Network Layer Design Issues.

Ans:
 Network Layer Design Issues:
o Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
o Services Provided to the Transport Layer
o Implementation of Connectionless Service
o Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service
 Store-and-Forward Packet Switching

o Here, the foremost elements are the carrier’s equipment (the connection between
routers through transmission lines) and the customer’s equipment.
o H1 has a direct connection with carrier router ‘A’, while H2 is connected to carrier
router ‘F’ on a LAN connection.
o One of the carrier router ‘F’, is pointed outside the carrier’s equipment as it does
not come under the carrier, whereas considered as protocols, software, and
construction.
o This switching network performs as Transmission of data happens when the host
(H1) with a packet transfers it to the nearby router through LAN (or) point-to-point
connection to the carrier.
o The carrier stores the packet until it completely arrives thus confirms the checksum.
o Then after, the packet is transmitted over the path until H2 is reached.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 87

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Services Provided to the Transport Layer

o Through the network/transport layer interface, the network layer delivers its
services to the transport layer.
o Services offered by the network layer are outlined considering few objectives.
Those are:
o Offering services must not depend on router technology
o The transport layer needs to be protected from type, number and the topology of the
available routers.
o Network addressing the transport layer needs to follow a consistent numbering
scenario also at LAN and WAN connections.
o Connectionless:
 Here, routing and insertion of packets into subnet is accomplished
individually. No additional setup is necessary
o Connection-Oriented:
 Subnet must offer reliable service and all the packets are transmitted over a
single route.
 Implementation of Connectionless Service:
o In this scenario, packets are termed as datagrams and the corresponding subnet is
termed as datagram subnet.
o Routing in datagram subnet is as follows:

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service

o The below diagram shows the routing algorithm in the virtual subnet.

o Here, the functionality of connection-oriented service works on the virtual subnet.

o A virtual subnet performs the operation of avoiding a new path for each packet
transmission.
o As a substitute for this, when there forms a connection, a route from a source node
to a destination node is selected and maintained in tables.
o This route performs its action at the time of traffic congestion.
o At the time when the connection is released, the virtual subnet also gets dismissed.
o In this service, every packet carries its own identifier that states the exact address
of the virtual circuit.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 89

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

39. What is Packet Forwarding? Explain Packet Forwarding Techniques.

Ans:
 Forwarding is the process of collecting data from one device and sending it to another
device.
 This process differs from routing because it doesn’t manage moving data from one device
to another.
 Forwarding means to place the packet in its route to its destination.
 Forwarding requires a host or a router to have a routing table.

 Packet Forwarding Techniques:

o Next-Hop Method versus Route Method
o Network-Specific Method versus Host-Specific Method
o Default Method
 Next-Hop Method versus Route Method:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 90

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o One technique to reduce the contents of a routing table is called the next-hop
method.
o In this technique, the routing table holds only the address of the next hop instead of
information about the complete route (route method).
o The entries of a routing table must be consistent with one another.

 Network-Specific Method versus Host-Specific Method:

o A second technique to reduce the routing table and simplify the searching process
is called the network-specific method.
o Here, instead of having an entry for every destination host connected to the same
physical network (host-specific method), we have only one entry that defines the
address of the destination network itself.
o Host-specific routing is used for purposes such as checking the route or providing
security measures.
 Default Method:

o Another technique to simplify routing is called the default method.

o Host A is connected to a network with two routers.
o Router R1 routes the packets to hosts connected to network N2.
o However, for the rest of the Internet, router R2 is used. So instead of listing all
networks in the entire Internet, host A can just have one entry called the default
(normally defined as network address 0.0.0.0).

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 91

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

40. What is Routing? Explain Types of Routing.

Ans:
 A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can be transferred from
source to the destination.
 Routing is performed by a special device known as a router.
 A Router works at the network layer in the OSI model and internet layer in TCP/IP model
 A router is a networking device that forwards the packet based on the information available
in the packet header and forwarding table.

 Types of Routing:
o Routing can be classified into three categories:
 Static Routing
 Default Routing
 Dynamic Routing
 Static Routing:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 92

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o Static Routing is also known as Nonadaptive Routing.
o It is a technique in which the administrator manually adds the routes in a routing
table.
o A Router can send the packets for the destination along the route defined by the
administrator.
o In this technique, routing decisions are not made based on the condition or topology
of the networks
 Default Routing:

o Default Routing is a technique in which a router is configured to send all the packets
to the same hop device, and it doesn't matter whether it belongs to a particular
network or not.
o A Packet is transmitted to the device for which it is configured in default routing.
o Default Routing is used when networks deal with the single exit point.
o It is also useful when the bulk of transmission networks have to transmit the data to
the same hp device.
o When a specific route is mentioned in the routing table, the router will choose the
specific route rather than the default route.
o The default route is chosen only when a specific route is not mentioned in the
routing table.
 Dynamic Routing:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 93

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o It is also known as Adaptive Routing.
o It is a technique in which a router adds a new route in the routing table for each
packet in response to the changes in the condition or topology of the network.
o Dynamic protocols are used to discover the new routes to reach the destination.
o In Dynamic Routing, RIP and OSPF are the protocols used to discover the new
routes.
o If any route goes down, then the automatic adjustment will be made to reach the
destination.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 94

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

41. Write a short note: Network Service Models.

Ans:
 The network-service model defines the characteristics of end-to-end transport of data
between one "edge" of the network and the other, that is, between sending and receiving
end systems.
 Network Service Models:
o Virtual-circuit service model
o Datagram service model
 Virtual-circuit service model

 Datagram service model

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 95

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

42. Draw and explain Router Architecture.

Ans:
 Router:
o A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
o Router is mainly a Network Layer device.
o Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets.
o Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

 Router Architecture:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 96

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

43. List out Network Layer Protocols. Explain ARP and RARP.
OR
Q. Explain Physical addresses and Logical addresses.
Ans:
 ARP:
o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
o It is used to associate an IP address with the MAC address.
o Each device on the network is recognized by the MAC address imprinted on the
NIC.
o Therefore, we can say that devices need the MAC address for communication on a
local area network.
o MAC address can be changed easily.
 MAC address:
o The MAC address is used to identify the actual device.
 IP address:
o It is an address used to locate a device on the network.

 If the host wants to know the physical address of another host on its network, then it sends
an ARP query packet that includes the IP address and broadcast it over the network.
 Every host on the network receives and processes the ARP packet, but only the intended
recipient recognizes the IP address and sends back the physical address.
 The host holding the datagram adds the physical address to the cache memory and to the
datagram header, then sends back to the sender.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 97

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 RARP:

o RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.

o If the host wants to know its IP address, then it broadcast the RARP query packet
that contains its physical address to the entire network.
o A RARP server on the network recognizes the RARP packet and responds back
with the host IP address.
o The protocol which is used to obtain the IP address from a server is known
as Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
o The message format of the RARP protocol is similar to the ARP protocol.
o Like ARP frame, RARP frame is sent from one machine to another encapsulated in
the data portion of a frame.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 98

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

44. Write a short note: ICMP and IGMP.

Ans:
 ICMP:
o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
o The ICMP is a network layer protocol used by hosts and routers to send the
notifications of IP datagram problems back to the sender.
o ICMP uses echo test/reply to check whether the destination is reachable and
responding.
o ICMP handles both control and error messages, but its main function is to report
the error but not to correct them.
o An IP datagram contains the addresses of both source and destination, but it does
not know the address of the previous router through which it has been passed.
o Due to this reason, ICMP can only send the messages to the source, but not to the
immediate routers.
o ICMP protocol communicates the error messages to the sender.
o ICMP messages cause the errors to be returned back to the user processes.

o ICMP messages are transmitted within IP datagram.

o The Format of an ICMP message:

 The first field specifies the type of the message.

 The second field specifies the reason for a particular message type.
 The checksum field covers the entire ICMP message.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 99

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 IGMP:
o IGMP stands for Internet Group Message Protocol.
o The IP protocol supports two types of communication:
 Unicasting: It is a communication between one sender and one receiver.
Therefore, we can say that it is one-to-one communication.
 Multicasting: Sometimes the sender wants to send the same message to a
large number of receivers simultaneously. This process is known as
multicasting which has one-to-many communication.
o The IGMP protocol is used by the hosts and router to support multicasting.
o The IGMP protocol is used by the hosts and router to identify the hosts in a LAN
that are the members of a group.

 IGMP is a part of the IP layer, and IGMP has a fixed-size message.

 The IGMP message is encapsulated within an IP datagram.

 The Format of an IGMP message

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 100

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

45. Draw and explain IPv4 Datagram Header.

Ans:
 IP stands for Internet Protocol and v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4).
 IP version four addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in decimal notation.
 IPv4 Datagram Header: Size of the header is 20 to 60 bytes.
 Example: 192.0.2.126 could be an IPv4 address.

 VERSION:
o Version of the IP protocol (4 bits), which is 4 for IPv4
 HLEN:
o IP header length (4 bits), which is the number of 32 bit words in the header.
o The minimum value for this field is 5 and the maximum is 15
 Type of service:
o Low Delay, High Throughput, Reliability (8 bits)
 Total Length:
o Length of header + Data (16 bits), which has a minimum value 20 bytes and the
maximum is 65,535 bytes
 Identification:
o Unique Packet Id for identifying the group of fragments of a single IP datagram (16
bits)

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 101

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Flags:
o 3 flags of 1 bit each :
 reserved bit (must be zero),
 do not fragment flag,
 more fragments flag (same order)
 Fragment Offset:
o Specified in terms of number of 8 bytes, which has the maximum value of 65,528
bytes
 Time to live:
o Datagram’s lifetime (8 bits), It prevents the datagram to loop through the network
 Protocol:
o Name of the protocol to which the data is to be passed (8 bits)
 Header Checksum:
o 16 bits header checksum for checking errors in the datagram header
 Source IP address:
o 32 bits IP address of the sender
 Destination IP address:
o 32 bits IP address of the receiver
 Option:
o Optional information such as source route, record route.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 102

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

46. Draw and explain IPv6 Datagram Header.

Ans:
 IP stands for Internet Protocol and v6 stands for Version six (IPv6).
 Each packet is consist of a mandatory base header succeeded by the payload.
 IPv6 Address Length 128 bits (16 bytes).
 The payload includes two parts namely optional extension headers and data from an upper
layer.
 The base header consumes 40 bytes, inversely the extension headers and data from the top
layer usually hold up to 65,535 bytes of information.

 IPv6 Datagram Header:

 Version:
o This four-bit field specifies the version of the IP, i.e., 6 in this case.
 Priority:
o It defines the priority of the packet concerning traffic congestion.
 Flow label:
o The reason for designing this protocol is to facilitate with special controlling for a
certain flow of data.
 Payload length:
o It defines the total length of the IP datagram excepting the base header.
 Next header:
o It’s an eight-bit field describe the header that trails the base header in the datagram.
o The next header is one of the optional extension headers which IP uses or the header
for an upper layer protocol such as UDP or TCP.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Hop limit:
o This eight-bit hop limit field assist with the same functions at the TTL field in IPv4.
 Source address:
o It is a 16 bytes internet address identifies the source of the datagram.
 Destination address:
o This is 16-byte internet address that generally describes the final destination of the
datagram.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

47. Explain Classification of IP Addresses (Classful Addressing).

Ans:
 The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:
o Class A
o Class B
o Class C
o Class D
o Class E
 Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses.
 Classes D and E are reserved for multicast and experimental purposes respectively.
 The order of bits in the first octet determine the classes of IP address.
 IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
o Network ID:
 It represents the number of networks.
o Host ID:
 It represents the number of hosts.

 Class A starts with 0 followed by 7 bits of network ID and 24 bits of host ID.
 Class B starts with 10 followed by 14 bits of network ID and 16 bits of host ID.
 Class C starts with 110 followed by 21 bits of network ID and 8 bits of host ID.
 Class D starts with 1110 followed by 28 bits. Class D is used only for multicast addressing
by which a group of hosts form a multicast group and each group requires a multicast
address.
 Class E starts with 1111 followed by 28 bits. Class E is reserved for network experiments
only.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

48. Explain Classless Addressing (CIDR).

Ans:
 A classless addressing system OR Classless interdomain routing (CIDR) is an improved
IP addressing system.
 In a Classless addressing system, the block of IP addresses is assigned dynamically based
on specific rules.
 It provides a variable-length of blocks, which have a range of addresses according to
the need of users.

 Classless Addressing Notation:

o Notation of a classless addressing system Or Classless interdomain routing (CIDR):
p.q.r.s /n
o Where,
 p.q.r.s represents the IP address,
 n represents the mask bits.
 Classless Addressing - Properties
o Addresses in a block must be in contiguous form.
o The number of address in a block must be the power of 2 i.e. 2, 4, 8, 16,...
o The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses.
 Classless Addressing - Representation
o In Classless addressing a block, IP address is given
like 192.168.10.1/28 (after "/" number of the mask bit is given).

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 107

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

49. Explain Classify Binary and Hexadecimal Representation of IPv6

address.
Ans:
 IPv6 addresses have three types:
o Global Unicast Address:
 Scope Internet- routed on Internet
o Unique Local:
 Scope Internal Network or VPN internally routable, but Not routed on
Internet
o Link Local:
 Scope network link- Not Routed internally or externally.

 IPv6 address is 128 bits in length and is written as eight groups of four hexadecimal
digits.
 Each group is separated from the others by colons (:) as shown in figure.
 Hexadecimal characters are not case sensitive, therefore an address can be written
either in uppercase or lowercase, both are equivalent.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Example:

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
50. Explain Convert the given IPv4 address to IPv6 address.
Ans:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 110

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
51. Write a short note on Network Transmission Types.
Ans:
 Network Transmission Types:
o Unicasting
o Any casting
o Multicasting
o Broadcasting
 Unicasting:

o Unicasting is the most commonly used data transmission type on the internet.
o In Unicasting, the data traffic flows from a single source node to a single destination
node on the network.
o It is a 'one-to-one' type of data transmission between the sender and receiver.
o It can be best implemented in computer-to-computer or server-to-server or client-
to-server kind of communications.
o SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) protocol can be used for unicasting an email
on the internet.
o Similarly, FTP(File Transfer Protocol) can be used for unicasting a particular file
from one computer to another on the network.
o Some other protocols like HTTP(HyperText Markup Language), Telnet, etc. can
also be used for unicasting on the network.
 Any-casting:

o Anycast is a one-to-nearest kind of transmission in which a single source sends a

message to the nearest destination(among multiple possible destinations).

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o It can only be implemented using IPv6 addressing.
o IPv4 addressing can not be used for anycasting.
o In Anycasting, a single IPv6 address is assigned to multiple devices in the network.
o Anycasting is mainly used by Routers.
o The Anycast address is an address that can be assigned to a group of devices on
the network(mostly routers).
o In the above diagram, all the devices with green shade have the same anycast
address.
o But the data is received by only one device, which is in dark green shade(because
it was the first one to receive the message).
 Multicasting:

o Multicast is a kind of transmission type in which a single source communicates a

message to a group of devices.
o It is a kind of one-to-multiple transmission.
o All the devices which are interested in receiving the messages will have to first join
the multicast group.
o Multicasting is used in an IP Multicast group in the network.
o The IP multicast group consists of all the devices which are interested in receiving
the multicast traffic.
o The source need not be a member of that group.
o Multicasting is always done using a single source.
o Also, a multicast address can never be the source address.
o Multicasting uses a class-D type of address(to connect multiple destination nodes
for multicasting).
 Broadcasting:

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o Broadcasting is a transmission type in which the data traffic flows from a single
source to all the devices on the network.
o It sends the information to every device at once.
o The same data is received by everyone, making it efficient for wide-spreading the
message with all nodes.
o Broadcasting is an IPv4 specific data transmission type.
o In broadcasting, every node has a look at the sent data and information in the
network.
o HTTP(HyperText Transfer Protocol) can be used for broadcasting.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

52. Write a short note: NAT (Network Address Translation).

Ans:
 NAT (Network Address Translation) connects two networks and maps the private (inside
local) addresses into public addresses (inside global).
 Inside local denotes that the best address belonged to an internal network and was not
assigned by a Network Information Centre or service power.
 The inside global signifies that the address is a valid address assigned by the NIC or service
provider, and one or more inside local addresses to the outside world.
 NAT:

 NAT is a method of converting a private IP address or a local address into a public IP

address.
 NAT is a technique for reducing the rate at which available IP addresses are depleted by
translating a local IP or private IP address into a global or public IP address.
 The NAT relation might be one-to-one or many-to-one.
 Furthermore, NAT can only configure one address in order to represent the entire network
to the outside world.
 As a result, the translation process is transparent.
 NAT can be used to migrate and merge networks, share server loads, and create virtual
servers, etc.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

53. Explain Routing protocols: Distance vector routing, Link state routing
and Path vector Routing.
OR
Q. Explain Distance vector routing (Bellman ford) Algorithm with
Example.
Q. Explain Link state routing (Dijsktra) Algorithm with Example.
Q. Explain Path vector Routing Algorithm with Example.
Ans:
 A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can be transferred from source
to the destination.
 Routing is performed by a special device known as a router.
 A Router works at the network layer in the OSI model and internet layer in TCP/IP model
 A router is a networking device that forwards the packet based on the information available
in the packet header and forwarding table.
 Dynamic routing protocols use metric, cost, and hop count to identify the best path from
the path available for the destination network.
 There are mainly 3 different classes of routing protocols:
o Distance vector routing
o Link state routing
o Path vector Routing.

 Distance Vector Routing:

o The Distance vector algorithm is:
 Iterative
 Asynchronous
 Distributed
o The Distance vector algorithm is a dynamic algorithm.
o It is mainly used in ARPANET, and RIP.
o Each router maintains a distance table known as Vector.
o Distributed:
 It is distributed in that each node receives information from one or more of
its directly attached neighbors, performs calculation and then distributes
the result back to its neighbors.
o Iterative:
 It is iterative in that its process continues until no more information is
available to be exchanged between neighbors.
o Asynchronous:
 It does not require that all of its nodes operate in the lock step with each
other.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Bellman Ford Basics:

 Each router maintains a Distance Vector table containing the distance
between itself and ALL possible destination nodes.
 Information kept by DV router:
 Each router has an ID Associated with each link connected to a
router
 there is a link cost (static or dynamic).
 Intermediate hops
 Distance Vector Table Initialization
 Distance to itself = 0
 Distance to ALL other routers = infinity number.

o The Bellman-Ford algorithm is defined as :

 Distance Vector Algorithm:

o A router transmits its distance vector to each of its neighbors in a routing
packet.
o Each router receives and saves the most recently received distance vector from
each of its neighbors.
o A router recalculates its distance vector when:
 It receives a distance vector from a neighbor containing different
information than before.
 It discovers that a link to a neighbor has gone down.
o The DV calculation is based on minimizing the cost to each destination

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Example: Consider 3-routers X, Y and Z as shown in figure. Each router have their
routing table. Every routing table will contain distance to the destination nodes.

o Consider router X

o Consider router Z

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Finally the routing table for all:

 Link State Routing:

o Link State Routing (LSR) is a routing algorithm used in computer networks to
determine the best path for data to travel from one node to another.
o LSR is considered to be a more advanced and efficient method of routing compared
to Distance Vector Routing (DVR) algorithm.
o In LSR, each node in the network maintains a map or database, called a link state
database (LSDB), that contains information about the state of all the links in the
network.
o This information includes the cost of each link, the status of each link (up or down),
and the neighboring nodes that are connected to each link.
o Algorithm:
 Dijsktra Algorithm

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Let's describe some notations:

 c( i , j):
 Link cost from node i to node j.
 If i and j nodes are not directly linked, then c(i , j) = ∞.
 D(v):
 It defines the cost of the path from source code to destination v that
has the least cost currently.
 P(v):
 It defines the previous node (neighbor of v) along with current least
cost path from source to v.
 N:
 It is the total number of nodes available in the network.

o Example: Consider the below graph and src = 0.

 Solution:

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Path Vector Routing:

o Path Vector Routing is a routing algorithm in unicast routing protocol of network
layer, and it is useful for interdomain routing.
o The principle of path vector routing is similar to that of distance vector routing.
o It assumes that there is one node in each autonomous system that acts on behalf of
the entire autonomous system is called Speaker node.
o The speaker node in an AS creates a routing cable and advertises to the speaker
node in the neighboring ASs .
o A speaker node advertises the path, not the metrics of the nodes, in its autonomous
system or other autonomous systems

o It is the initial table for each speaker node in a system made four ASs.
o Here Node A1 is the speaker node for AS1, B1 for AS2, C1 for AS3 and D1 for
AS4, Node A1 creates an initial table that shows A1 to A5 and these are located in
AS1, it can be reached through it.
o A speaker in an autonomous system shares its table with immediate neighbors ,here
Node A1 share its table with nodes B1 and C1 , Node C1 share its table with nodes
A1,B1 and D1 , Node B1 share its table with nodes A1 and C1 , Node D1 share its
table with node C1
o If router A1 receives a packet for nodes A3 , it knows that the path is in AS1,but if
it receives a packet for D1,it knows that the packet should go from AS1,to AS2 and
then to AS3 ,then the routing table shows that path completely on the other hand if
the node D1 in AS4 receives a packet for node A2,it knows it should go through
AS4,AS3,and AS1.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 FUNCTIONS:
o PREVENTION OF LOOP
 The creation of loop can be avoided in path vector routing .
 A router receives a message it checks to see if its autonomous system is in
the path list to the destination if it is looping is involved and the message is
ignored
o POLICY ROUTING
 When a router receives a messages it can check the path, if one of the
autonomous system listed in the path against its policy, it can ignore its path
and destination it does not update its routing table with this path or it does
not send the messages to its neighbors.
o OPTIMUM PATH
 A path to a destination that is the best for the organization that runs the
autonomous system

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

54. Difference between:

a. Virtual Circuit and Datagram Networks
b. IPv4 and IPv6
c. Classful Addressing and Classless Addressing
d. Distance Vector Routing and Link State Routing
e. Broadcast and Multicast
Ans:
a. Virtual Circuit and Datagram Networks

b. IPv4 and IPv6

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
c. Classful Addressing and Classless Addressing

d. Distance Vector Routing and Link State Routing

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Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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e. Broadcast and Multicast

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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Unit - 5 The Link layer and Local Area Networks

55. Explain Functions of Data Link Layer and List out Services of Data Link
Layer.
Ans:
 Data link layer:
o In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer
from the bottom.
o The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next.
o Groups of bits its called Frame.

 Services of Data Link Layer:

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

56. What is Error Detection? Explain Types of Errors.

OR
Q. Explain Single-Bit Error and Burst Error.
Ans:
 Error Detection:
o When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not
guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted
by another device.
o An Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver end is not identical
to the message transmitted.
 Types Of Errors:

o Errors can be classified into two categories:

 Single-Bit Error
 Burst Error

o Single-Bit Error:
 The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

 In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e.,
0 bit is changed to 1.
 Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data
Transmission.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 For example, Sender sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts
only for 1 ?s and for a single-bit error to occurred, a noise must be more
than 1 ?s.
 Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission.
 For example, if eight wires are used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one
of the wire is noisy, then single-bit is corrupted per byte.

o Burst Error:
 The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as
Burst Error.
 The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last
corrupted bit.

 The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in
Single-Bit.
 Burst Errors are most likely to occurr in Serial Data Transmission.
 The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data
rate.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

57. What is Error Detection? Explain Error Detecting Techniques.

OR
Q. Explain Single parity check and Two-dimensional parity check.
Q. Explain Checksum and Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) with example.
 Error Detection:
o When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not
guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted
by another device.
o An Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver end is not identical
to the message transmitted.
 Error Detecting Techniques:
o The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:
1. Single parity check
2. Two-dimensional parity check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic redundancy check

 Single Parity Check:

o Single Parity checking is the simple mechanism and inexpensive to detect the errors.

o In this technique, a redundant bit is also known as a parity bit which is appended at
the end of the data unit so that the number of 1s becomes even.
o Therefore, the total number of transmitted bits would be 9 bits.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is appended and if the number of 1s
bits is even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the data unit.
o At the receiving end, the parity bit is calculated from the received data bits and
compared with the received parity bit.
o This technique generates the total number of 1s even, so it is known as even-parity
checking.
o Drawbacks Of Single Parity Checking
 It can only detect single-bit errors which are very rare.
 If two bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors.

 Two-Dimensional Parity Check:

o Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity Check which

organizes the data in the form of a table.
o Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the single-parity
check.
o In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and the
redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits computed
from the received data.
o Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check
 If two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits exactly the same
position in another data unit are also corrupted, then 2D Parity checker will
not be able to detect the error.
 This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in some
cases.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Checksum:
o A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.
o It is divided into two parts:
 Checksum Generator
 Checksum Checker
o Checksum Generator :
 A Checksum is generated at the sending side.
 Checksum generator subdivides the data into equal segments of n bits each,
and all these segments are added together by using one's complement
arithmetic.
 The sum is complemented and appended to the original data, known as
checksum field.
 The extended data is transmitted across the network.

o Checksum Checker:
 A Checksum is verified at the receiving side.
 The receiver subdivides the incoming data into equal segments of n bits
each, and all these segments are added together, and then this sum is
complemented.
 If the complement of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise
data is rejected.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

o CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.
o Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:
 In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this
n number is less than the number of bits in a predetermined number,
known as division which is n+1 bits.
 Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a
process is known as binary division. The remainder generated from this
division is known as CRC remainder.
 Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the
original data. This newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.
 The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The
receiver will treat this whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the
same divisor that was used to find the CRC remainder.
 If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data is
accepted.
 If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of an error.
Therefore, the data is discarded.

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 Example: Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001.

o CRC Generator:

o CRC Checker:

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

58. Write a short note: Hamming Code.

Ans:
 Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is transmitted
from the sender to the receiver.
 Error Correction can be handled in two ways:
1. Backward error correction
2. Forward error correction
o Backward error correction:

Once the error is discovered, the receiver requests the sender to
retransmit the entire data unit.
o Forward error correction:
 In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting code which
automatically corrects the errors.
 A single additional bit can detect the error, but cannot correct it.
 Hamming Code:
o Parity Bits:
 The bit which is appended to the original data of binary bits so that the
total number of 1s is even or odd.
o Even Parity:
 To check for even parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value
of the parity bit is 0.
 If the total number of 1s occurrences is odd, then the value of the parity
bit is 1.
o Odd Parity:
 To check for odd parity, if the total number of 1s is even, then the value
of parity bit is 1.
 If the total number of 1s is odd, then the value of parity bit is 0.
 Algorithm of Hamming code:
1. An information of 'd' bits are added to the redundant bits 'r' to form d+r.
2. The location of each of the (d+r) digits is assigned a decimal value.
3. The 'r' bits are placed in the positions 1,2,.....2 k-1.
4. At the receiving end, the parity bits are recalculated. The decimal value of the
parity bits determines the position of an error.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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 Hamming code through an example:
o Suppose the original data is 1010 which is to be sent.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

59. Write a short note: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC).

OR
Q. Draw and Explain HDLC frame format.
Ans:
 HDLC Frames:
o High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) basically provides reliable delivery of
data frames over a network or communication link.
o HDLC provides various operations such as framing, data transparency, error
detection, and correction, and even flow control.
o The High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is part of the data link layer protocol
in the OSI Model.
o HDLC is applied for point-to-point and multipoint link structures based on the
bit-oriented data format.
o The data unit for sharing information in HDLC is known as frames.
o HDLC frame consists of multiple frame fields, which may vary according to the
type of frame used, and are as follows:

o Flag Field:
 In HDLC, each frame starts and ends with the flag field in the configuration
and is defined by an 8-bit octet sequence 01111110 in the flag field.
o Address Field:
 It encapsulates the receiver's address in the field.
 For example, if the frame is sent from the primary station, it contains the
secondary station’s address and vice versa.
o Control Field:
 This field contains the flow and error control information in byte format.
o Payload/Information Field:
 It carries information from the network layer, and the data size may vary
depending on the network.
o FCS Field:
 This field stands for Frame Check Sequence and acts as an error detection
field in the HDLC protocol, which includes a 16-bit CRC check bit.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

60. Explain HDLC frames types.

Ans:
 HDLC Frames Types:
o HDLC frames can be of the following three types, depending on the control field
value of the frame:
 I-Frame
 S-Frame
 U-Frame

o I-Frame:

The information frame or I-frame is applied to encapsulate the user

information from the upper layer in the model and then transmit it in the
network channel and contains 0 in the control field.
o S-Frame:


The supervisory frame or S-frames are used for error and data flow control
and do not contain the information field in the frame format.
 The control field is 1 and 0 for the first two bits.
o U-Frame:

o The un-numbered frame or U-frames are used for system management and
exchanging control information between the connected network devices.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

61. Write a short note: Multiple Access Protocols.

OR
Q. What is Aloha Protocol? Explain Types of Aloha Protocols.
Q. Explain Channelization Protocols (FDMA, TDMA and CDMA).
Q. Write a short note: CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
Q. Write a short note: CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA.
Ans:

 ALOHA :
o ALO means “Share”.
o HA means “Essence of life”
 It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared
medium to transmit data.
 Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network simultaneously when a
data frameset is available for transmission.
 Aloha Rules
o Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.
o It does not require any carrier sensing.
o Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through
multiple stations.
o Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision
detection.
o It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Types of ALOHA:

 Pure Aloha:

o Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure
Aloha.
o In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking
whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may occur, and the data
frame can be lost.
o When any station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure Aloha waits for
the receiver's acknowledgment.
o If it does not acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the station
waits for a random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb). And the station
may assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the frame
until all the data are successfully transmitted to the receiver.
 The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.
 Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.
 Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
o As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared
channel and transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because most stations
send their frames at the same time.
o Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the
receiver end.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
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o At the same time, other frames are lost or destroyed.
o Whenever two frames fall on a shared channel simultaneously, collisions can occur,
and both will suffer damage.
o If the new frame's first bit enters the channel before finishing the last bit of the
second frame.
o Both frames are completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the data
frame.

 Slotted Aloha:

o The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because pure
Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting.
o In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots.
o So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can only
be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each
slot.
o And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station
will have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time.
o However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at the
beginning of two or more station time slot.
 Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.
 The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted
Aloha is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
 The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.

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Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
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 CSMA:
 It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the traffic
on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data.
 It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel.
 Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle.
 Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.

 CSMA Access Modes

o 1-Persistent:
 In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense the
shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data.
 Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle
and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.

o Non-Persistent:
 It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data,
each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
immediately sends the data.
 Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time (not continuously),
and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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o P-Persistent:
 It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes.
 The P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if
the channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability.
 If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random
time and resumes the frame with the next time slot.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
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 CSMA/CD:
o CS: It stands for Carrier Sensing. It implies that before sending data, a station first
senses the carrier. If the carrier is found free, then the station transmits data else it
refrains.
o MA: Stands for Multiple Access i.e. if there’s a channel, then there are many
stations that are trying to access it.
o CD: Stands for Collision Detection. It also guides to proceed in case of packet data
collision.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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o The Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection protocol is used to detect
a collision in the media access control (MAC) layer.
o Once the collision was detected, the CSMA CD immediately stopped the
transmission by sending the signal so that the sender does not waste all the time to
send the data packet.
o Suppose a collision is detected from each station while broadcasting the packets.
o In that case, the CSMA CD immediately sends a jam signal to stop transmission
and waits for a random time context before transmitting another data packet.
o If the channel is found free, it immediately sends the data and returns it.
o Advantages of CSMA CD:
 It is used for collision detection on a shared channel within a very short time.
 CSMA CD is better than CSMA for collision detection.
 CSMA CD is used to avoid any form of waste transmission.
 When necessary, it is used to use or share the same amount of bandwidth at
each station.
 It has lower CSMA CD overhead as compared to the CSMA CA.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
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 FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.

 FDMA:

o It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide the

available bandwidth into equal bands so that multiple users can send data through
a different frequency to the subchannel.
o Each station is reserved with a particular band to prevent the crosstalk between the
channels and interferences of stations.

 TDMA

o Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel access method.

o It allows the same frequency bandwidth to be shared across multiple stations.
o And to avoid collisions in the shared channel, it divides the channel into different
frequency slots that allocate stations to transmit the data frames.
o The same frequency bandwidth into the shared channel by dividing the signal into
various time slots to transmit it.
o However, TDMA has an overhead of synchronization that specifies each station's
time slot by adding synchronization bits to each slot.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
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 CDMA

o The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method.

o In CDMA, all stations can simultaneously send the data over the same channel.
o It means that it allows each station to transmit the data frames with full frequency
on the shared channel at all times.
o It does not require the division of bandwidth on a shared channel based on time
slots.
o If multiple stations send data to a channel simultaneously, their data frames are
separated by a unique code sequence.
o Each station has a different unique code for transmitting the data over a shared
channel.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

62. Explain Ethernet (IEEE standards 802.3).

Ans:
 Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology, which is defined under IEEE
standards 802.3.
 The reason behind its wide usability is Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, maintain,
and allows low-cost network implementation.
 Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of topologies that are allowed.
 Ethernet generally uses Bus Topology.
 Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, Physical Layer, and Data Link Layer.

 For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is Frame since we mainly deal with DLL.
 In order to handle collision, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
 Manchester Encoding Technique is used in Ethernet.
 Since we are talking about IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet, therefore, 0 is expressed by a
high-to-low transition, a 1 by the low-to-high transition.
 In both Manchester Encoding and Differential Manchester, the Encoding Baud rate is
double of bit rate.
 Ethernet Frame Format:

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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63. Explain Token bus (IEEE standards 802.4) and Token ring (IEEE
standards 802.5).
Ans:
 Token bus (IEEE standards 802.4):

 Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a popular standard for token passing LANs.
 In a token bus LAN, the physical media is a bus or a tree, and a logical ring is created using
a coaxial cable.
 The token is passed from one user to another in a sequence (clockwise or anticlockwise).
 Each station knows the address of the station to its “left” and “right” as per the sequence in
the logical ring.
 A station can only transmit data when it has the token.
 The working of a token bus is somewhat similar to Token Ring.
 The Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for deploying token rings in LANs over a virtual
ring.
 The physical medium uses coaxial cables and has a bus or tree architecture.
 The nodes/stations form a virtual ring, and the token is transmitted from one node to the
next in a sequence along the virtual ring.
 Each node knows the address of the station before it and the station after it. When a station
has the token, it can only broadcast data.
 The token bus works in a similar way as the Token Ring.

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 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
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 Token ring (IEEE 802.5):

 Token ring (IEEE 802.5) is a communication protocol in a local area network (LAN) where
all stations are connected in a ring topology and pass one or more tokens for channel
acquisition.
 A token is a special frame of 3 bytes that circulates along the ring of stations.
 A station can send data frames only if it holds a token.
 The tokens are released on successful receipt of the data frame.
 If a station has a frame to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the frame and then
passes the token to the next station; otherwise it simply passes the token to the next station.
 Passing the token means receiving the token from the preceding station and transmitting to
the successor station.
 The data flow is unidirectional in the direction of the token passing.
 In order that tokens are not circulated infinitely, they are removed from the network once
their purpose is completed.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 149

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

64. Write a short note: FDDI and DQDB (IEEE standards 802.6).
Ans:
 FDDI.

 FDDI stands for Fiber Distributed Data Interface.

 FDDI is a set of ANSI and ISO standards for data transmission on fiber optic lines in a
local area network.
 In addition to being large geographically, an FDDI local area network can support
thousands of users.
 FDDI is frequently used on the backbone for a wide area network (WAN).
 The FDDI protocol is based on the token ring protocol.
 An FDDI network contains two token rings, one for possible backup in case the primary
ring fails.
 Any station wants to transmit information holds the token and then transmits the
information.
 When it finish it release the token in the ring.
 The time a station holds the token is called as Synchronous Allocation Time (SAT).
 SAT time is variable for each station.
 The allocation of this time to each station is achieved by Station Management (SMT).
 The function of SMT are Ring Control, Ring Initialization, Station Insertion and Station
Removal.
 FDDI Characteristics:
1. FDDI provides 100 Mbps of data throughput.
2. FDDI includes two interfaces.
3. It is used to connect the equipment to the ring over long distances.
4. FDDI is a LAN with Station Management.
5. Allows all stations to have equal amount of time to transmit data.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 150

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 IEEE 802.6(DQDB):

 IEEE 802.6 standard i.e. DQDB(Distributed Queue Dual Bus) is a MAN(Metropolitan

Area Network) protocol.
 It can be defined as a high speed shared medium access control protocol that is used over a
bus network.
 It has two unidirectional buses, for controlling purposes, where the bus can carry data,
video, and voice over a network with bandwidth being allocated as per time slots.
 The advantage of using the paired bus is that it is used to tackles failure configuration.
 It can be extended up to 30 miles at 34-55 Mbps.
 Directional Traffic:
o Each bus support traffic in only one direction and are opposite to one another.
o The start of the bus being represented as a square and the end of the bus being
represented as a triangle (Fig.).
o Bus A traffic moves from right to left (i.e. from station 1 to 5) whereas the bus B
traffic moves from left to right (i.e. from station 5 to 1).
 Upstream and Downstream:
o The relationship of stations of the DQDB network depends on the directional flow
of traffic of the buses.
o Considering bus A in Fig., which has station 1 & 2 marked as upstream w.r.t station
3 and station 4 & 5 are downstream w.r.t station 3.
o Here in bus A, station 1 is head of the bus as there is no upstream station and station
5 has no downstream station and it is regarded as to end of bus A.
 Applications of IEEE 802.6 (DQDB)
o Video Conferencing
o Real-Time Applications
o Data Transfer

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 151

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

65. Write a short note: VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network).

Ans:
 VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Network.

 A virtual local area network (VLAN) is a virtualized connection that connects multiple
devices and network nodes from different LANs into one logical network.
 VLAN is a logical system grouping in the same area of the broadcast.
 VLANs are configured on switches by putting interfaces in one and many interfaces on
another broadcast domain.

 Types of VLANs:

 Protocol VLAN:
o Here, the traffic is handled based on the protocol used.
o A switch or bridge segregates, forwards or discards frames the come to it based
upon the traffics protocol.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 152

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Port-based VLAN:
o This is also called static VLAN.
o Here, the network administrator assigns the ports on the switch / bridge to form a
virtual network.
 Dynamic VLAN:
o The network administrator simply defines network membership according to device
characteristics.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 153

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

66. Explain Different types of Networking Connecting Devices (Repeater,

Hub, Switch, Bridge, Router and Gateways).
Ans:
 Different types of Networking Connecting Devices are:
o Repeater
o Hub
o Switch
o Bridge
o Router
o Gateways
 Repeater:

o A repeater operates at the physical layer.

o Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes
too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network.
o An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.
o When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at
the original strength.
o It is a 2-port device.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 154

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
 Hub:

o A hub is basically a multiport repeater.

o A hub works at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model.
o A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches.
o Types of Hub
 Active Hub :-
 These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean
, boost and relay the signal along the network.
 These are used to extend maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub :-
 These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from active hub.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 155

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Bridge:

o A bridge operates at data link layer.

o A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of filtering content by reading the
MAC addresses of source and destination.
o It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
o It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2-port device.
 Switch:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 156

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

o Switch is data link layer device.

o A switch is a multi-port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency (large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.
o Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to correct port only.
o In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain
remains same.
 Routers:

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 157

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V
o Router is mainly a Network Layer device.
o A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
o Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets.
o Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
 Gateway:

o Gateway is mainly used All seven Layer in OSI Model.

o A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that
may work upon different networking models.
o They basically works as the messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
o Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 158

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

67. Difference Between:

a. Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA
b. FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA
c. Token Bus and the Token Ring
Ans:

a. Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 159

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

b. FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

c. Token Bus and the Token Ring

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 160

 New L J Institute of Engineering and Technology
Subject: Computer Networks (3150710)
Branch: CSE Semester: V

 Teaching and Examination Scheme:

Unit Unit Title %

No. Weightage
1 Introduction to computer networks and 15
Internet
2 Application Layer 17
3 Transport Layer 25
4 Network Layer 25
5 The Link layer and Local Area Networks 18

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR: BHAUMIK GELANI 161