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COURSE MATERIAL

LINEAR & DIGITAL INTEGRATED

SUBJECT CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS
(20ECAPC)

UNIT 3

COURSE B.TECH

DEPARTMENT ECE

SEMESTER 22

PREPARED BY Mrs B SUDHARANI

(Faculty Name/s) Associate Professor

Version V-1

PREPARED / REVISED DATE 07-05-2022

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1. Course Objectives
The objectives of this course is to
1. To introduce the basic building blocks of linear integrated circuits.
2. To teach the linear and non-linear applications of operational amplifiers.
3. To introduce the theory and applications of PLL.
4. To introduce the concepts of waveform generation and introduce some
special function ICs.
5. Exposure to digital IC’s
6. To create combinational circuits & sequential circuits using HDLs.

2. Prerequisites
Students should have knowledge on
1. Electronic Devices and Circuits
2. Electronic Circuit Analysis
3. Network Theory
4. Digital Logic Design

3. Syllabus
UNIT 3
VOLTAGE REGULATOR: Introduction, Series Op-Amp regulator, IC Voltage Regulators,
IC 723 general purpose regulators, Switching Regulator.
D to A & A to D CONVERTERS: Introduction, basic DAC techniques - weighted resistor
DAC, R-2R ladder DAC, inverted R-2R DAC, A to D converters - parallel comparator
type ADC, counter type ADC, successive approximation ADC and dual slope ADC,
DAC and ADC Specifications.
.
4. Course outcomes
1. List out the characteristics of Linear and Digital ICs.
2. Discuss the various applications of linear & Digital ICs.
3. Solve the application based problems related to linear and digital ICs.
4. Analyze various applications based circuits of linear and digital ICs.
5. Design the circuits using either linear ICs or Digital ICs from the given
specifications.
6. Develop digital circuits using HDL.
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5. Co-PO / PSO Mapping
Integrated
Circuits and PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
Applications
CO1 3 3 2 3 3

CO2 3 3 2 3 3

CO3 3 3 1 3 3

CO4 2 3 1 2 3

CO5 2 3 1 2 2

CO6 2 3 1 2 2

6. Lesson Plan

Lecture No. Weeks Topics to be covered References

1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR: Introduction, T1,T2

2 Series Op-Amp regulator T1,T2

3 IC Voltage Regulators T1,T2

4 IC 723 general purpose regulators T1,T2

5 1 Switching Regulator T1,T2

6 Introduction To Data Converter T1,T2

7 Basic DAC Techniques T1,T2

8 Weighted Resistor Type DAC T1,T2

9 R-2r Ladder Type DAC T1,T2

10 Inverted R-2r Ladder DAC T1,T2

11 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADCs T1,T2

2
12 Parallel Comparator Type ADC T1,T2

13 Counter Type ADC T1,T2

14 Sucessive Approximation Type ADC T1,T2

15 Dual Slope ADC T1,T2

3
16 Digital To Analog Converter Specifications T1,T2

17 Analog To Digital Converter Specifications T1,T2

7. Activity Based Learning
1. Library/Internet survey of Op-Amp based linear circuits and their applications.
2. Prepare power point presentation or animation for understanding different Op-
Amp based circuit behaviour.
3. Prepare journals based on practical performed in laboratory.
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8. Lecture Notes
3.1 Introduction to Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is one of the most widely used electronic circuitry in any
device. A regulated voltage (without fluctuations & noise levels) is very
important for the smooth functioning of many digital electronic devices. A
common case is with micro controllers, where a smooth regulated input
voltage must be supplied for the micro controller to function smoothly.
Voltage regulators are of different types. An example of IC based voltage
regulator available in market is the popular 7805 IC which regulates the output
voltage at 5 volts. Now lets come to the basic definition of an IC voltage
regulator. It is an integrated circuit whose basic purpose is to regulate the
unregulated input voltage (definitely over a predefined range) and provide
with a constant, regulated output voltage.
An IC based voltage regulator can be classified in different ways. A common
type of classification is 3 terminal voltage regulator and 5 or multi terminal
voltage regulator. Another popular way of classifying IC voltage regulators is by
identifying them as linear voltage regulator & switching voltage regulator.
There is a third set of classification as 1) Fixed voltage regulators (positive &
negative) 2) Adjustable voltage regulators (positive & negative) and finally 3)
Switching regulators. In the third classification, fixed & adjustable regulators are
basically versions of linear voltage regulators.
3.2 Fixed Voltage Regulators

Fig 5.10: Block Diagram of IC Voltage Regulator

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These regulators provide a constant output voltage. A popular example is the
7805 IC which provides a constant 5 volts output. A fixed voltage regulator can
be a positive voltage regulator or a negative voltage regulator. A positive
voltage regulator provides with constant positive output voltage. All those IC’s
in the 78XX series are fixed positive voltage regulators. In the IC nomenclature –
78XX ; the part XX denotes the regulated output voltage the IC is designed for.
Examples:- 7805, 7806, 7809 etc.
A negative fixed voltage regulator is same as the positive fixed voltage
regulator in design, construction & operation. The only difference is in the
polarity of output voltages. These IC’s are designed to provide a negative
output voltage. Example:- 7905, 7906 and all those IC’s in the 79XX series.
5.10 Variable Voltage Regulators
An adjustable voltage regulator is a kind of regulator whose regulated output
voltage can be varied over a range. There are two variations of the same;
known as positive adjustable voltage regulator and negative adjustable
regulator. LM317 is a classic example of positive adjustable voltage regulator,
whose output voltage can be varied over a range of 1.2 volts to 57 volts. LM337
is an example of negative adjustable voltage regulator. LM337 is actually a
complement of LM317 which are similar in operation & design; with the only
difference being polarity of regulated output voltage.
There may be certain conditions where a variable voltage may be required.
Right now we shall discuss how an LM317 adjustable positive voltage regulator
IC is connected. The connection diagram is shown below

Fig 5.12: Adjustable Voltage Regulator using LM 317

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The resistors R1 and R2 determine the output voltage Vout. The resistor R2 is
adjusted to get the output voltage range between 1.2 volts to 57 volts. The
output voltage that is required can be calculated using the equation:
Vout = Vref (1+R2/R1) + Iadj R2
In this circuit, the value of Vref is the reference voltage between the
adjustment terminals and the output taken as 1.25 Volt.
The value of Iadj will be very small and will also have a constant value. Thus the
above equation can be rewritten as
Vout = 1.25 (1+R2/R1)
In the above equation, due to the small value of Iadj, the drop due to R2 is
neglected.
The load regulation is 0.1 percent while the line regulation is 0.01 percent per
volt. This means that the output voltage varies only 0.01 percent for each volt
of input voltage. The ripple rejection is 80 db, equivalent to 10,000.
The LM 337 series of adjustable voltage regulators is a complement to the LM
317 series devices. The negative adjustable voltage regulators are available in
the same voltage and current options as the LM 317 devices.
3.3 IC Voltage Regulator
• There are basically two kinds of IC voltage regulators:
– Multipin type, e.g. LM723C
– 3-pin type, e.g. 78/79XX
• Multipin regulators are less popular but they provide the greatest flexibility
and produce the highest quality voltage regulation
• 3-pin types make regulator circuit design simple
IC 723 Voltage Regulator:

LM 723C Schematic
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The LM723 has an equivalent circuit that contains most of the parts of the op-
amp voltage regulator discussed earlier.
It has an internal voltage reference, error amplifier, pass transistor, and
current limiter all in one IC package.
It can be either 14-pin DIP or 10-pin TO-100
May be used for either +ve or -ve, variable or fixed regulated voltage output
Using the internal reference (7.15 V), it can operate as a high-voltage
regulator with output from 7.15 V to about 37 V, or as a low-voltage regulator
from 2 V to 7.15 V.Max. output current with heat sink is 150 mA Dropout voltage
is 3 V (i.e. VCC > Vo(max) + 3)
LM723 in High-Voltage Configuration

Design equations

R1R2
R 
Choose R1 + R2 = 10 KΩ, and Cc = 100
R1  R2 pF.

To make Vo variable, replace R1 with a pot

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LM723 in Low-Voltage Configuration

With external pass transistor and foldback current limiting

3.4 Three-Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulators

• Less flexible, but simple to use

• Come in standard TO-3 (20 W) or TO-220 (15 W) transistor packages

• 78/79XX series regulators are commonly available with 5, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18, or
24 V output

• Max. output current with heat sink is 1 A

• Built-in thermal shutdown protection

• 3-V dropout voltage; max. input of 37 V

• Regulators with lower dropout, higher in/output, and better regulation are
available
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Both the 78XX and 79XX regulators can be used to provide +ve or -ve output
voltages.

C1 and C2 are generally optional. C1 is used to cancel any inductance

present, and C2 improves the transient response. If used, they should
preferably be either 1 mF tantalum type or 0.1 mF mica type capacitors

3.5 INTRODUCTION TO DATA CONVERTERS

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of data converters

All the real-world quantities are analog in nature. We can represent these
quantities electrically as analog signals. An analog signal is a time varying
signal that has any number of values (variations) for a given time slot.
In contrast to this, a digital signal varies suddenly from one level to another
level and will have only finite number of values (variations) for a given time slot.
Types of Data Converters
The electronic circuits, which can be operated with analog signals are called
as analog circuits. Similarly, the electronic circuits, which can be operated with
digital signals are called as digital circuits. A data converter is an electronic
circuit that converts data of one form to another.
There are two types of data converters −
 Analog to Digital Converter
 Digital to Analog Converter
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If we want to connect the output of an analog circuit as an input of a digital
circuit, then we have to place an interfacing circuit between them. This
interfacing circuit that converts the analog signal into digital signal is called
as Analog to Digital Converter.
Similarly, if we want to connect the output of a digital circuit as an input of an
analog circuit, then we have to place an interfacing circuit between them. This
interfacing circuit that converts the digital signal into an analog signal is called
as Digital to Analog Converter.

Figure 3.2: Block diagram of data converters

Applications:
 Digital Signal Processing
 Digital Signal Control
 Digital audio mixing
 Music and video synthesis
 PCM communication
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3.6 BASIC DAC TECHNIQUES

Figure 3.3: Basic Digital to Analog Converter

The input is an n-bit binary word D and is combined with a reference voltage
VR to give an analog output signal. The output of a DAC can be either a
voltage or current. For a voltage output DAC, the digital converter is
mathematically described as
𝑉 = 𝐾𝑉 (𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 + ⋯…….𝑑 2 )
Where VO= output voltage
VFS= full scale output voltage
K= scaling factor usually adjusted to unity
d1= Most Significant Bit (MSB) with a weight of VFS/2
dn=Least significant bit (LSB) with weighted of VFS/2n
There are various ways to implement digital to analog converters are:
1. Weighted resistor DAC
2. R-2R ladder DAC
3. Inverted ladder DAC
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3.7 WEIGHTED RESISTOR DAC

Figure 3.4: Weighted resistor DAC

Weighted resistor DAC uses a summing amplifier with a binary weighted resistor
network. It has n-electronic switches d1, d2, d3……….dn controlled by binary
input word. These switches are Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) type. If the
binary input to a particular switch is 1, it connects the resistance to the
reference voltage (-VR). If input bit is 0, the switch connects the resistor to the
ground. The output current IO for an ideal op-amp can be written as
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 + ⋯…………..𝐼
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼 = 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 + ⋯……….+ 𝑑
2 𝑅 2 𝑅 2 𝑅 2 𝑅
𝑉
= [𝑑 2 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑑 2 … … … … … . +𝑑 2
𝑅
The output voltage
𝑅
𝑉 =𝐼 𝑅 =𝑉 (𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 + ⋯……..…..𝑑 2 )
𝑅
If Rf=R then K=1 and VFS=VR
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Figure 3.5: Input and output relation of Weighted resistor DAC

𝑉 = 𝑉 (𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 )

The circuit uses a negative reference voltage. The analog input voltage is
therefore positive for a 3-bit weighted resistor DAC.
1. The op-amp is connected in inverted mode or non-inverted mode.
2. The op-amp is simply working as a current to voltage converter.\
3. The polarity of the reference voltage is chosen in accordance with the type of
switch used.
Advantages:
1. It is simple to construct
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2. Cost is low
Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy and stability of a DAC depends upon the accuracy of the
resistors and the tracking of each other with temperature.
2. Wide range of resistor values are required. It may be observed that for better
resolution the input binary word length has to be increased. Thus as the number
of bits increases, the range of resistance value increases.
The fabrication of such a large resistance in IC is not practical. The voltage
drop across such a large resistor due to the bias current would also affect the
accuracy.
3.4 R-2R LADDER DAC
A wide range of resistor value is required in the design of a binary weighted
digital to analog converter. In R-2R ladder DAC, resistor of only two values,i.e. R
and 2R are used. Hence, it is suitable for integrated circuit fabrication. The
typical values of R used vary from 2.5KΩ to 10KΩ.

Figure 3.6: R-2R Ladder DAC

Consider a 3-bit DAC, where the switch position d1 d2 d3 corresponds to the
binary word 1 0 0. The circuit can be simplified to the equivalent form.
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Figure 3.7: simplified R-2R Ladder DAC

The equivalent resistance upto node A

2R//2R= =𝑅

Is added with series resistance R, we get

R+R=2R
Equivalent resistance up to node B

2R//2R= =𝑅

Is added with series resistance R, we get

R+R=2R
Apply KCL, we get
0−𝑉 𝑉 +𝑉 𝑉
= +
2𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅
−𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
− − =
2𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅
−2𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
− =
2𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅
−4𝑉 𝑉
=
2𝑅 2𝑅
−𝑉
𝑉 =
4
−2𝑅 −𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 = =
𝑅 4 2
Therefore VR=VFS
The output voltage is 𝑉 =
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In a similar fashion, the output voltage for R-2R ladder type DAC corresponding
to other 3-bit binary words can be calculated.
Advantages:
 There are only two types of resistances R and 2R compared to different values
in the case of weighted resistor DAC.
 Accuracy is better than weighted resistor network.
Disadvantages:
 Reference supply should be constant.
 More number of resistors are used to compared to weighted resistor type.

3.8 INVERTED R-2R LADDER DAC

Current mode DACs operates based on the ladder currents. The ladder is
formed by resistance R in the series path and resistance 2R in the shunt path.
Thus the current is divided into i1 , i2, i3 …………in. in each arm. The currents are
either diverted to the ground bus (io) or to the Virtual-ground bus ( io ).

Figure 3.8: Inverted R-2R ladder DAC

The currents are given as
i1 = VREF/2R = (VREF/R) 2-1, i2 = (VREF)/2)/2R = (VREF/R) 2-2 ………in = (VREF/R) 2-n.
And the relationship between the currents are given as
i2 = i1/2
i3 = i1/4
i4 = i1/8
in = i1/2n-1
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Using the bits to identify the status of the switches, and letting V0 = -Rf io gives
V0 = - (Rf/R) VREF (b12-1 + b22-2+ ……….. + bn2-n)
The two currents io and io are complementary to each other and the potential
of io bus must be sufficiently close to that of the io bus. Otherwise, linearity
errors will occur. The final op-amp is used as current to voltage converter.

Advantages
1. The major advantage of current mode D/A converter is that the voltage
change across each switch is minimal. So the charge injection is virtually
eliminated and the switch driver design is made simpler.
2. In Current mode or inverted ladder type DACs, the stray capacitance do
not affect the Speed of response of the circuit due to constant ladder node
voltages. So improved speed performance.
3.6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS
The block schematic of ADC provides the function just opposite to that of a
DAC. It accepts an analog input voltage Va and provides an output binary
word d1 d2………… dn of functional value D, so that
D=𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 +𝑑 2 + ⋯……..…..𝑑 2 )

Figure 3.9: Block diagram of Analog to Digital Converter

Where d1 is the Most Significant Bit and dn is the Least Significant Bit. An ADC
usually has two additional control lines: the START input to tell the ADC when to
start the conversion and the EOC (End Of Conversion). Depending upon the
type of application, the ADCs are designed for microprocessor interfacing or
the directly drive LCD or LED displays.
ADCs are classified broadly into two groups according to their conversion
techniques:
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1. Direct type ADC
Direct type ADCs compare a given analog signal with the internally
generated equivalent signal.
a. Flash (Parallel comparator) type ADC
b. Counter type ADC
c. Successive approximation type ADC
d. Tracking or servo type ADC
2. Integrating type ADC
Integrating type ADCs perform conversion in an indirect manner by
first changing the analog input signal to a linear function of time or
frequency and then to a digital code.
a. Charge balancing type ADC
b. Dual slope ADC

3.7 PARALLEL COMPARATOR (FLASH) TYPE ADC

Figure 3.10: Parallel comparator type Analog to Digital Converter

This is the simplest possible analog to digital converter. It is at the same time, the
fastest and most expensive technique. A 3-bit analog to digital converter
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consists of a resistive divider network, 8 op-amp comparators and a 8 to 3
priority encoder.
At each node of the resistive divider, a comparison voltage is available. Since
all the resistors are of equal value, the voltage levels available at the nodes VR
and the ground. The purpose of the circuit is to compare the analog input
voltage Va with each of the node voltages.
Advantages:
The speed of conversion is higher for simultaneous analog to digital converter.
So it is known as flash type ADC.
Disadvantages:
1. 2n-1 comparators are required for n-bit analog to digital converter.
2. Resolution poor
3. The large value of n, the more complex is the priority encoder.
3.8 COUNTER TYPE ADC
 Digital to Analog converter (DAC) can be inverted into Analog to Digital
converter (ADC). The main principle is to adjust the DAC’s input code
until the DAC output comes within ±(1/2) LSB to analog input signal Va
which is to be converted into digital form
 Therefore, an additional logic circuit required to perform code search
and comparator required to announce the Final DAC output come
within ±(1/2) LSB to Va in addition to DAC circuit.
 The counter is reset to zero. The counter is reset to zero count by the reset
pulse. Upon the release of RESET, the clock pulses will be counted by the
binary counter. The pulses go through the AND gate which is enabled by
the comparator high output.


Figure 3.11: A counter type A/D converter

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 The number of pulses counted increases with time. The binary word
representing this count is used as input of a D/A converter whose output
is a stair case shown in Figure.

Figure 3.12: output staircase waveform

 The analog input Vd of DAC is compared to the analog input Va by the
comparator.
 If Va> Vd, the output of the comparator becomes High and the AND
gate is enabled to allow the transmission of the clock pulses to the
counter.
 When Va< Vd, the output of the comparator becomes low and the AND
gate is disabled. This stops the counting at the time when Va< =Vd and
the digital output of the counter represents the analog input voltage Va.
 For a new value of analog input Va, a second reset pulse is applied to
clear the counter.
 Upon the end of the RESET, the counting begins again as shown in Figure.
 The counter frequency must be low enough to give sufficient time for the
DAC to settle and for the comparator to respond.
Drawback
 Low sped is the most serious drawback
 The conversion time can be as long as (2n-1) clock periods depending
upon the magnitude of input voltage Va.
Note:
 If the analog input voltage varies with time, the input signal is sampled,
using a sample and hold circuit before it is applied to the comparator.
 If the maximum value of analog voltage is represented by n-pulses and if
the clock period is T seconds, the minimum interval between the samples
is nT seconds.
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3.9 SUCESSIVE APPROXIMATION TYPE ADC
The conversion time is maintained constant in successive approximation type
analog to digital converter and it is proportional to to the number of bits in the
digital output. The basic principle of the analog to digital converter is that the
known analog input voltage is approximated against an n-bit digital value by
tring one bit at a time, beginning with the MSB.
This type of analog to digital converter operates by successively dividing the
voltage range by half, as explained in the following steps:
1. The MSB is initially set to 1 with the remaining bits set as zero. The digital
equivalent is compared with the unknown analog input voltage.
2. If the analog input voltage is higher than digital equivalent, the MSB is retained
as 1 and the second MSB is set to 1. Otherwise, the MSB is reset to zero and the
second MSB is set to 1.
3. Comparison is made as given in step 1 to decide whether to retain or reset the
second MSB. The third MSB is set to 1 and the operation is repeated down to LSB
and by this time, the converted digital value is available in the Successive
Approximation Register (SAR).
The circuit employs a successive approximation Register (SAR) which finds the
required value of each successive bit by trail and error method. The output of
the equivalent of the digital to analog converter is applied to the non-inverting
input of the comparator, while the other input of the comparator is connected
with an unknown analog input voltage Va under conversion. The comparator
output is used to activate the successive approximation logic of SAR.
Operation:
With the arrival of the START command, the SAR sets the MSB d1=1 with all other
bits to be zero. So that the arrival code is 1 0 0 0. The output of the DAC is Vd is
now compared with analog input voltage Va. If Va>Vd, then 1 0 0 0 is less than
the correct digital representation. The MSB is left at ‘1’ and the next bit is made
‘1’ and further tested.
If Va<Vd, then reset MSB to ‘0’ and go on to the next bit and set it as ‘1’. This
procedure is repeated for all subsequent bits, one at a time, until all bit positions
have been tested. Whenever the DAC output crosses Va, the comparator
changes state and this can be taken as End Of Conversion (EOC) command.
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Figure 3.13: Successive approximation type Analog to Digital Converter

DUAL SLOPE ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

In dual slope type ADC, the integrator generates two different types of ramps,
one with the unknown analog input voltage Va as the input, and another with
a known reference voltage (-VR) as the input. Hence, it is called dual slope
analog to digital converter.

Figure 3.14: Dual slope Analog to Digital Converter

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The analog part of the circuit consists of a high input impedance A1, precision
integrator A2 and a voltage comparator. The converter first integrates the
analog input Va for a fixed duration of 2n clock periods. Then it integrates an
integral reference voltage VR of opposite polarity until the integrator output is
zero. The number N of clock cycles required to return the integrator to zero is
proportional to the value of Va averaged over the integration period. Hence N
represents the desired output code.
Before the START command arrives, the switch SW1 is connected to ground and
SW2 is closed. Any offset voltage present A1, A2, comparator loop after
integration, appears across the comparator CAZ till threshold of the comparator
is achieved. The capacitor CAZ thus provides automatic compensation for the
input offset voltages of all the three amplifiers. When SW2 opens CAZ acts as a
memory to hold the voltage required to keep the offset nulled.
At the arrival of START command at t=t1, the control logic opens SW2 and
connects SW1 to Va and enables the counter starting from zero. The circuit uses
an n-stage ripple counter and therefore the counter resets to zero after
counting 2n pulses. The analog voltage Va is integrated for a fixed number 2n
counts of clock pulses after which the counter resets to zero. If the clock period
is T, the integration takes place for a time T1=2n×T and the output is a ramp
going downwards.
The counter resets itself to zero at the end of the interval T1 and the switch SW1
is connected to the reference voltage (-VR). The output voltage VO will have a
positive slope. As long as VO is negative, the output of the comparator is
positive and the control logic allows the clock pulse to be counted. When VO
becomes just zero at time t3, the control logic issues an End Of Conversion
(EOC) command and no further clock pulses enter the counter. The reading of
the counter at t3 is proportional to the analog input voltage Va.
2 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑇 =𝑡 −𝑡 =
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
𝑇 =𝑡 −𝑡 =
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
The output voltage VO will be equal to V1 at the instant t2 and can be written
as
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−1
𝑉 = 𝑉 (𝑡 − 𝑡 )
𝑅𝐶
The voltage V1 is also given by
−1
𝑉 = (−𝑉 )(𝑡 − 𝑡 )
𝑅𝐶
So,
𝑉 (𝑡 − 𝑡 ) = (−𝑉 )(𝑡 − 𝑡 )
Putting the values of (𝑡 − 𝑡 ) = 2 and (𝑡 − 𝑡 ) = 𝑁, we get

𝑉 2 = (𝑉 )𝑁
𝑁
𝑉 =𝑉
2

Figure 3.15: analysis of Dual slope Analog to Digital Converter

DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER SPECIFICATIONS

Resolution:
Resolution is defined as the number of analog output voltage levels that can
be provided by DAC. Resolution is defined as the ratio of a change in output
voltage resulting for a change of 1 LSB at the digital input.
Resolution (in volts)= = 1 𝐿𝑆𝐵

Conversion Time:
It is the time taken for the DAC to produce the output for the given binary input
signal. It depends on the response time of switches and the output of amplifier.
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Accuracy:
Absolute accuracy is the maximum deviation between the actual converter
output and the ideal converter output. Relative accuracy is the maximum
deviation after gain and offset errors have been removed. The accuracy of a
converter is also specified in terms of LSB increments or percentage of full scale
output voltage.
Monotonicity:
A monotonic DAC is the one whose analog output increases for an increases
for an increase in digital input.
Settling Time:
The time required for the output of a DAC to settle down to within ±1/2 LSB of
the final value for a given input signal is known as settling time.
Linearity:
 Linearity: is the difference between the desired analog output and the actual
output over the full range of expected values.
 Ideally, a DAC should produce a linear relationship between a digital input and
the analog output, this is not always the case.

Figure 3.16: Linearity and non-linearity

Stability:
The performance of converter changes with temperature, age and power
supply variations. So all the relevant parameters such as offset, gain, linearity
error and monotonicity must be specified over the full temperature and power
supply ranges.
Offset Voltage:
The output voltage of a DAC is 0V when all the bits of binary input words are
0’s. In practice, there is a small output voltage called offset voltage or offset
error.
SVCE TIRUPATI

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER SPECIFICATIONS

Like DAC, ADCs are also having many important specifications. Some of them
are Resolution, Quantization error, Conversion time, Analog error, Linearity error,
DNL error, INL error & Input voltage range.
Resolution:
The resolution refers to the finest minimum change in the signal which is
accepted for conversion, and it is decided with respect to number of bits. It is
given as 1/2n, where ‘n’ is the number of bits in the digital output word. As it is
clear, that the resolution can be improved by increasing the number of bits or
the number of bits representing the given analog input voltage.
Resolution can also be defined as the ratio of change in the value of input
voltage Vi, needed to change the digital output by 1 LSB. It is given as
Resolution = ViFS / (2n – 1)
Where ‘ViFS’ is the full-scale input voltage.
‘n’ is the number of output bits.
Quantization error:
If the binary output bit combination is such that for all the values of input
voltage Vi between any two voltage levels, there is a unavoidable uncertainty
about the exact value of Vi when the output is a particular binary combination.
This uncertainty is termed as quantization error. Its value is ± (1/2) LSB. And it is
given as,
QE = ViFS / 2(2n – 1)
Where ‘ViFS’ is the full-scale input voltage
‘n’ is the number of output bits.
Maximum the number of bits selected, finer the resolution and smaller the
quantization error.
Conversion Time:
It is defined as the total time required for an A/D converter to convert an
analog signal to digital output. It depends on the conversion technique and
propagation delay of the circuit components.
SVCE TIRUPATI
Analog error:
An error occurring due to the variations in DC switching point of the
comparator, resistors, reference voltage source, ripples and noises introduced
by the circuit components is termed as Analog error.
Linearity Error:
It is defined as the measure of variation in voltage step size. It indicates the
difference between the transitions for a minimum step of input voltage change.
This is normally specified as fraction of LSB.
Differential Non-Linearity (DNL) Error:
The analog input levels that trigger any two successive output codes should
differ by 1 LSB. Any deviation from this 1 LSB value is called as DNL error.
Integral Non-Linearity (INL) Error:
The deviation of characteristics of an ADC due to missing codes causes INL
error. The maximum deviation of the code from its ideal value after nulling the
offset and gain errors is called as Integral Non-Linearity Error.
Input Voltage Range:
It is the range of voltage that an A/D converter can accept as its input without
causing any overflow in its digital output.
SVCE TIRUPATI
9. Practice Quiz
1. If Which among the following types of ADCs require/s the shortest conversion time?
a) Dual slope
b) Counter Type
c) Flash Type
d) Single slope
2. The inverted R-2R ladder can also be operated in……………………
a) Inverted mode
b) Non inverted mode
c) Voltage mode
d) Current Mode
3. Find out the integrating type analog to digital converter?
a) Flash type converter
b) Tracking converter
c) Counter type converter
d) Dual slope ADC
3. The R-2R ladder type DAC has drawback of …………………
a) Higher value of resistance required
b) Less no. of word length
c) Non linearity due to power dissipation
d) none
5. The main drawback of dual-slope ADC converters is
a) Long conversion time
b) high cost
c) Comparator and DAC are needed
d) integrator & Differentiator needed
6. In R-2R ladder DAC, the typical values of resistor ’R’ ranges from…………..
a) 2.5Ω to 10 Ω
b) 2.5kΩ to 10k Ω
c) 25kΩ to 10k Ω
d) 25Ω to 10 Ω
7. High speed conversion is the advantage of using flash type A/D converter[TRUE/FALSE]
8. 5. The smallest change in voltage which may be produced at the output of the converter is
known as offset voltage. [TRUE/FALSE]
9. High power consumption is the disadvantage of binary weighted type DAC .
[TRUE/FALSE]
10. The maximum deviation between actual and ideal converter output after the
removal of error is Relative accuracy. [TRUE/FALSE]

11. The disadvantage of binary weighted type DAC is high operating frequency.
[TRUE/FALSE]
12. In dual slope type of ADCs, an input hold time is Almost zero [TRUE/FALSE]
SVCE TIRUPATI
13. The Resolution value of DAC (VFS / 2n - 1 ) [TRUE/FALSE]

14. Flash type converter is integrating type analog to digital converter [TRUE/FALSE]

10. Assignments

S.No Question BL CO
1 Explain the working of a weighted resistor D/A converter. 2 1
2 Explain the working of a dual slope A/D converter. 2 3
Draw the circuit diagram of counter type ADC and explain its
3 1 3
operation.

11. Part A- Question & Answers

S.No Question & Answers BL CO
1 List the drawbacks of binary weighted resistor technique of D/A
conversion
Ans.
a) Wide range of resistor values needed 1 1
b) Difficulty in achieving and maintaining accurate ratios over a
wide range of variations

2 What is the advantage and disadvantages of flash type ADC?

Ans.
Flash type ADC is the fastest as well as the most expensive.
1 3
The disadvantage is the number of comparators needed almost
doubles for each added bit (For a n-bit convertor 2(n-1)
comparators, 2n resistors are required).
3 The basic step of a 9 bit DAC is 10.3 mV. If 000000000 represents
0Volts, what is the output for an input of 101101111?
Ans.
1 1
The output voltage for input of 101101111 is
= 10.3 mV (1*28+0*27+1*26+1*25+0*24+1*23+1*22+1*21+1*20)
= 10.3 * 10-3 * 367 = 3.78 V
4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of R-2R ladder
DAC.
Ans.
Advantages:

a) Easier to build accurately as only two precision metal films are 1 1

required.

b) Number of bits can be expanded by adding more sections of

same R/2R values.
SVCE TIRUPATI
Disadvantage:

a) In this type of DAC, when there is a change in the input,

changes the current flow in the resistor which causes more
power dissipation which creates non-linearity in DAC.

5 What are the types of ADC and DAC.

Ans.
Types of ADC:
1. Flash (comparator) type converter
2. Counter type converter
3. Tracking or servo converter
1 1
3. Successive approximation type converter
Types of DAC:
1. Weighted resistor DAC
2. R-2R Ladder
3. Inverted R-2R Ladder
6 Define conversion time.
Ans. It is defined as the total time required to convert an analog
signal into its digital output. It depends on the conversion
technique used & the propagation delay of circuit components.
1 2
The conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is
given by T(n+1) where T---clock period Tc---conversion time n-- --
no. of bits
7 Define resolution of a data converter.
Ans The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in
voltage which may be produced at the output or input of the
converter. Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment. The 1 2

resolution of an ADC is defined as the smallest change in analog

input for a one bit change at the output.
8 Define accuracy of converter.
Ans
Absolute accuracy:
1 2
It is the maximum deviation between the actual converter
output & the ideal converter output.
SVCE TIRUPATI
Relative accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation after gain & offset errors have been
removed. The accuracy of a converter is also specified in form of
LSB increments or % of full scale voltage.
9 What is settling time?
Ans
It represents the time it takes for the output to settle within a
specified band ±½LSB of its final value following a code change
at the input (usually a full scale change). It depends upon the 1 2

switching time of the logic circuitry due to internal parasitic

capacitance & inductances. Settling time ranges from 100ns.
10Ws depending on word length & type circuit used.
10 What is a sample and hold circuit? Where it is used?
Ans
A sample and hold circuit is one which samples an input signal
and holds on to its last sampled value until the input is sampled 1 2
again. This circuit is mainly used in digital interfacing, analog to
digital systems, and pulse code modulation systems.

12. Part B- Questions

S.No Question BL CO
1 Draw the circuit diagram of weighted resistor DAC and derive 2 1
an expression for analog output voltage Vo.
2 Explain the working of a dual slope A/D converter. 1 3
3 Draw the circuit diagram of counter type ADC and explain its 2 3
operation.
4 Compare the characteristics and specifications of ADC and 1 3
DACs.
5 Discuss about the over sampling in A/D converters. 1 3
6 Demonstrate the working of inverted R-2R ladder DAC network. 1 1
List out the advantages over R-2R ladder network.
7 Describe the operation of high-speed sample and hold circuits. 2 1
8 What output voltage would be produced by a DAC controller 1 1
whose o/p range is 0 to 10 V and whose input binary number is:
(i) 0110 (4 bit DAC). (ii) 10111100 (8 bit DAC).
9 Explain R-2R ladder type DAC with neat diagram. 2 1
SVCE TIRUPATI
13. Supportive Online Certification Courses
1. Integrated Circuits, Mosfets, Op-Amps and their Applications by Prof. Hardik
Jeetendra Pandya – IISC Bangalore – 12 Weeks
Integrated Circuits, MOSFETs, Op-Amps and their Applications - Course
(nptel.ac.in)
2. Linear Integrated Circuits and Applications : For all Levels - UDEMY – 07 Hours
https://www.udemy.com/course/linear-integrated-circuits-and-applications-
for-all-levels

14. Real Time Applications

S.No Application CO
1 Motor Control 1
Many motor controls require voltage control signals, and a DAC is ideal
for this application which may be driven by a processor or controller.

2 Data Distribution System 1

Many industrial and factory lines require multiple programmable voltage
sources, and this can be generated by a bank of DACs that are
multiplexed. The use of a DAC allows the dynamic change of voltages
during operation of a system.
3 Data Acquisition Systems 3
Data to be measured is digitized by an Analog-to-Digital Converter
(ADC) and then sent to a processor. The data acquisition will also include
a process control end, in which the processor sends feedback data to a
DAC for converting to analog signals.
SVCE TIRUPATI

15. Contents Beyond the Syllabus

1. VOLTAGE MODE R-2R LADDER DAC

The alternative arrangement of the R-2R ladder type called voltage mode R-2R ladder DAC.
The 2R resistors are switched between the two voltage levels VL and VH as determined by the
bit values d1,d2 ….dn. The output from ladder is obtained at the left most ladder node, and
buffered at the output of op-amp. The two voltages VL and VH can be any two voltage levels.
As the input binary word changes from 0 0 0 .. 0 (all zeros) to 1 1 1 .. 1(all ones), the voltage
node changes correspondingly in steps of 2-n(VH-VL) from the minimum voltage of VO=VL to
the maximum of VO=VH-2-n(VH-VL).
Advantages:
 More accurate selection and design of resistors R and 2R are possible.
 The binary word length can be increased by adding required number of R-2R sections.

Figure: Voltage Mode R-2R Ladder DAC

2. SINGLE SLOPE TYPE ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

Single slope or dual slope converter techniques are based on comparing the
unknown analog input voltage with a reference voltage that begins at 0V and
increases linearly with time. The time required for the reference voltage to
reach a value of known analog input voltage is proportional to the amplitude
of unknown analog input voltage. This time period can be measured using a
digital counter.
SVCE TIRUPATI
The main circuit of this converter is a ramp generator, which, on receiving a
RESET from the control circuit increases linearity with the from 0V to a maximum
voltage Vm. If Vm=10V and it takes 1ms to move from 0V to 10V, then the slope
is 10V/ms. Such a ramp generator can be either an op-amp based integrator
circuit or a DAC driven by a sequence binary counter, whose output waveform
is a staircase increasing linearly.

Figure : Single slope ADC

Operation:
Assume that a positive analog input voltage Vi is applied at non-inverting input
of the comparator. Now, when a RESET signal is applied to the control logic, the
4-bit decade counter resets to 0 and the ramp voltage begins to increases.
Since Vi is positive, the comparator output is HIGH state. This allows the CLK
pulse to pass to the input of the 4-digit counter through the AND gate and the
counter is incremented. This process continues until the analog input voltage is
greater than the ramp generator voltage. When the ramp generator voltage
equal to the analog input voltage, the comparator output becomes
negatively saturated or logic 0 and the clock is prevented from passing through
the gate. Then, the control circuit generates a STROBE signal, which latches the
counter value in the 4-digit latch, which is displayed on 7 segment displays. The
displayed value is then equivalent to the amplitude of analog input voltage.
SVCE TIRUPATI

3. Monolithic DAC :1408 DAC

 Monolithic DAC 1408 is an 8-bit DAC consists of R-2R ladder, feedback

resistor and switches. It is compatible with TTL and CMOS logic.
 It consists of 8 data input lines with d1 as MSB and d8 as LSB bit and
Monolithic DAC for unipolar range is shown in Figure.
 It requires 2 mA reference current for full scale input and with two power
supplies +VCC (+5 V) and -VEE(-5 V to -15 V).
 Resistors R14 and R15 is equal to match the input impedance of the
reference source.
 The total reference current is determined by voltage reference VR and
resistor R14= VR/ R14=5 V/2.5 KΩ=2 mA.

Figure : 1408 D/A Converter output voltage in unipolar range

 The total output current I0 is calculated as

VR  8 
I0   
R14  i 1
di 2i  ; di  0(or1)


 For Full scale input (i.e. d1 to d8=1)

5V  8 
I0   
2.5K   i 1
1 2i   (2mA)(255 / 256)  1.992mA

 The output voltage V0 is written as
V0  I 0 R f  (2mA)(255 / 256)  5k   9.961V
 In general, the output voltage V0 is given by
V d d d d 
I0  R R f  1  2  3      8 
R14 2 4 8 256 
 1408 DAC can be used for bipolar range from -5 V to +5 V by adding
resistor RB (5 kΩ) between VR and the output pin 3.
SVCE TIRUPATI

Figure :1408 D/A Converter output voltage in bipolar range

 Since the resistor RB supplies 1 mA of current (VR/RB=5 V/5 kΩ) to the

output in the opposite direction of current generated by input signal.
Therefore the output current for bipolar operation is
VR  8 
I 01  I 0  (VR / RB )   
R14  i 1
di 2i   (VR / RB )

 For zero input binary input word=00000000,the output voltage becomes
V0  I 01 R f  ( I 0  VR / RB ) R f  (0  5V / 5k )  5k   5V
 For binary input word=10000000, output voltage is written as
V0  ( I 0  VR / RB ) R f  (VR / R14 )(d1 / 2)  (VR / RB ) R f

  (5V / 2.5k )(1/ 2)  (5V / 5k )  (5k )  (1mA  1mA)  5k   0V

 For binary input word=11111111, output V0 becomes
V0   (VR / R14 )(255 / 256)  (VR / RB )  R f  (1.992mA  1mA)  5k 
 0.992mA  5k   4.960V
16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
TEXT BOOKS:
1. D. Roy Choudhury, Shail B. Jain, “Linear Integrated Circuit”, 4th edition (2012), New
Age International Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, India.
2. Ramakant A. Gayakwad, “OP-AMP and Linear Integrated Circuits”, 4th edition
(2012), Prentice Hall / Pearson Education, New Delhi.
3. John F.Wakerly, “Digital Design Principles and Practices” 4th edition, Pearson
Education., 2009.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Sergio Franco (1997), Design with operational amplifiers and analog integrated
circuits, McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
2. Gray, Meyer (1995), Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits, Wiley
International, New Delhi.
SVCE TIRUPATI
3. M.Morris Mano and Michael D. Cilleti., “Digital Logic Design” 4th edition Pearson
Education., 2013
4. J. Bhasker, “A VHDL PRIMER” 3rd edition Eastern Economy Edition, PHI Learning,
2010.

17. Mini Project Suggestion

1. Analysis and Design of High-Speed A/D Converters in SiGe Technology
Mixed-signal systems play a key role in modern communications and
electronics. The quality of A/D and D/A conversions deeply affects what we
see and what we hear in the real world video and radio. This project deals with
high-speed ADCs: a 5-bit 500-MSPS ADC and an 8-bit 2-GSPS ADC.

2. Low Voltage CMOS SAR ADC Design

This project centers on the design of a single ended 10-bit successive
approximation register analog to digital converter (SAR ADC for short) that easily
interfaces to a micro-controller, such as an Arduino. With micro-controller
interfacing in mind, the universal data transfer technique of SPI proved an easy
way to communicate between the ADC and the micro-controller.