Megh CN

Enrolment No.
:220840116069
PRACTICAL – 1
AIM: Study of different network devices in detail.
Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical
devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one
another. For example, Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC,
etc.
Types of Network Devices:
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to amplifies (i.e.,
regenerates) the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its
star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port
device.
Fig. 1 - Repeater
Advantages of Repeaters:
• Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area
of networks.
• They are cost effective.
• Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need to be
investigated is in case of degradation of performance.
• They can connect signals using different types of cables.
Disadvantages of Repeaters:
• Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.
• They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
• They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects
different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub
remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data
packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
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Enrolment No.:220840116069
Fig. 2 - Hub
Types of Hub:
• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean,
boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as
well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between
nodes.
• Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without
cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between
nodes.
• Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also
enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to
configure each port in the hub.
Advantages of Hub:
• Connectivity – The primary function of the hub is to permit clients to attach to a
network in order that they will share and have conversations. For this purpose, hubs
use network protocol analyzer.
• Performance – Hub is understood for having very less number of performance
impacts on the network. This is often because it operates using a broadcast model
which rarely affects the network.
• Cost – Comparing to switches, hubs are really inexpensive. Basically, thanks to its
sort of simplicity. Therefore, they will assist you to save lots of money. And also due
to their products they are widely available within the market.
• Device Support – Hubs can connect different types of media all at once with a
central hub. Albeit the media want to operate at different speeds they will be wont to
support them.
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• Area Coverage – Area coverage of a network is restricted to a certain distance. Hub

extends the space of the network such communication is formed easy.
Disadvantages of Hub:
• Collision Domain – The function of the collision domain and again transfer of
packet does not affect actually it increases more chances of collision in between
domains.
• Full-Duplex Mode – Hubs cannot communicate fully duplex mode, it can only
operate in half duplex mode. Half-duplex mode, in essence, means data are often
transmitted just one occasion at a given time. Therefore, the hub must constantly
switch its modes.
• Specification – Hubs cannot support networks that are large like a token ring. This
is often because hubs must share data among all the devices within the network.
• Network Traffic – As the attachment was received in the packet so it cannot reduce
traffic. Hence, hubs make a high level of network traffic.
• Bandwidth Wastage – Hubs cannot provide dedicated bandwidth for every device,
it is to share them. When sending large pieces of information all the bandwidths are
going to be occupied by the two computers leaving other computers with slow
network.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and
destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 - port device.
Fig.3 - Bridge
Types of Bridges:
• Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are
completely unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is
added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding
and bridge learning.
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• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by

the source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can
discover the frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which
spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
Advantages of Bridge:
• It reduces network traffic with minor segmentation
• It reduces collisions
• Bridge connects similar network types with different cabling
• Bridge increases the number of attached workstation and network segments
• It extends the physical network
Disadvantages of Bridge:
• It does not filter broadcasts
• It is slower compare to repeaters due to the filtering process
• It is more expensive compared to repeaters
• Complex network topology, it can pose a problem for transparent bridge
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency (a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data
link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which
makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the
collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.
Fig. 4 - Switch
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Types of Switch:
1. Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not
offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use
as an expansion to a larger network.
2. Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as
VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex
networks and allow for centralized management.
3. Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are
typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized
networks.
4. Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and
are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
5. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and
can route data between different network segments. They are more advanced than
Layer 2 switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.
6. PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows
them to supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.
7. Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster
than traditional Ethernet speeds.
8. Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack
and are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.
9. Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small
office environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
10. Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for easy
expansion or customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.
Advantages of Switches:
• Increases Capacity – They increment the accessible data transfer capacity of the
organization.
• Reduces Burden – They help in lessening the outstanding burden on individual host
PCs.
• Increment Presentation – They increment the presentation of the organization.
• Less casing Impacts – Networks that use switches will have fewer casing impacts.
This is because of the way that switches make impact areas for every association.
Disadvantages of Switches:
• Costly – They are more costly in contrast with network spans.
• Tough Availability issues – Network availability issues are hard to be followed

through the organization switch.
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• Issues in traffic broadcasting – Broadcast traffic might be problematic.
• Defenseless – If switches are in the indiscriminate mode, they are defenseless against
security assaults for example caricaturing IP address or catching Ethernet outlines.
5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of
hosts connected through it.
Fig. 5 - Router
Advantages of the Router:
• It provides sophisticated routing, flow control, and traffic isolation

• Reduce network traffic by creating collision domains
• Reduce network traffic by creating broadcast domains
• Can connect different network architecture, such as Ethernet and token ring
Disadvantages of the Router:
• A router is more expensive than bridge or repeaters
• Router only work with rotatable network protocol, not all protocols are routable
• The router is slower than bridge or repeaters because they must analyze data
transmission from the physical to the network layer
• Dynamic router communication causes additional network traffic
• Are relatively complex device
6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that
may work upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take
data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also
called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally
more complex than switches or routers. A gateway is also called a protocol converter.
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Fig. 6 - Gateway
Advantages of Gateway:
• Used to expand the network.

• Gateway is a server so it provides some security.
• We can connect two different types of networks.
• Protocol conversion is done.
• Effectively handles the traffic problems.
• And also establishes connections between internal network and external network.
Disadvantages of Gateway:
• Not an intelligent device. So, noise prevention is not done.

• Never filter out the data
• Some what costly.
• Protocol conversion is done so transmission rate is slower.
• Some what hard to handle.
7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of
both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer.
Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks and working as the
bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.
Fig. 7 - Brouter
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Advantages of Brouter:
• It offers best route for the data packets and hence reduces network traffic. This
increases efficiency of internet connection as it only transmits or receives traffic
intended for it instead of all the traffic on the network.
• It supports packet filtering and packet switching.
• It can be used with both LAN and WAN.
• It offers NAT to be configured and hence hides real IP address of internal network
which makes network more secure.
• It can connect with different mediums.
Disadvantages of Brouter:
• It is expensive compare to hub and router.

• It is complex to manage and requires considerable amount of initial configuration.
8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a
unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The
cable acts as an interface between the computer and the router or modem. NIC card is a
layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical and data link layers of the
network model.
Fig. 8 - NIC
Advantages of NIC:
• Faster network Speed − One of the major benefits of NICs is that they offer
quicker transfer rates than other networking equipment like modems and routers.
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• Reliability − A good quality NIC can provide more reliable network connectivity
than built in adaptors.
• Security − Some network interface cards (NICs) have security features like
hardware-based encryption that can add a layer of security to network
communications.
• Compatibility − Ethernet connections are standardized and widely compatible, and

they are used by the majority of NICs.
• Lower CPU usage − NICs can offload some processing tasks from the CPU, which
can reduce CPU usage and improve overall system performance. One example is
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is done by NIC for this task which saves so many
clocks of the CPU.
Disadvantages of NIC:
• Limited transfer speed − NICs are constrained by the network interface's top
performance. For high bandwidth apps like streaming video, large file transfers, or
gaming, this can be a bottleneck.
• Limited compatibility − NICs are constrained by the network interface's top

performance. For high bandwidth apps like streaming video, large file transfers, or
gaming, this can be a bottleneck.
• Driver issues − Like any hardware, NICs require drivers to function properly. These
drivers may be incompatible with certain operating systems or may require frequent
updates.
• Cost − NICs can be expensive, especially if you need high-speed, high-bandwidth

connections.
• Power consumption − Particularly when several NICs are installed in a system,

NICs can use a lot of electricity. This might be a problem for electronics with
restricted battery life, like laptops and mobile phones.
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PRACTICAL – 2
AIM: Study of different types of network cables and practically implement
the cross-wired cable and straight through cable using clamping tool.
o Definition:
Networking cable is a piece of networking hardware used to connect one network
device to other network devices or to connect two or more computers to share
devices such as printers or scanners. Different types of network cables, such as
coaxial cable, optical fiber cable, and twisted pair cables, are used depending on the
network's topology, protocol, and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters
or nearly unlimited distances.
While wireless networks are more easily deployed when total throughput is not an
issue, most permanent larger computer networks utilize cables to transfer signals
from one point to another.
o Types of Cable:
There are three different types of network cabling.
1) Coaxial Cable
2) Fibre Optics Cable
3) Twisted Pair Cable
1. Coaxial Cable: A coaxial cable is an electrical cable with a copper conductor and an
insulator shielding around it and a braided metal mesh that prevents signal
interference and cross talk. Coaxial cable is also known as coax.
The core copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals and the insulator is
used to provide insulation to the copper conductor and the insulator is surrounded by a
braided metal conductor which helps to prevent the interference of electrical signals
and prevent cross talk. This entire setup is again covered with a protective plastic
layer to provide extra safety to the cable.
Fig. 2.1 – Coaxial Cable
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2. Fiber Optics Cable:

A fiber optic cable can contain a varying number of these glass fibers -- from a few up
to a couple hundred. Another glass layer, called cladding, surrounds the glass fiber
core. The buffer tube layer protects the cladding, and a jacket layer acts as the final
protective layer for the individual strand.
Fiber optic cables are commonly used because of their advantages over copper cables.
Some of those benefits include higher bandwidth and transmit speeds.
Fig. 2.2 – Fiber Optics Cable

3. Twisted Pair Cable:
There are two types of twisted pair cable.
A. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

B. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTD) Cable
A. Shielded Twisted Pair (STD) Cable:

A shielded twisted pair (STP) cable refers to a type of copper telephone wiring
commonly used in business installations. This type of cable features an external
shield that functions as a ground and is added to a normal twisted pair telephone
wire.
STP cables are frequently used in areas that encounter interference due to
electrical currents. Shielded twisted pair cables may also be used in situations
where the distance between cables needs to be expanded.
Fig. 2.3 – Shielded Twisted Pair (STD) Cable
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B. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTD) Cable:

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are some of the most commonly used
network cables for businesses. This type of cable is a 100-ohm copper cable that
contains two to 1,800 unshielded twisted pairs that are surrounded by an exterior
jacket. UTP cables do not have a metallic shield which makes them smaller in
diameter and unprotected against EMI.
UTP cables are one of the least expensive wires available and are suitable for
basic phone systems. These cables have also been successfully used in video
applications, such as security cameras, due to an improvement in bandwidth. UTP
cables are made up of four components: conductor, insulator, twisted unit, and
sheath.
Fig. 2.4 – Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

o Ethernet Cable:
An Ethernet cable is a common type of network cable used with wired networks. Ethernet
cables connect devices such as PCs, routers, and switches within a local area network.
These physical cables are limited by length and durability. If a network cable is too long or
of poor quality, it won't carry a good network signal. These limits are one reason there are
different types of Ethernet cables that are optimized to perform certain tasks in specific
situations.
Fig. 2.5 – Ethernet Cable
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o CAT 6:
A Cat 6 cable is used mainly for computer networks reaching a Gb, 1000 Mbps or one
Gbps of data transfer speed (DTR) or higher. Characteristics are as follows:
• Consists of four pairs of copper wires, which are all utilized for data transfer
• Provides bandwidth of 250 MHz, speed up to 10 Gbps and may be stretched to 100
meters in length.
• Provides more enhanced crosstalk and attenuation protection than its previous
twisted pair cable versions.
The Cat 6 cable is supported by Ethernet networks, including 10BaseT, 100Base-TX,
1000 Base-T and 10 GBase-T.
o Crimping Tool:
A crimping tool is a device used to conjoin two pieces of metal by deforming one or
both of them to hold each other. The result of the tool's work is called a crimp. An
example of crimping is affixing a connector to the end of a cable. For instance, network
cables and phone cables are created using a crimping tool to join RJ-45 and RJ 11
connectors to both ends of phone or Cat 5 cable.
Fig. 2.6 – Crimping Tool
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PRACTICAL-3
AIM: Study of basic network command and Network configuration
commands.
1. Tracert Command:
The tracert command is a Command Prompt command that's used to show several
details about the path that a packet takes from the computer or device you're on to
whatever destination you specify.
Tracert Command Option
tracert –d :- This option prevents tracert from resolving IP addresses to

hostnames, often resulting in much faster results.
Practical in CMD.
Fig. 3.1 – Tracert Command

2. Ping Command:
Ping is a command-line utility, available on virtually any operating system with
network connectivity, that acts as a test to see if a networked device is reachable. The
ping command sends a request over the network to a specific device. A successful
ping results in a response from the computer that was pinged back to the originating
computer.
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Practical in CMD.
Fig. 3.2 – Ping Command

3. Winipcfg Command:
The winipcfg, which stands for Windows IP Configuration, is one of the utility
programs that Microsoft included in their operating systems starting from Windows
95. This utility is used in providing specific information about the computer’s TCP/IP
settings and configurations, such as IP and DNS addresses.
Fig. 3.3 – Winipcfg Command
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4. ARP Command:
ARP stands for “Address Resolution Protocol” is a protocol for mapping an IP
address to a physical MAC address on a local area network. Basically, ARP is a
program used by a computer system to find another computer’s MAC address based
on its IP address. Communication between two computers on the same broadcast
domain means a local area network. First, the client checks its ARP cache. ARP cache
is a table of IP addresses with their corresponding MAC addresses.
Fig. 3.4 – ARP Command

5. Netstat Command:
The netstat command, meaning network statistics, is a command promt command
used to display very detailed information about how your computer is communicating
with other computers or network devices.
Specifically, the netstat command can show details about individual network
connections, overall and protocol-specific networking statistics, and much more, all of
which could help troubleshoot certain kinds of networking issues.
Netstat Command Option:
1. netstat –f :- The -f switch will force the netstat command to display the Fully
Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) for each foreign IP addresses when possible.
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2. netstat –o :- A handy option for many troubleshooting tasks, the -o switch displays
the process identifier (PID) associated with each displayed connection. See the
example below for more about using netstat -o.
Fig. 3.5 – Netstat Command
6. Nbtstat Command:
Nbtstat is a utility that displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections
using NBT (NetBIOS over TCP/IP), which helps troubleshoot NetBIOS name
resolution issues.
Normally, name resolution is performed when NetBIOS over TCP/IP is functioning

correctly. It does this through a local cache lookup, WINS or DNS server query or
through LMHOSTS or hosts file lookup.
Netstat Command Option:
1. nbtstat –c :- Lists NBT’s cache of remote machine names and their IP addresses.
Practical in CMD.
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Fig. 3.6 – nbtstat command
7. IPConfig Command:
IPconfig is a console application designed to run from the Windows command

prompt.
This utility allows you to get the IP address information of a Windows computer. It
also allows some control over your network adapters, IP addresses (DHCP-assigned
specifically), even your DNS cache.
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Fig. 3.7 – ipconfig command
8. Nslookup Command:
Nslookup is the name of a program that lets an Internet server administrator or any
computer user enter a host name (for example, "whatis.com") and find out the
corresponding IP address or domain name system (DNS) record.
The user can also enter a command for it to do a reverse DNS lookup and find the
host name for an IP address that is specified.
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Fig. 3.8 – nslookup command
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PRACTICAL – 4
AIM: Implement different LAN topologies using Network Simulator.
1. BUS TOPOLOGY:
• Bus topology is a specific kind of network topology in which all of the various
devices in the network are connected to a single cable or line.
• It transmits data only in one direction.
• It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone
fails the topology crashes.
• It is used in small networks.
• Easy to expand joining two cables together.
• It is used in early LAN connection.
Fig. 4.1 – Bus Topology

Advantages:
• It is the easiest network topology for connecting peripherals or computers in a
linear fashion.
• It works very efficient well when there is a small network.
• Length of cable required is less than a star topology.
• It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network without affecting any
other device.
• Very cost-effective as compared to others network topology i.e. mesh and star. •
It is easy to understand topology.
• Easy to expand by joining the two cables together.
Disadvantages:
• Bus topology is not great for large networks.
• Identification of problem becomes difficult if whole network goes down.
• Troubleshooting of individual device issues is very hard.
• Need of terminators are required at both ends of main cable.
• Additional devices slow network down.
• If a main cable is damaged, whole network fails or splits into two.
• Packet loss is high.
• This network topology is very slow as compared to other topologies.
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2. RING TOPOLOGY:
• It forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the last
one connected to the first.
• Transmission is unidirectional & sequential way that is bit by bit.
• In ring topology Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding
more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
• It is cheap to install and expand.
Fig. 4.2 – Ring Topology

Advantages:
• Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit.
• Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load.
• Does not require a central node to manage the connectivity between the
computers.
• Due to the point-to-point line configuration of devices with a device on either
side (each device is connected to its immediate neighbour), it is quite easy to
install and reconfigure since adding or removing a device requires moving just
two connections.
• Point-to-point line configuration makes it easy to identify and isolate faults.
Disadvantages:
• One malfunctioning workstation can create problems for the entire network. This
can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch that closes off the break.
• Moving, adding and changing the devices can affect the network.
• Communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network.
• Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices.
• More difficult to configure than a Star: node adjunction = Ring shutdown and
reconfiguration.
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3. STAR TOPOLOGY:
• In star topology Computers are connected to a single central hub through a cable.
• Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
• Easy to troubleshoot & Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has failed rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
Fig. 4.3 – Star Topology
Advantages:
• If one node or its connection breaks, it does not affect the other computers nor
their connections.
• Devices can be added or removed without disturbing the network.
• Works well under heavy load.
• Appropriate for a large network.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive due to the number and length of cables needed to wire each host to the
central hub.
• The central hub is a single point of failure for the network.
4. MESH TOPOLOGY:
• Point-to-point connection to other devices or fully connected.
• Traffic is carried only between two connected devices.
• Robust, costly but not flexible.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.
• More cable resource used in setup.
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Fig. 4.4 – Mesh Topology

Advantages:
• Failure during a single device won’t break the network.
• There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links for every
computer.
• Fault identification is straightforward.
• This topology provides multiple paths to succeed in the destination and tons of
redundancy.
• It provides high privacy and security.
• Data transmission is more consistent because failure doesn’t disrupt its processes.
• Adding new devices won’t disrupt data transmissions.
• This topology has robust features to beat any situation.
• A mesh doesn’t have a centralized authority.
Disadvantages:
• It’s costly as compared to the opposite network topologies i.e. star, bus, point to
point topology.
• Installation is extremely difficult in the mesh.
• Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will need to remain active all the
time and share the load.
• Complex process.
• The cost to implement mesh is above other selections.
• There is a high risk of redundant connections.
• Each node requires a further utility cost to think about.
• Maintenance needs are challenging with a mesh.
5. TREE TOPOLOGY:
• It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
• Also called hierarchical topology.
• Mostly used in Wide Area Network- WAN.
• Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
• Easily managed and maintained.
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Fig. 4.5 – Tree Topology
Advantages:
• This topology is the combination of bus and star topology.
• his topology provides a hierarchical as well as central data arrangement of the
nodes.
• As the leaf nodes can add one or more nodes in the hierarchical chain, this
topology provides high scalability.
• The other nodes in a network are not affected, if one of their nodes get damaged
or not working.
• Tree topology provides easy maintenance and easy fault identification can be
done.
• A callable topology. Leaf nodes can hold more nodes.
• Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages:
• This network is very difficult to configure as compared to the other network
topologies.
• If the computer in first level is erroneous, next level computer will also go under
problems.
• Requires large number of cables compared to star and ring topology.
• As the data needs to travel from the central cable this creates dense network
traffic.
• The Backbone appears as the failure point of the entire segment of the network.
• Treatment of the topology is pretty complex.
• The establishment cost increases as well.
6. HYBRID TOPOLOGY:
• A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology.
• It is a combination of two or more topologies.
• Flexible & reliable as error detection and easy to troubleshoot.
• Scalable as size can be increased easily.
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Fig. 4.6 – Hybrid Topology

Advantages:
• This type of topology combines the benefits of different types of topologies in
one topology.
• Can be modified as per requirement.
• It is extremely flexible and it is very reliable.
• It is easily scalable as Hybrid networks are built in a fashion which enables for
easy integration of new hardware components.
• Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.
• Handles large volume of traffic.
• It is used for create large network.
Disadvantages:
• It is a type of network expensive.
• Design of a hybrid network is very complex.
• There is change hardware in order to connect topology with another topology. •
Usually, hybrid architectures are usually larger in scales so they require a lot of
cables in installation process.
• Hubs which are used to connect two distinct networks, are very costly. And hubs
are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with
different architectures.
• Installation is a difficult process.
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PRACTICAL – 5
AIM: Implement the concept of VLAN using Network Simulator (Cisco
Packet Tracer).
Virtual LAN (VLAN):

A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is simply a logical LAN, just as its name suggests. VLANs
have similar characteristics with those of physical LANs, only that with VLANs, you
can logically group hosts even if they are physically located on separate LAN
segments.
Wetreat eachVLANasaseparatesubnetorbroadcast domain.Forthisreason,to move

packets from one VLAN to another, we use a router or a layer 3 switch.
VLANsare configured on switches by placing some interfaces into one broadcast

domain and some interfaces into another. Here, we configure 2 VLANs on a switch.
We proceed and configure a router to enable communication between the two
VLANs.
Step by step creation, configuration, testing and implementation of VLAN and

inter VLAN routing:
Step-1: In Cisco Packet Tracer, create the network topology as shown below.
Fig. 5.1 – Creating a Network Topology
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Step-2: Create 2 VLANs on the switch: VLAN10 and VLAN20.
Step-3: Assign switch ports to the VLANs. (Remember each VLAN is viewed as
separate broadcast domain.)
Configure switch interfaces fa 0/1 through fa 0/4 as access ports to connect to our
PCs. Assign interfaces fa 0/1 and fa 0/2 to VLAN10
Assign interfaces fa 0/3 and fa 0/4 to VLAN20.
Switch Interface fa 0/5 will be configured as trunk port, as it will be used to carry
traffic between the two VLANs via the router.
28
In the above commands, we have specified an interface range and the n proceeded to
configure all the ports specified as access ports.
Interface fa 0/5 is configured as trunk and will be used to for inter-VLAN
communication.
Step-4: Assign static IP addresses to the four PCs which are located in the
separate VLANs. PC1 and PC2 fall in VLAN10 while PC3 and PC4 fall in
VLAN20.
PCs IP Address Subnet Mask Default Gateway
PC1 192.168.1.10 255.255.252.0 192.168.1.1
PC2 192.168.1.20 255.255.252.0 192.168.1.1
PC3 192.168.2.10 255.255.252.0 192.168.2.1
PC4 192.168.2.20 255.255.252.0 192.168.2.1
29
Step-5: Test connectivity with in VLANs and between VLANs.

To test communication between hosts in the same VLAN:
Ping PC2 from PC1 both in VLAN10. Ping test should be successful.
To test connectivity between hosts in different VLANs:
Ping PC3 in VLAN20 from PC1 in VLAN10. Ping will be failed here because inter-
VLAN routing is not yet enabled.
We have used VLAN stop lace the hosts into two logical networks which can be
viewed as separate broadcast domains. In order to allow the hosts in the two VLANs
to communicate, configure the router to permit inter-VLAN communication.
Step-6: Configure inter-VLAN routing on the router.
• Configure the router so that it will enable communication between the two vlans via
a single physical interface.
• First, divide the single physical interface on the router into logical interfaces
(subinterfaces).
• Each sub-interface will then serve as a default gateway for each of the VLANs.
• This scenario is called router on a stick (R.O.A.S) and will allow the VLANs to
communicate through the single physical interface.
Router (config-subif) #ip add 192.168.2.1 255.255.255.0
30
Now, the routers physical interface fa 0/0 was subdivided into two sub-interfaces
(fa0/0.10and fa0/0.20), which are then configured as trunk interfaces and given IP
addresses.
Step-7: Test inter-VLAN connectivity.
Test connectivity between computers in different VLANs. Don’t forget that it is the
router that enables inter-VLAN routing. Ping PC3 in VLAN 20 from PC1 in VLAN
10.
The ping should work perfectly.
31
PRACTICAL – 6
AIM: Implement the concept of static routing.
Static routing is the most secure way of routing. It reduces overhead from network resources.
In this type of routing, we manually add routes in routing table. It is useful where numbers of
route are limited.
Advantages:
• It is easy to implement.
• It is most secure way of routing, since no information is shared with other routers.
• It puts no overhead on resources such as CPU or memory.
Disadvantages:
• It is suitable only for small network.
• If a link fails it cannot reroute the traffic.
Implementation:
Step 1: Create following structure in network simulator (Cisco Packet Tracer).
Step 2: Assign IP address to PCs and interfaces of routers.

Device Connected From Connected To IP Address
PC0 FastEthernet0 Router0’s FastEthernet0/0 10.0.0.2/8
ROUTER0 FastEthernet0/0 PC0’s FastEthernet0 10.0.0.1/8
ROUTER0 Serial 0/0/0 Router1’s serial0/0/0 192.168.0.253/30
ROUTER1 Serial 0/0/0 Router0’s Serial0/0/0 192.168.0.254/30
32
ROUTER3 FastEthernet0/0 PC1’s FastEthernet0 20.0.0.1/8

PC1 FastEthernet0 Router1’s FastEthernet0/0 20.0.0.2/8
Assign IP address 10.0.0.2/8 to PC0.
Assign IP address to interfaces of routers.
Double click Router0 and click CLI and press Enter key to access the command prompt
ofRouter0.
Two interfaces FastEthernet0/0 and Serial0/0/0 of Router0 are used in this topology. By
default, interfaces on router are remain administratively down during the start up. We need to
configure IP address and other parameters on interfaces before we could actually use them for
routing. Interface mode is used to assign IP address and other parameters. Interface mode can
be accessed from global configuration mode. Following commands are used to access the
global configuration mode.
33
From global configuration mode we can enter in interface mode. From there we can
configure the interface. Following commands will assign IP address on Fast Ethernet 0/0.
Interface fast Ethernet0/0 command is used to enter in interface mode.

Ip address 10.0.0.1255.0.0.0 command will assign IP address to interface.
No shut down command will bring the interface up.
Exit command is used to return in global configuration mode.
Serial interface needs two additional parameters clock rate and bandwidth. Every serial cable
has two ends DTE and DCE. These parameters areal ways configured at DCE end.
We can use show controllers interface command from privilege mode to check the cable’s
end.
Fourth line of output confirms that DCE end of serial cable is attached. If you see DTE here
instead of DCE skip these parameters.
Now we have necessary information let’s assign IP address to serial interface.
34
Router#configure terminal Command is used to enter in global configuration mode.

Router(config)#interface serial 0/0/0 Command is used to enter in interface mode.
Router(config-if)#ip address 192.168.0.253 255.255.255.252 Command assigns IP address
to interface. For serial link we usually use IP address from/30subnet.
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000 And Router(config-if)#bandwidth64 In real life
environment these parameters control the data flow between serial links and need to be set at
service provider send. In lab environment we need not to worry about these values. We can
use these values.
Router(config-if)#noshutdown Command brings interface up.
Router(config-if)#exit Command is used to return in global configuration mode.
We will use same commands to assign IP addresses on interfaces of remaining routers. We

need to provide dc lock rate and bandwidth only on DCE side of serial interface. Following
command will assign IP addresses on interface of Router1.
ROUTER 1:
35
Now we know how to assign IP addresses on interfaces. We will use same commands to
assign IP addresses on interfaces of Router2.
36
ROUTER 2:
Repeat same process for Router3.
ROUTER 3:
Now routers have information about the networks that they have on their own interfaces.
Routers do not exchange network information between them on their own. We need to
implement a mechanism that insists them to share this information. This mechanism is called
routing.
37
Step 3: Understand Command to configure the static route.
We have two commands to configure the static route.
Router(config)#iproutedestination_network_#[subnet_mask]
IP_address_of_next_hop_neighbor[administrative_distance]
[permanent]
OR
Router(config)#iproutedestination_network_#[subnet_mask] interface_to_exit
[administrative_distance] [permanent]
Ip route: This is the base command that adds new routes in routing table.
destination_network_#[subnet_mask]: This is the first parameter. It specifies the

destination network address. We need to provide subnet mask if we are using sub network.
Sub-networks are the smaller network created from one large network in subnetting. If we are
not using sub-network then we can omit the subnet mask value. It will parse automatically.
IP_address_of_next_hop_neighbor / interface_to_exit: This parameter provides a way to

reach the destination network. Both commands use separate way to assign this value. First
command provides the IP address of next hop neighbour. It tells router that if it receives a
packet for destination [that we set in previous parameter], forward that packet to this next hop
neighbour IP address.
Second command also do the same job but in different way. It specifies exit interface instead
of next hop IP address. It tells router that if it receives a packet for the destination specified
by previous parameter then exits that packet from this interface. Device attached on other end
of this interface will take care of the packet.
Administrative_distance: Administrative distance is the trustworthiness of route. Route with

the lowest AD value will be chosen while forwarding the packet. By default, static route has
two AD values depending on the previous parameter. If you have used next hop neighbour IP
address, then the default AD value will be 1. If you have used exit interface, then the default
AD value will be 0. This parameter allows us to create multiple static routes for the same
destination. For example, we can create primary and backup path for the destination network.
To create backup path, we need to set AD value to higher than default, such as 2 or 3. With
this configuration router will use primary path. Due to some reason if primary route fails, the
router will start using backup route automatically.
Permanent: When a route goes down router will remove that from routing table. Permanent
parameter will keep this route in routing table even if it goes down. Its optional parameter we
can omit it. If we omit it, router will remove this route from routing table if it goes down. You
might use this parameter for security reason if you never want packets to take another path.
38
Step 4: Configure Static Route.

By default, when a packet arrives in interface, router checks destination filed in packet and
compare it with routing table. If it finds a match for destination network then it will forward
that packet from related interface. If it does not find a match in routing table then it will
discard that packet. This is the default behaviour of router. We do not need to configure
directly connected networks.
Run following command from global configuration mode in routers.
ROUTER 0:
Network 20.0.0.0 is directly connected so we only need to configure network 10.0.0.0 on this
router.
That’s all we need to switch packet from one network to another. To verify the results we can
use ping command. Access the command prompt of PC1 and use ping command to test the
connectivity from PC0.
39
PRACTICAL – 7
AIM: Implement the concept of dynamic routing (RIP, OSPF, BGP).
Routing Information Protocol (RIP):

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol which uses hop count as a
routing metric to find the best path between the source and the destination network. It is a
distance vector routing protocol which has AD value 120 and works on the application layer
of OSI model. RIP uses port number 520.
Hop Count:
Hop count is the number of routers occurring in between the source and destination network.
The path with the lowest hop count is considered as the best route to reach a network and
therefore placed in the routing table. RIP prevents routing loops by limiting the number of
hopes allowed in a path from source and destination. The maximum hop count allowed for
RIP is 15 and hop count of 16 is considered as network unreachable.
Features of RIP:
1.Updates of the network are exchanged periodically.
2.Updates (routing information) are always broadcast.
3.Full routing tables are sent in updates.
4.Routers always trust on routing information received from neighbour routers. This is also
known as Routing on rumours.
RIP versions:
There are three versions of routing information protocol– RIP Version1, RIP Version2 and
RIPng.
RIP v1 is known as Classful Routing Protocol because it doesn’t send information of subnet
mask in its routing update.
RIP v2 is known as Classless Routing Protocol because it sends information of subnet mask
in its routing update.
>> Use debug command to get the details:

# debug ip rip
>> Use this command to show all routes configured in router, say for router R1:
R1# show ip route
>> Use this command to show all protocols configured in router, say for router R1:
R1# show ip protocols
40
Configuration:
Consider the above given topology which has 3-routers R1, R2, R3. R1 has IP address
172.16.10.6/30 on s0/0/1, 192.168.20.1/24 on fa0/0. R2 has IP address 172.16.10.2/30 on
s0/0/0, 192.168.10.1/24 on fa0/0. R3 has IP address 172.16.10.5/30 on s0/1, 172.16.10.1/30
on s0/0, 10.10.10.1/24 on fa0/0.
Configure RIP for R1:

R1(config)# router rip
R1(config-router)# network 192.168.20.0
R1(config-router)#
R1(config-router)# version 2
no auto-summary
Similarly, Configure RIP for R3:
R3(config)# router rip
R3(config-router)# version 2
R3(config-router)# no auto-summary
41
RIP timers:
• Update timer: The default timing for routing information being exchanged by the routers
operating RIP is 30 seconds. Using Update timer, the routers exchange their routing table
periodically.
• Invalid timer: If no update comes until 180 seconds, then the destination router considers it
as invalid. In this scenario, the destination router mark hop count as 16 for that router.
• Hold down timer: This is the time for which the router waits for neighbour router to
respond. If the router isn’t able to respond within a given time then it is declared dead. It is
180 seconds by default.
• Flush time: It is the time after which the entry of the route will be flushed if it doesn’t
respond within the flush time. It is 60 seconds by default. This timer starts after the route
has been declared invalid and after 60 seconds i.e time will be 180 + 60 = 240 seconds.
Note that all these times are adjustable. Use this command to change the timers:
R1(config-router)# timers basic
R1(config-router)# timers basic 20 80 80 90
Open shortest path first (OSPF):
Open shortest path first (OSPF) router roles and configuration –
Open shortest path first (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol which is used to find the best
path between the source and the destination router using its own SPF algorithm.
Open shortest path first (OSPF) router roles –
An area is a group of contiguous network and routers. Routers belonging to same area shares
a common topology table and area I’d. The area I’d is associated with router’s interface as a
router can belong to more than one area. There are some roles of router in OSPF:
42
1. Backbone router– The area 0 is known as backbone area and the routers in area 0 are
known as backbone routers. If the routers exist partially in the area 0then also it is a backbone
router.
2. Internal router– An internal router is a router which has all of its interfaces in a single
area.
3.Area Boundary Router (ABR)– The router which connects backbone area with another
area is called Area Boundary Router. It belongs to more than one area. The ABRs therefore
maintain multiple link-state databases that describe both the backbone topology and the
topology of the other areas.
4.Area Summary Border Router (ASBR)– When an OSPF router is connected to a
different protocol like EIGRP, or Border Gateway Protocol, or any other routing protocol
then it is known as AS. The router which connects two different AS (in which one of the
interface is operating OSPF) is known as Area Summary Border Router. These routers
perform redistribution. ASBRs run both OSPF and another routing protocol, such as RIP or
BGP. ASBRs advertise the exchanged external routing information throughout their AS.
Note– A router can be backbone router and Area Boundary Router at the same time.
i.e, a router can perform more than one role at a time.
PROGRAM:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main() {
int count, src_router, i, j, k, w, v, min;
int cost_matrix[100][100], dist[100], last[100];
int flag[100];
printf("\n Enter the no of routers:");

scanf("%d", & count);
printf("\n Enter the cost matrix values:");
for (i = 0; i < count; i++) {

for (j = 0; j < count; j++) {
printf("\n%d->%d:", i,j);
scanf("%d", & cost_matrix[i][j]);
if (cost_matrix[i][j] < 0) cost_matrix[i][j] = 1000;
}
}
printf("\n Enter the source router:");
scanf("%d", & src_router);
for (v = 0; v < count; v++) {
43
flag[v] = 0;
last[v] = src_router;
dist[v] = cost_matrix[src_router][v];
}
flag[src_router] = 1;
for (i = 0; i < count; i++) {
min = 1000;
for (w = 0; w < count; w++) {
if (!flag[w])
if (dist[w] < min) {
v = w;
min = dist[w];
}
}
flag[v] = 1;
for (w = 0; w < count; w++) {
if (!flag[w])
if (min + cost_matrix[v][w] < dist[w]) {
dist[w] = min + cost_matrix[v][w];
last[w] = v;
}
}
}
for (i = 0; i < count; i++) {
printf("\n%d==>%d:Path taken:%d", src_router, i, i);
w=i;
while (w != src_router) {
printf("\n<--%d",
last[w]);w = last[w];
}
printf("\n Shortest path cost:%d", dist[i]);
}
}
44
OUTPUT:
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is used to Exchange routing information for the internet and
is the protocol used between ISP which is different ASes.
The protocol can connect together any internetwork of autonomous system using an arbitrary
topology. The only requirement is that each AS have at least one router that is able to run
BGP and that is router connect to at least one other AS’s BGP router. BGP’s main function is
to exchange network reach-ability information with other BGP systems. Border Gateway
Protocol constructs an autonomous systems’ graph based on the information exchanged
between BGP routers.
Characteristics of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):

• Inter-Autonomous System Configuration: The mainroleof BGP isto provide communication
between two autonomous systems.
• BGPsupports Next-Hop Paradigm.
• Coordination among multiple BGP speakers within the AS (Autonomous System).
45
• Path Information: BGP advertisement also includes path information, along with the
reachable destination and next destination pair.
• Policy Support:
BGP can implement policies that can be configured by the administrator.
For ex:- a router running BGP can be configured to distinguish between the routes that are
known within the AS and that which are known from outside the AS.
• Runs Over TCP.
• BGPconserve network Bandwidth.
• BGPsupports CIDR.
• BGPalso supports Security.
Functionality of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):

BGPpeers perform 3 functions, which are given below.
1.The first function consists of initial peer acquisition and authentication. both the peers
established a TCP connection and perform message exchange that guarantees both sides
have agreed to communicate.
2.The second function mainly focus on sending of negative or positive reach- ability
information.
3.The third function verifies that the peers and the network connection between them are
functioning correctly.
BGPRoute Information Management Functions:

• Route Storage: Each BGP stores information about how to reach other networks.
• Route Update: In this task, Special techniques are used to determine when and how to use
the information received from peers to properly update the routes.
• Route Selection: Each BGP uses the information in its route databases to select good
routes to each network on the internet network.
• Route advertisement: Each BGP speaker regularly tells its peer what is knows about
various networks and methods to reach them.
PROGRAM:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n;
int i, j, k;
int a[10][10], b[10][10];
printf("\n Enter the number of nodes:");

scanf("%d", & n);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
46
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)

{
printf("\n Enter the distance between the host %d- %d:", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", & a[i][j]);
}
}
printf("\n Enter the distance between the host %d- %d:", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", & a[i][j]);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {

for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
printf("%d\t", a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) {
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
if (a[i][j] > a[i][k] + a[k][j]) {
a[i][j] = a[i][k] + a[k][j];
}
}
}
}
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
b[i][j] = a[i][j];
if (i == j) {
b[i][j] = 0;
}
}
}
printf("\n The output matrix:\n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
printf("%d\t",
b[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}
47
OUTPUT:
48
PRACTICAL – 8
AIM: Packet capture and header analysis by wire-shark.
What is Wireshark?
o Wireshark is a network packet analyser. A network packet analyser presents captured
packet data in as much detail as possible.
o You could think of a network packet analyser as a measuring device for examining
what’s happening inside a network cable, just like an electrician uses a voltmeter for
examining what’s happening inside an electric cable (but at a higher level, of course).
o In the past, such tools were either very expensive, proprietary, or both. However, with the
advent of Wireshark, that has changed. Wireshark is available for free, is open source,
and is one of the best packet analysers available today.
Purposes of wireshark:
➢ Network administrators use it to troubleshoot network problems
➢ Network security engineers use it to examine security problems
➢ QA engineers use it to verify network applications
➢ Developers use it to debug protocol implementations
➢ People use it to learn network protocol internals
Features:
➢ The following are some of the many features Wireshark provides:
➢ Available for UNIX and Windows.
➢ Capture live packet data from a network interface.
➢ Open files containing packet data captured with tcpdump/WinDump, Wireshark, and
many
➢ Other packet capture programs.
➢ Import packets from text files containing hex dumps of packet data.
➢ Display packets with very detailed protocol information.
➢ Save packet data captured.
➢ Export some or all packets in a number of capture file formats.
➢ Filter packets on many criteria.
➢ Search for packets on many criteria.
➢ Colorize packet display based on filters.
➢ Create various statistics.
Figure:
Wireshark’s home screen is seen below:
49
Many different protocols are recorded by wireshark:

1. UDP Protocols: UDP is a substitute communication protocol to Transmission Control
Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking
between different applications.
2. TCP Protocols: TCP is a popular communication protocol which is used for

communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets that are
sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.
50
3. SSDP Protocols: The Simple Service Discovery Protocol is a network protocol based
on the Internet protocol suite for advertisement and discovery of network services and
presence information.
4. ARP (Address Resolution Protocols): It is a network protocol used to find out the
hardware (MAC) address of a device from an IP address.
5. Hyper Text Transfer Protocols (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext
among two or more systems.
6. DNS (Domain Name Protocols): The DNS protocol helps in translating or mapping
host names to IP addresses. DNS works on a client-server model, and uses a distributed
database over a hierarchy of name servers.
51
PRACTICAL – 9
AIM: Study of data link control protocol.
➢ DataLinkLayer:
• In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer from the
bottom.
• The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as links, and in
order to move the datagram from source to the destination, the datagram must be
moved across an individual link.
• The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram across an
individual link.
• TheData link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged across the
nodes as well as the actions such as Error detection, retransmission, flow control, and
random access.
• TheDataLink Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.
• An important characteristic of a Data Link Layer is that datagram can be handled by
different link layer protocols on different links in a path. For example, the datagram is
handled by Ethernet on the first link, PPP on the second link.
➢ Services provided by data link layer:
1. Framing &Link access:

Before being sent across the link, Data Link Layer protocols wrap each network frame in
a Link layer frame. A frame is made up of a data field and a number of data fields. The
network layer datagram is put into the data field. It describes the structure of the frame
and the channel access protocol that is used to send the frame over the link.
2. Reliable delivery:
Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service, which means that it sends the
network layer datagram without any mistakes. A reliable delivery service is
accomplished with transmissions and acknowledgements. A data link layer's main job is
to make sure that data is delivered reliably over the links, which have higher error rates
and can be fixed locally instead of having to send the data again.
3. Flow control:
A node that is getting frames can get them faster than it can process them. Without flow
control, the receiver's buffer can fill up and frames can be lost. To solve this problem, the
data link layer uses flow control to stop the sending node on one side of the link from
flooding the receiving node on the other side of the link.
4. Error detection:
Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise. Data Link Layer protocol
provides a mechanism to detect one or more errors. This is achieved by adding error
detection bits in the frame and then receiving node can perform an error check.
52
5. Error correction:
Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except that receiving node not only
detect the errors but also determine where the errors have occurred in the frame.
6. Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex:

In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can transmit the data at the same time. In a Half
Duplex mode, only one node can transmit the data at the same time.
1. Actual Communication:
In this communication, physical medium is present through which Data Link Layer
simply transmits data frames. The actual path is Network Layer-> Data link layer->
Physical Layer on sending machine, then to physical media and after that to Physical
Layer-> Data link layer-> Network Layer on receiving machine.
2. Virtual Communication:
In this communication, no physical medium is present for Data Link Layer to transmit
data. It can be only be visualized and imagined that two Data Link Layers are
communicating with each other with the help of or using data link protocol.
➢ Types of Services provided by Data Link Layer on basis of connection:
• Unacknowledged Connectionless Service

• Acknowledged Connectionless Service
• Acknowledged Connection-Oriented Service
• Unacknowledged Connectionless Service:
53
1. Unacknowledged connectionless service simply provides datagram styles delivery

without any error, issue, or flow control. In this service, source machine generally
transmits independent frames to destination machine without having destination
machine to acknowledge these frames.
2. This service is called as connectionless service because there is no connection
established among sending or source machine and destination or receiving machine
before data transfer or release after data transfer.
3. In Data Link Layer, if anyhow frame is lost due to noise, there will be no attempt
made just to detect or determine loss or recovery from it. This simply means that
there will be no error or flow control. An example can be Ethernet.
• Acknowledged Connectionless Service:
1. This service simply provides acknowledged connectionless service i.e. packet delivery
is simply acknowledged, with help of stop and wait for protocol.
2. In this service, each frame that is transmitted by Data Link Layer is simply
acknowledged individually and then sender usually knows whether or not these
transmitted data frames received safely.
3. There is no logical connection established and each frame that is transmitted is
acknowledged individually.
4. This mode simply provides means by which user of data link can just send or transfer
data and request return of data at the same time. It also uses particular time period that
if it has passed frame without getting acknowledgment, then it will resend data frame
on time period.
5. This service is more reliable than unacknowledged connectionless service. This
service is generally useful over several unreliable channels, like wireless systems, Wi-
Fi services, etc.
• Acknowledged Connection-Oriented Service:
1. In this type of service, connection is established first among sender and receiver or
source and destination before data is transferred.
2. Then data is transferred or transmitted along with this established connection.
3. In this service, each of frames that are transmitted is provided individual numbers first,
so as to confirm and guarantee that each of frames is received only once that too in an
appropriate order and sequence.
Data Link Layer protocols are generally responsible to simply ensure and confirm that the
bits and bytes that are receive dare identical to the bits and bytes being transferred. It is
basicallyasetofspecificationsthatareusedforimplementationofdatalinklayerjustabove the
physical layer of the Open System Interconnections (OSI)Model.
54
❖ Some Common Data Link Protocols:

There are various data link protocols that are required for Wide Area Network (WAN)
and modem connections. Logical Link Control (LLC) is a data link protocol of Local
Area Network (LAN). Some of data link protocols are given below:
➢ Sublayer of data link layer:
The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework that
conceptualizes how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems.
The data link layer is the second lowest layer. It is divided into two sublayers –
• The logical link control (LLC) sublayer

• The medium access control (MAC) sublayer
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➢ Functions of MAC Layer:

• It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI
network.
• It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via
the physical medium.
• It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups
of destination stations.
• It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be
transmitted. It determines the channel access methods for transmission.
• It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.
• It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against
transmission errors.
➢ MAC Addresses:
MAC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted to a network
interface controller (NIC) of a device. It is used as a network address for data
transmission within a network segment like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
MAC address is assigned to a network adapter at the time of manufacturing. It is

hardwired or hard-coded in the network interface card (NIC). A MAC address comprises
of six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens, colons, or no separators.
An example of a MAC address is 00:0A:89:5B:F0:11.
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PRACTICAL – 10
AIM: St Study of Application Layer protocol.
What is Application Layer?
The Application Layer is topmost layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
This layer provides several ways for manipulating the data (information) which actually
enables any type of user to access network with ease. This layer also makes a request to its
bottom layer, which is presentation layer for receiving various types of information from it.
The Application Layer interface directly interacts with application and provides common web
application services. This layer is basically highest level of open system, which provides
services directly for application process.
➢ Functions of Application Layer:

The Application Layer, as discussed above, being topmost layer in OSI model, performs
several kinds of functions which are requirement in any kind of application or
communication process.
Following are list of functions which are performed by Application Layer of OSI Model
Data from User <=> Application layer <=> Data from Presentation Layer
1. Application Layer provides a facility by which users can forward several emails and it
also provides a storage facility.
2. This layer allows users to access, retrieve and manage files in a remote computer.
3. It allows users to log on as a remote host.
4. This layer provides access to global information about various services.
5. This layer provides services which include: e-mail, transferring files, distributing
results to the user, directory services, network resources and so on.
6. It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present
meaningful data to users.
7. It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation and so on.
8. This layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
services.
9. Application Layer is basically not a function, but it performs application layer
functions.
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10. The application layer is actually an abstraction layer that specifies the shared
protocols and interface methods used by hosts in a communication network.
11. Application Layer helps us to identify communication partners, and synchronizing
communication.
12. This layer allows users to interact with other software applications.
13. In this layer, data is in visual form, which makes users truly understand data rather
than remembering or visualize the data in the binary format (0’s or 1’s).
14. This application layer basically interacts with Operating System (OS) and thus
further preserves the data in a suitable manner.
15. This layer also receives and preserves data from it’s previous layer, which is
Presentation Layer (which carries in itself the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted).
16. The protocols which are used in this application layer depend upon what information
users wish to send or receive.
17. This application layer, in general, performs host initialization followed by remote
login to hosts.
➢ Working of Application Layer in the OSI model:

This application layer's scope is more constrained in the OSI paradigm. In the OSI
model, the application layer often simply serves as an interface for interacting with host-
based and user-facing programmes. In contrast, the TCP/IP protocol combines the
Session Layer and Presentation Layer, the two layers beneath the application layer, to
create a single, straightforward layer that performs the necessary tasks, such as managing
computer conversations, starting, maintaining, and ending a specific session, providing
data compression and encryption, and so forth.
Client initially transmits an instruction to the server, and after the server receives it, it
assigns a port number to the client. The client then initiates a connection with the server,
and when the server receives the request, it acknowledges it (ACK) to the client. At this
point, the client has access to the server and can either request the server send any kind
of file or other document, or it can upload files or other documents directly to the server.
Features:
To ensure smooth communication, application layer protocols are implemented the same on
source host and destination host.
The following are some of the features which are provided by Application layer protocols.
• The Application Layer protocol defines process for both parties which are involved in
communication.
• These protocols define the type of message being sent or received from any side (either
source host or destination host).
• These protocols also define basic syntax of the message being forwarded or retrieved.
• These protocols define the way to send a message and the expected response.
• These protocols also define interaction with the next level.
58
➢ Application Layer protocol:

1. TELNET:
Telnet stands for the TELetype NETwork. It helps in terminal emulation. It allows
Telnet clients to access the resources of the Telnet server. It is used for managing files
on the internet. It is used for the initial setup of devices like switches. The telnet
command is a command that uses the Telnet protocol to communicate with a remote
device or system. Port number of telnet is 23.
Command:
telnet [\\RemoteServer]
\\RemoteServer: Specifies the name of the server to which you want to connect
2. FTP:
FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is the protocol that actually lets us transfer
files. It can facilitate this between any two machines using it. But FTP is not just a
protocol but it is also a program. FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computers
with reliable and efficient data transfer. The Port number for FTP is 20 for data and
21 for control.
Local File System Remote File System

Command:
ftp machinename
3. TFTP: The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simplified, stock version of
FTP, but if you know exactly what you're looking for and where to find it, it's the
protocol of choice. It is a streamlined form of FTP and a mechanism for moving files
across network devices. TFTP uses port number 69.
Command:
tftp [ options... ] [host [port]] [-c command]
4. NFS:
It stands for a network file system. It allows remote hosts to mount file systems over
a network and interact with those file systems as though they are mounted locally.
This enables system administrators to consolidate resources onto centralized servers
on the network. The Port number for NFS is 2049.
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Command:
service nfs start
5. SMTP:
It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a part of the TCP/IP protocol. Using
a process called “store and forward,” SMTP moves your email on and across
networks. It works closely with something called the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to
send your communication to the right computer and email inbox. The Port number
for SMTP is 25.
Command:
MAIL FROM:<[email protected]?
6. LPD:
It stands for Line Printer Daemon. It is designed for printer sharing. It is the part that
receives and processes the request. A “daemon” is a server or agent. The Port number
for LPD is 515.
Command:
lpd [-d ] [-l ] [-D DebugOutputFile]
7. X window:
It defines a protocol for the writing of graphical user interface–based client/server
applications. The idea is to allow a program, called a client, to run on one computer.
It is primarily used in networks of interconnected mainframes. Port number for X
window starts from 6000 and increases by 1 for each server.
Command:
Run xdm in runlevel 5
8. SNMP:
60
It stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It gathers data by polling the
devices on the network from a management station at fixed or random intervals,
requiring them to disclose certain information. It is a way that servers can share
information about their current state, and also a channel through which an
administrate can modify pre-defined values. The Port number of SNMP is 161(TCP)
and 162(UDP).
Command:
snmpget-mALL-v1-cpublic snmp_agent_Ip_address sysName.0
9. DNS:
It stands for Domain Name System. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a
DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example,
the domain name www.abc.com might translate to 198.105.232.4. The Port number
for DNS is 53.
Command:
ipconfig /flushdns
10. DHCP:
It stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). It gives IP addresses to
hosts. There is a lot of information a DHCP server can provide to a host when the
host is registering for an IP address with the DHCP server. Port number for DHCP is
67, 68.
Command:
clear ip dhcp binding {address | * }
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Enrolment No.

• Area Coverage – Area coverage of a network is restricted to a certain distance. Hub

• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by

• Increment Presentation – They increment the presentation of the organization.

• Tough Availability issues – Network availability issues are hard to be followed

• Issues in traffic broadcasting – Broadcast traffic might be problematic.

Advantages of the Router:

• It provides sophisticated routing, flow control, and traffic isolation

• Used to expand the network.

• Not an intelligent device. So, noise prevention is not done.

• It is expensive compare to hub and router.

• Compatibility − Ethernet connections are standardized and widely compatible, and

• Limited compatibility − NICs are constrained by the network interface's top

• Cost − NICs can be expensive, especially if you need high-speed, high-bandwidth

• Power consumption − Particularly when several NICs are installed in a system,

Fig. 2.1 – Coaxial Cable

2. Fiber Optics Cable:

Fig. 2.2 – Fiber Optics Cable

There are two types of twisted pair cable.

A. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

A. Shielded Twisted Pair (STD) Cable:

Fig. 2.3 – Shielded Twisted Pair (STD) Cable

B. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTD) Cable:

Fig. 2.4 – Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Fig. 2.5 – Ethernet Cable

Fig. 2.6 – Crimping Tool

Tracert Command Option

tracert –d :- This option prevents tracert from resolving IP addresses to

Fig. 3.1 – Tracert Command

Fig. 3.2 – Ping Command

Fig. 3.3 – Winipcfg Command

Fig. 3.4 – ARP Command

Netstat Command Option:

Fig. 3.5 – Netstat Command

Normally, name resolution is performed when NetBIOS over TCP/IP is functioning

Netstat Command Option:

Fig. 3.6 – nbtstat command

IPconfig is a console application designed to run from the Windows command

Fig. 3.7 – ipconfig command

Fig. 3.8 – nslookup command

Fig. 4.1 – Bus Topology

Fig. 4.2 – Ring Topology

Fig. 4.3 – Star Topology

Fig. 4.4 – Mesh Topology

Fig. 4.5 – Tree Topology

Fig. 4.6 – Hybrid Topology

Virtual LAN (VLAN):

Wetreat eachVLANasaseparatesubnetorbroadcast domain.Forthisreason,to move

VLANsare configured on switches by placing some interfaces into one broadcast

Step by step creation, configuration, testing and implementation of VLAN and

Fig. 5.1 – Creating a Network Topology

Step-2: Create 2 VLANs on the switch: VLAN10 and VLAN20.

Assign interfaces fa 0/3 and fa 0/4 to VLAN20.

PCs IP Address Subnet Mask Default Gateway

PC1 192.168.1.10 255.255.252.0 192.168.1.1

PC2 192.168.1.20 255.255.252.0 192.168.1.1

PC3 192.168.2.10 255.255.252.0 192.168.2.1

PC4 192.168.2.20 255.255.252.0 192.168.2.1

Step-5: Test connectivity with in VLANs and between VLANs.