ENZYMES

A catalyst is a chemical substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

but is not itself changed by the reaction.
Enzymes are biological catalysts produced by living cells.
Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions inside the body / metabolic
reactions.
[Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up the reaction rate without getting
involved in the reaction itself.]
Enzymes are proteins [tertiary structure of protein].
Many enzyme names end in –ase-
Examples of Enzymes: Salivary Amylase, Pepsin, Renin, Lipase, Catalase, Isomerase,
Phosphorylase, Maltase, Lactase, Sucrase…etc
Types of Enzymes
Carbohydrase- digests Carbohydrates (eg:- Salivary amylase)
Protease- digests Proteins (eg:- Pepsin)
Lipase- digests Fats (eg:- Enzymes from pancreas)
Catalyst Biological catalysts
1. Catalysts are chemical substances 1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that
that increase the rate of chemical increases the rate of chemical reactions
reaction without being used up. without being used up in living cells.
2. Inorganic in nature. 2. Organic in nature.
3. Manganese dioxide catalyzes the 3. They occur inside cells / secreted by
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to the cells.
oxygen and water. Since manganese Catalase is the enzyme that catalyses the
dioxide is a catalyst, it is not consumed breakdown of hydrogen peroxide.
in the reaction. Hydrogen peroxide ‘decomposes’ to
form water and oxygen.
Activation energy
The amount of energy required for a reaction to occur.
Enzyme decreases activation energy of a reaction.

Why are enzymes necessary in biological systems?

They speed up reactions so that less energy is needed for the reaction to occur.
 Properties of Enzymes
All Enzymes are Proteins.
Each enzyme catalyze one reaction[specificity].
Powerful than inorganic catalyst.
They can be reused.
They are influenced by temperature and pH.
Enzyme structure
The part of an enzyme where
the substrate binds and the
reaction occurs is known as the
active site

The molecule the

enzyme acts on is
known as the substrate
molecule

The molecule the

enzyme produces is
known as the
product molecule
How an Enzyme Works
Enzymes are highly specific
1. Substrate enters active site.
2. An enzyme-substrate complex forms.
3. Reaction occurs.
4. Products forms and leave active site.
5. Same enzyme can be re-used.

The lock and key hypothesis [fischer]

states that the active site specifically
matches the shape of the substrate
molecule.
Lock – enzyme
Key – substrate
Key hole – active site
Factors affecting Enzymes
Temperature
pH
Substrate concentration
Enzyme concentration
Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Function
The temperature at which the
maximum rate of reaction occurs is
called the optimum temperature.
In the human body, the optimum
temperature is 37⁰C
When temperature increases the
reaction also increases as the
molecules have more kinetic
energy. But this only occurs up to
the optimum temperature (usually
about 37oC).
After the optimum temperature
the heat causes the enzyme to
denature.
Denaturation is irreversible.
Effect of pH on Enzyme Function
The optimum pH for most enzymes in the Human body is 7 (neutral),
but some that are produced in acidic conditions, such as the stomach,
have a lower optimum pH (pH 1.5 - 2 - pepsin) and some that are
produced in alkaline conditions, such as the duodenum, have a higher
optimum pH (pH 8 or 9 -trypsin)
If the pH is too high or too low, the bonds that hold the amino acid
chain together to make up the protein can be destroyed.

pH Levels
Low pH (0-7) is acidic
High pH (7-14) is basic
pH = 7 is neutral
Substrate concentration affect the rate
of activity of enzymes.
 The greater the substrate concentration, the greater the enzyme activity and
the higher the rate of reaction:
 As the number of substrate molecules increases, the likelihood of enzyme-substrate
complex formation increases.
 If the enzyme concentration remains fixed but the amount of substrate is increased
past a certain point, however, all available active sites eventually
become saturated and any further increase in substrate concentration will not
increase the reaction rate.
 When the active sites of the enzymes are all full, any substrate molecules that are
added have nowhere to bind in order to form an enzyme-substrate complex
Application of enzymes
1. Enzymes are used in biological washing powders
 Biological washing powders contain protease and lipase to remove protein stains and fat/grease from clothes.
 Proteases break down the coloured, insoluble proteins that cause stains to smaller, colourless soluble
polypeptides.
 Amylases break down starches, and lipases break down fats and grease.

2. Enzymes are used in the food industry

Fruit juices are extracted using an enzyme called pectinase.
Pectinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of pectin, a component of the cell wall in fruits such
as apples and oranges.

3. Enzymes are used in Baby Food Production

 Enzymes are also used in baby food production where the food is treated with Protease and Carbohydrase to
break down proteins to polypeptides and amino acids and carbohydrate to simple sugar.
 This helps the baby’s body to easily absorb the food and indigestion is prevented.

4. Enzymes are used in the food industry

Lactase is an enzyme produced by many organisms. It is placed within the brush border of the tiny gut of humans
and alternative mammals. Lactase breaks down lactose in milk into glucose and galactose.
Lacking Lactaid, someone intense dairy farm product might expertise the symptoms of inherited disease.
Lactase can be purchased as a food supplement and is added to milk to produce “lactose-free” milk products.
This makes milk drinkable for lactose intolerant people.

5. Enzymes are used in seed germination

 Amylase is an enzyme found in the germinating seeds.
 Amylase enzyme breaks down starch into maltose, a chain of two glucose molecules Maltose then breaks down
into glucose. Glucose is used for the growth of plumule and radicle.
 Variables
Independent Variable: The independent variable is the one condition that you change in an
experiment.
Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is the variable that you measure or observe.
Controlled Variable: A controlled variable or constant variable is a variable that does not
change during an experiment.
Investigating the Effect of Temperature on Amylase enzyme
 Enzymes build/break molecules and speed up reactions in living things.
 Amylase is found in saliva.
 Amylase breaks long starch molecules down into small glucose molecules.
 Independent variable - Temperature
 Dependent variable - Time
 Controlled variables – pH, same volume and concentration of starch and same volume and
concentration of amylase.
Investigating the Effect of pH on Amylase enzyme
 Independent variable - pH
 Dependent variable - Time
 Controlled variables – Temperature, same volume and concentration of starch and same
volume and concentration of amylase.
FACTS ABOUT
ENZYMES
Make a poster
Eg:
 OZONE
What is Ozone?
It is a coating made of natural gas found within the Stratosphere.

Why this layer is important?

 It protects humans and living things on Earth from harmful
radiation of the sun, the ultraviolet radiation.
 It absorbs over 98% of them and allow only a little amount of the
UV radiation to reach into Earth’s atmosphere.
 Without the presence of the ozone layer, this radiation would
reach the Earth’s surface and thus cause severe damage to life
on our planet.

What is currently destroying the ozone layer? chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)

Sources of CFC - Deodorant sprays, Refrigeration gases,Air-
conditioning,Correction pen,Insulation Materials
ozone day poster
Make a poster
Eg:
 Lesson 2
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

1 Metabolism – Chemical reaction takes place inside the organism.

2 Catabolism - Break down complex compounds and molecules to release energy.
3 Anabolism - Builds up the complex molecules using energy.
4 Monomer - The smallest subunit of molecule.
5 Polymer - Large number of simpler units bonded together.
6 Macromolecules - Very large molecules.
7 Biomolecules - Molecules present in living organisms.
 A compound is a substance that results from a combination of two
or more different chemical elements.
 Compounds are classified into Organic and inorganic compounds.

Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds

1 Organic compounds are mainly found in These compounds are found in non-living
most of the living things things
2 The major organic compounds are The major inorganic compounds
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and are water (H2O), bimolecular oxygen (O2),
nucleic acids. carbon dioxide (CO2), and some acids,
bases, and salts.
3 These compounds have the carbon- These do not have the carbon-hydrogen bonds
hydrogen bonds
Biomolecules – Living Molecules
NO BIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS
MOLECULES
1 Carbohydrates carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
2 Lipids carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
3 Protein carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, Sulphur or
phosphorus
4 Nucleic acids carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphate
5 Water Hydrogen, oxygen
6 Sodium chloride Sodium and chloride
 1. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are Long chains of simple sugars.
Elements: C, H, O. [usually with a hydrogen: oxygen atom
ratio of 2:1 as in water].
It refers to Hydrates of carbon
Glycosidic bonds between polysaccharides
Provides immediate source of energy
Digested by amylase, maltase
Iodine test for starch and Benedict’s for reducing sugars
Foods: Bread, Rice, Potato, Pasta

Types of Carbohydrates
Types of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides
 Monosaccharide is a simple sugar. [C6H1206]
 It’s a Monomer.
 Sugars with a single carbon ring.
 Very small, water soluble and tastes sweet.
 Examples - glucose, fructose and galactose.
 Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides and polysaccharides.

2. Disaccharides
 Two monosaccharides can make a disaccharide. [C12H22011]
 Disaccharide formation takes place by condensation reaction.
 Sugars with two carbon rings.
 It’s is a complex sugar.
Examples :
1. Sucrose: glucose + fructose
2. Maltose: glucose + glucose
3.Lactose: galactose + glucose
3. Polysaccharides
Many monosaccharides joined together make a polysaccharide. (C6H10O5)n
Polysaccharides are insoluble in water and are not sweet,so they are the forms in
which organisms store their glucose for later use.
Examples :
1. Cellulose – makes plant cell walls
2. Starch – plant storage molecule Glycosidic bonds
3. Glycogen – animal storage molecule

A glycosidic bond can join two monosaccharide molecules to form a disaccharide.

Polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, cellulose or chitin consist of numerous
monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds.

condensation reaction, any of a class of reactions in which two molecules combine, usually in
the presence of a catalyst, with elimination of water or some other simple molecule.
Functions
1. Energy Storage:
Starch and glucose are stored in cells and used in respiration to provide energy for the
organism.
Glucose is transported around the human body in blood plasma.
Plants transport sucrose, which is then converted into glucose and used for
respiration.
Plants store starch in their seeds and tubers.
Animals store glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Cellulose is used for structure and makes up plant cell walls.
2. Building Macromolecules - some glucose is converted to ribose and
deoxyribose, which are essential building blocks of important macromolecules, such as
RNA, DNA, and ATP
3. Structural purposes
Cellulose - provide structural support to plant cells.
Chitin - provide structural support to fungi, and all of the arthropods that include
lobsters, crabs, shrimp, insects, and spiders.
Structure
The three main types of lipids are
 Fats and Oils
 Phospholipids
 Steroids and waxes
Lipids are Macromolecules, made of a glycerol molecule attached
to three fatty acid molecules. Such a lipid is called triglyceride.
Components: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen [more hydrogen, less
oxygen than carbohydrates ]
Glycerol and fatty acids are the monomers that make up lipids.
 Most fats (lipids) in the body are made up of triglycerides
 Their basic unit is 1 glycerol molecule chemically bonded to 3
fatty acid chains Ester bonds
 The fatty acids vary in size and structure.
 Bond – Ester bond
Is broken down by lipase.
Solubility: *Insoluble in water
*Soluble in organic solvents (ethanol)
Fats are solids at room temperature and oils are liquids at room
temperature.
 Differences between Saturated Fats and Unsaturated Fats
No Saturated fats Unsaturated fats
1 Contains a single bond. Contains at least one double bond.
2 Solid state in room temperature. Liquid state in room temperature.

3 High melting point. Low melting point.

4 Animal source Plant source
5 Foods sources - whole milk, Foods sources - walnuts, flax, avocado,
butter, cheese, margarine, sunflower oil, soybean oil, fish oil, canola
coconut oil, vegetable oil, meat, oil, red meat, etc.
peanut, fried foods, etc.
6 leads to heart diseases. Good for consumption

Role of Lipids [SHIPS]

long term energy storage [S],
circulate the body acting as chemical signals to cells (hormones) [H],
protection against heat loss -insulation [I],
protection against water loss (waterproofing) [P],
structure and protection around delicate organs[S].
The role of waxes in plants [Why are they important for plant survival?]
Lipids form a waterproof layer over leaves that protects the plant from water loss and
external dangers.
The wax layer limits the diffusion of water out of leaves, helping the plant resist
drought.
It prevents excess water from entering the leaves and drowning the plant.
protect the plant from UV rays, insect predation, air contaminants, bacteria and
disease.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids consist of a glycerol
molecule, two fatty acids, and a
phosphate group that is modified by an
alcohol.
The fatty acid chains are the
uncharged, nonpolar tails, which are
hydrophobic. Since the tails are
hydrophobic, they face the inside, away
from the water and meet in the inner
region of the membrane.
ROLE OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS - The main
component (building block) of cell
membranes.
Long chains molecules made up of amino acids.
Made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen.
Amino acids are the monomers.
Amino acid contain an amino group – NH2, carboxylic acid group – COOH and a variable R
group which is a carbon containing chain.
They all contain the same basic structure but the ‘R’ group is different for each one].
There are 20 different types of amino acids with different R groups.
Different combinations of amino acids form thousands of different proteins.
Different proteins have different amino acid sequences resulting in them being different shapes.
Even a small difference in the amino acid sequence will result in a completely different protein
being formed
The different sequences of amino acids cause the polypeptide chains to fold in different
ways and this gives rise to the different shapes of proteins.
Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds formed in condensation reactions.
A dipeptide contains two amino acids and polypeptide contains three or more amino acids.
Is broken down by protease.

A proteins shape is determined by the order that amino acids are joined in.
The shape of a protein determines its function, Examples of proteins include antibodies,
enzymes, haemoglobin, insulin and keratin
Four levels of protein structure
The structure of proteins is determined by the order and number of amino acids, bonding
present and the shape of the protein.
Primary protein structure : A linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bond.
Secondary protein structure: The regular folding of a polypeptide into alpha helices and beta
pleated sheets, held by hydrogen bonds.
Tertiary protein structure: The further coiling of a protein into its functional 3D shape, held by
hydrogen, ionic and disulphide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions. Eg: enzymes, keratin
Quaternary protein structure: The folding of 2 or more polypeptides into a 3D shape, held by
hydrogen, ionic and disulphide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions. Eg: Haemoglobin
 Fibrous and globular are two types of proteins in the body. Both of
them are important in the functioning of the body.
Globular Proteins Fibrous Proteins
A Globular protein is spherical in Fibrous proteins are elongated strand-
shape and like structures and are usually present in
has the property of forming colloids with the form of rods or wires.
water.
The globular proteins have a functional The fibrous proteins have a structural
role. function in the body.
Globular proteins are soluble in water. Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water.
Examples - hemoglobin, myoglobin, Examples of fibrous proteins are keratin -
immunoglobulins, amylase, insulin the major component of hair and nails
and collagen - the major protein
component of tendons, skin, bones, and
teeth.
 Function - How does the body use protein
1. Used to make new cells.
2. Growth and Maintenance -Used for growth and repair.
3. Provides Structural and mechanical support –
 Collagen - the major protein component of tendons, skin, bones, teeth, blood
vessel, cartilage and connective tissue.
 Keratin - the major component of hair and nails
4. Transports and Stores Nutrients - Haemoglobin
5. Causes Biochemical Reactions - enzymes
6. Some proteins function as chemical-signaling molecules called hormones -
insulin is a protein hormone that helps to regulate blood glucose levels.
7. Maintains Proper pH - Protein plays a vital role in regulating the concentrations of
acids and bases in our blood and other bodily fluids.
8. Protection - immunoglobulins or antibodies are proteins which are used to kill
bacteria and viruses.
 4.WATER
Water is a good solvent.
It acts as a solvent in which chemical reactions occur, helps to maintain a constant
temperature in the body, and is a metabolite.

ROLE
In green plants, water combines with CO2 to form sugar.
Water also acts as a transport medium in plants.
In animals, water helps to break down and digest food molecules.
Blood is made up of cells and a liquid called plasma. Plasma is 92% water and acts as
a transport medium for many dissolved substances.
Water plays an important role in excretion in animals. It acts as a powerful solvent
for excretory materials. It transports waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide
to be excreted.
Water has a diluting effect, reducing the toxicity if the excretory materials.

Give one use of water in the body. Water is used as a solvent in the body
Give 3 processes in which water is used as a solvent.
Digestion
Excretion
Transport
 Organic macromolecules
 Elements: C, H, O, N, P
 Monomers: Nucleotides
 Polymers: Nucleic Acids/polynucleotides/ DNA/RNA
 Nucleotides link together to form nucleic acids OR polynucleotides.
 Generally Water Soluble
 Nucleotide Components are
 Pentose (5-C) Sugar
 Phosphate
 Nitrogenous Base
 Nucleotide = [Phosphate + Sugar + Nitrogen base]
Nitrogenous bases
The bases are classified as purines and pyrimidines.
The purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G).
Purines consist of a double ring structure.
The pyrimidines are cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U).
It has a single ring structure.
Base-Pair Rule
A purine base always pairs with a pyrimidine base
[guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C) and
adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) or uracil (U)].

 There are two types of nucleic acid.

 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
 ribonucleic acid (RNA)
5-Carbon sugar in DNA is deoxyribose.
5-Carbon sugar in RNA is ribose.
Bond is phosphodiester bond.
 DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid.
 This chemical substance is present in
the nucleus of all cells in all living
organisms
 DNA is often called the blueprint of life.
 DNA is the genetic information in every
cell.
 In simple terms, DNA contains[holds]
the instructions for making proteins
within the cell.
 DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the
molecule that contains the instructions
for growth and development of all
organisms.
 The sequence of nitrogen bases in DNA
determines the traits of an organism.
 DNA Structure
DNA consists of two molecules that are arranged into a ladder-like structure called a Double
Helix.
Sugar present in DNA is Deoxyribose.
DNA is a polymer made up of millions of tiny subunits or monomers called Nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of:
Phosphate group
Deoxyribose sugar (5-Carbon or Pentose sugar )
Nitrogenous base
All nucleotides contain the same phosphate and deoxyribose sugar, but differ from each other
in the base attached
There are four different types of nitrogenous bases, Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T)
and Guanine (G)
The bases on each strand pair up with each other, holding the two strands of DNA in the
double helix. The basic shape is like a twisted, helical ladder or zipper.
The bases always pair up in the same way:
Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T)
Cytosine always pairs with Guanine (C-G)
In the “ladder” of DNA:
 alternating sugars and phosphates are the sides of the
ladder. [The phosphate and sugar section of the nucleotides
to form sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA strand]
 nitrogenous base pairs are the steps/rungs of the ladder.
 Bond is phosphodiester bond.
 The backbone is connected by covalent bonds.
 The bases are connected by hydrogen bonds.

hydrogen bond covalent bond

 Antiparallel: The DNA strands are side by
side but run in opposite directions.
[Always 5’ to 3’ direction]
2.RNA - Ribonucleic acid
RNA is a polymer made of many nucleotide monomers.
Nucleotides contain
◦ Phosphate group
◦ Pentose sugar – Ribose
◦ Nitrogen bases [The four different nitrogenous bases in RNA are, Adenine (A),
Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Uracil (U).
Sugar present in RNA is Ribose.
RNA contains information for carrying out protein synthesis.
Acts as a genetic material in virus.
NO DNA RNA

1 DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose. RNA contains the sugar ribose.

2 DNA is a double-stranded polynucleotide RNA is a single-stranded polynucleotide

molecule. molecule.
3 DNA is stable under alkaline conditions. RNA is not stable.

4 Found in the nucleus, chloroplast and Found in the nucleolus, cytoplasm and
mitochondria ribosomes
5 DNA is responsible for storing and RNA directly codes for amino acids and acts
transferring genetic information. as a messenger between DNA and
ribosomes to make proteins

6 Contains genetic information about an Copies information in DNA for protein

organism. synthesis
7 Nitrogenous bases A = T GC Nitrogenous bases A=U G C