The Meiji Modernization

Modernization
§ Transforming a country from feudal to modern
§ Social, educational, economic, political, cultural, military aspects
§ Preserve traditions and morals
Political - Central govt. (X feudalism à constitution)
- Sovereignty
Economics - Effective taxation system à stable income
- Industrialization
Social - Class mobility, no rigid class distinction
- Undergo urbanization
Educational - High literary level
- Science and tech
Military - Conscription
- Advanced weapons
- Army & naval units
Advantageous foundation from Tokugawa
§ Sankin Kotai
o Growth of commercial & manufacturing activities à rapid econ. growth
o Enhance communication à sense of unity & centralized govt.
§ Rangaku
o Prepared Japanese mentally for opening of country & adoption of western ideas à
open minded
o Tempo Era: reforms by Bakufu and daimyo
§ Meiji Restoration
o Overthrowing the shogunate was a bloodless incident à reasonably stable political
and social order
Composition of new government
§ Most from SW (tozama clans), inc. Satsuma & Choshu
§ Young, energetic, open-minded; less committed to old system
§ Low samurai origin à ambitious & talented à climb to positions of authority from
humble origins since changes in 1853
§ Active figures in the Batsumatsu period
§ Became ministers of the new govt. and then the genro
Charter Oath – 1868
Aims of Meiji Modernization
§ Fukoku Kyohei (internal strengthening and militarization)
§ Centralized govt.
§ World power status (recognized like Br., F, R)
The Five Articles Oath
§ Basis of modernization (guiding principles & blueprint)
1 Deliberate assemblies shall be wifely - Unlikely to be setting up a democratic
established and all matters decided by govt.
public discussion. - Tenno holds greatest power
2 All classes, high or low, shall unite - Strong sense of national unity &
vigorously carrying out the administration devotion to state
of affairs of state. - Easier for reforms (govt., edu, social
classes)
- X feudal & X daimyo
3 The common people, no less than the civil & - Centralized govt.
military officials, shall each be allowed to - Higher degree of social mobility
pursue his own calling so that there may be - Ready for massive social changes after
no discontent. Tokugawa era à X samurai & daimyo
4 Evil customs of the past shall be broken off - Higher degree of social mobility
& everything based upon the laws of Nature
 - Abolition of old systems (govt., edu,
social classes, legal)
- Achieve modernization
5 Knowledge shall be sought throughout the - Lay down entire process
world so as to strengthen the foundations of - Reinforce supreme image of the
imperial rule emperor
- All started from emperor
Abolition of feudalism
Reasons
§ Still many daimyos by 1868 à threaten stability of the country & the govt.
§ Difficult for the govt. to have centralized power
§ Internal disunity à invited foreign aggression
Programs
§ Political level (daimyos)
o 1869 – hand over domains to Tenno; dissolve clan govt & armies; ex-daimyo
appointed as local officials; retain 1/10 of former revenue as pensions
o 1871 – central govt divided Japan into 75 prefectures government by centrally
appointed officials à speed up administrative efficiency à large scale reform
o 1889 – systematic local govt. set up
§ Social level (samurai)
o Abolition of feudal classes and restrictions
o Ex-samurai given reduced stipends
o Allowed to enter other occupations
o 1876 – changed the year allowance for daimyo & samurai into a lump sum à X
class distinction
Reactions & results
Social class Response Impact
Daimyo - Acceptance - Became wealthy capitalist . peers
in Parliament
- Retain social standing
Samurai - Some adapted à capitalists / - Satsuma Rebellion in 1877 (The
landlord Last Samurai)
- Others found life difficult (∵
traditional values)
- ¯ status ∵ conscription &
compulsory edu
Merchants - Acceptance - Growing influence in political
- Even wealthier scene à Zaibatsu (influenced
start of WW2)
- ­ status & wealth
Peasants - Little changes in life - More equal before the law
- Paid tax to govt., X daimyo - Migrated to urban areas
The People’s Rights Movement – “minken”
§ Dispute over Korean expansion (Sat-cho officers e.g. Saigo vs Itagaki of Tosa)
§ Itagaki formed “the Public Society of Patriots”
§ Ex-samurai, prosperous landowners, petty entrepreneaurs, lower peasants supported the
party à political involvement
§ Growing knowledge of democratic institution among intellectuals
o Rosseau’s Social Contract popularized by Nakae Chomin of Tosa
o Nakae Chomin found the Oriental Free Press (public protest in journalism)
§ Hokkaido Scandal: govt officials in Hokkaido + Osaka merchants plotted to buy property at
a low price
Liberal Party Leader: Hakogi from Toza - Advocated French type of liberal ideas
Supporters: landowners & à popular sovereignty
small businessmen - Imperial constitution = J political
symbol
- Challenged Sat-Cho oligarchy
Constitutional Leader: Okuma from Hizen - Advocated Br parliamentary concepts
Progressive Supporters: intellectuals & - Upper & lower houses
Party businessmen
Constitutional Satsuma & Choshu clans - German parliament + armament
Imperial Party - Official party à competed with other 2
§ Liberals & Progressives repeatedly disbanded, reorganized, renamed
§ Accusation for being “self-seeking faction”
o Progressives accuse Liberals of serving Mitsui interest
o Liberals blame Progressives for being controlled by Mitsubishi
§ Laws, courts, police to suppress popular rights movement
§ Liberal party dissolved in 1884 due to disruption
1881 Emperor announced parliament to be called in 1890
1882 Ito Hirobumi sent to study western parliamentary institutions (G, F, Br)
Settle on G model (∵ focus on imperial power + favour emperor)
1884 Ito drafted constitution
New nobility – Kazoku (men who contributed to the nation)
1885 Cabinet with heads of various ministries filled w/ chief oligarchy
X Council of state
Ito = prime minister
1887 New civil service exam system based on G model
1888 Privy council (advisory body) with Sat-Cho leaders
1889 Constitution promulgated on 11/2
Presented as a “gracious gift from the Emperor to his subjects)
§ Need to win support from western countries à certain degree of “freedom”
§ Designed to pacify opposition w/o deposing oligarchy
o X intention to practice democracy
o Needed time to centralize power à delay tactics for further policies
o Unite country & give hope
o Practice tradition of monarchy in a “modernized way”
Features of the Meiji Constitution
§ Institutionally democratic, but remained oligarchic structure
o Emperor represented the executive branch, and was “sacred and inviolable”
(Article 1 of the constitution states that “J shall be reigned over by a line of
Emperors unbroken for ages eternal”
o Emperor could make peace, declare war, control army, and veto laws
o Individual ministries inc. army directly responsible to emperor
o Justice ministry under control of Cabinet
o Cabinet could ignore the Diet

§ House of peers: nobles elected by emperor

 § House of representatives: 300 members representing 1% of the population (males over 25
paying >15 yen in taxes)
§ Parliament would vote on annual budget
§ Granted freedom of religion, expression, assembly, association; but restricted to specific
case or “within limits not prejudicial to peace and order”
Evaluation of political reforms
Merits Demerits
§ Promote divine image of emperor à § Not truly democratic (emperor still held
national belonging much control)
§ Contribute to modernization à rise in § X check and balance between executive
world status bodies
§ Pacified oppression § Restricted voice & rights
§ Allowed the people more freedom, rights, § Genro paid little attention to Diet’s
and political involvement opinion à discontent due to insincerity to
democracy à political deadline (1890)

Economic Reforms
Government’s role in encouraging industrial development
1870 Meiji govt provided substantial guidance & stimulus
Direct role in industrial development by pioneering industrial fields
e.g. model factories for cotton, spinning, weaving
Ministry of Industry set up
1880 Improving infrastructure (train, postal, telegraph services)
Telegraph links between cities
Govt railways improved from 181 to 551 miles
Geographical mobility à enhance unity
Sold enterprises to zaibatsu at reasonable prices
Employment in industries increased from 9% to 25%
1900 Development of Hokkaido
“northern Sea Circuit” + Colonization Office
Population & agriculture acreage increased
Examples of economic modernization & its success
§ Shibusawa Osaka’s Spinning Wheel adopted foreign techniques and encouraged the
growth of entrepreneurs
§ Iwakura Tomomi set up Nippon Railway Company (exempted from taxes)
§ Fairs to promote industrialization, e.g. cotton goods exhibition in Kyoto, 1872 (over 30,000
Japanese and 770 foreigners)
§ Encouraged employment (63% of workers in spinning industry)
§ New tax policy inc. 3% of land value à adequate income from agriculture
Agricultural reform
§ Specialised and commercialized, concentrated land in the hands of landlords (25% in 1873
to 50% in 1920s)
§ Increased govt income to expand in silk industries à balance foreign trade
§ Higher income of peasants à home market for local goods
§ Certificate of landownership issued to farmers (X landlordism)
Evaluation of economic reforms
Merits Demerits
§ Rise of private entrepreneurship and § Establishment of the Zaibatsu
economy (entrepreneurs who were privately funded
§ Sound foundation for future by govt) à prevented social mobility (X
modernization, esp militarism free economy)
§ Adopt western techniques
§ Female employment (40% of textile
industry)
§ Wages doubled from 1870 to 1900
Social Reforms
Gaining Western knowledge
§ Iwakura Mission (1871): Yamagato, Ito, Inoue à Political, intellectual and economic
innovators and leaders
§ In 1872, 380 students abroad with subsidies, e.g. Shibusawa, who pushed development of
private industries with the joint-stock entreprises
§ Foreign missionaries as valuable english teachers and transmitters of knowledge
Education System
§ Ministry of Education (1871) to promulgate the Education System Order (1872)
§ Decline of samurai Confucian-oriented domain schools, traditional temple schools
§ Development of technical universities such as Tokyo and Imperial Universities
§ Literacy rate increased to 95% by 1905
Legal Reforms
§ German Legal Precedent
§ Set up Justice Ministry
§ Abolish torture in 1876
§ Emphasize legal rights & individual ownership of property
§ Japan was viewed as a world power à abolish ETR à full autonomy in 1911
New Class - Kazoku
§ Expanded the hereditary peerage with the award of kazoku status to persons regarded as
having performed outstanding services to the nation
§ Protects the rights of the privileged nobility and maintains a hierarchical structure within
society
Merits Demerits
§ More centralized government and § Lack of opportunities for
increased sovereignty women (higher education reserved for
§ More control over education system men)
§ Legal reform and recognition by § Added social class of the Kazoku
Western powers § Excessive government control in edu
§ Gaining and spreading of Western promoting indoctrination and loyalty
knowledge & tech to the throne
§ More educational institutions § Growing demand for democratic
§ Increased class mobility sonstitution
§ Increased government control over
private institutions

Military Reforms
Measures adopted
§ National Army in 1872
§ Universal Conscription in 1873
o 3 year military service from all men
o Adopted Prussian Army Model + British Navy Model
§ Re-emphasis Bushido à loyalty to Emperor & national unity
Merits Demerits
§ Beneficial to military industries (e.g. § Democratic constitution as a
weaponry, steel, engineering) reward for military commitment
§ Knowledge & skills acquired by (reward-system)
commoners à enhance spread of § National army as a separate govt
knowledge body à lack of control over expansion
§ 1894-95 Sino-Japanese War, à rise of militarism
1904—05 Russo-Japanese War