2024

FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL--1

Department of Civil Engineering, MANIT Bhopal

Subject Teacher
Dr. H.L. Tiwari &
Name of student:………………................. Dr. M. K. Choudhary

Scholar No: ……………………................ Department of Civil Engineering

Maulana Azad National Institute
Semester III (July – Dec 2024) Section -1
of Technology, Bhopal
Branch: Civil Engineering
 Civil Engineering Department, MANIT Bhopal

B.Tech III SEM. C- 1 (JUL-DEC2024)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS Page No. Date

1. Verification of Bernoulli’s theorem 01

2. Verification of Impulse Momentum principle 06

3. Calibration of Venturi-meter 10

4. Calibration of Orifice-meter 16

5. Calibration of Nozzle-meter 21

6. Determination of hydraulic coefficients of the given orifice

fitted on a tank 24

7. Determination of friction factor for commercial pipe 28

8. Reynolds experiment 31

9. Calibration of Water- meter 34

10. Study of various pressure measuring devices*

(*write up of around 9-10 pages is to be prepared and attach it at the last)

 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

1. BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
Date:…….
The Bernoulli's theorem states that in a steady continuous flow of an ideal incompressible
fluid, the sum of the velocity head, the pressure head and the potential head is constant
i.e.

Each term of equation describes energy in Kg-m per Kg and has the dimensions of
length. The terms v2/2g is known as the velocity head, ply is known as the pressure
head and Z as the potential head. Applying Bernoulli's equation between any two
points, one gets,

( )
Hence, if V2 is greater than V 1, (Z1 + p/ ) must be greater than (Z 2 + p2/ ). In other
words, any increase in velocity will cause a corresponding reduction in the (Z + p/ ).
Similarly a reduction in velocity will cause an increase in (Z + p/ ). In case the flow is in
a horizontal plane or when the fluid is a gas, the term Z drops out and hence changes in
velocity cause corresponding changes in the pressure.

In real fluids, which have viscosity, some energy is converted into heat due to the
viscous shear and consequently there is a certain amount of energy loss. Hence, for
real fluids Equation (2) can be written as:

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In which the subscript 1 and 2 refer to the two sections under consideration and hL is the
energy loss per unit weight of fluid between the two sections.

Objective: Verification of Bernoulli's theorem.

Apparatus required
1. Apparatus for verification of Bernoulli's theorem.
2. A collecting tank
3. A stop watch
4. A meter scale

Procedure

1. Open the inlet valve to reservoir so that small quantity of water starts flowing
into the reservoir
2. Regulate the control valve in pipeline so that the water level in the
reservoir remains constant for an opening of inlet valve.
3. Find the discharge flowing by volumetric measurement in the
collecting tank by noting the rise of water level in the collecting tank for
a known interval of time.
4. Record the levels in all the piezometers and the cross-section of the channel
at each peizometer.
5. Change the opening of the inlet valve and repeat the steps 2, 3 and 4.
6. Take 2-3 sets of readings.

Calculations

1. Calculate the discharge from volumetric measurements.

2. Find the velocity of flow at all the piezometric points by dividing the discharge
by the corresponding area of channel and then calculate the velocity head at
these points
3. Find the sum of all the' energies at each point for a given flow. Repeat
the calculations for all sets of readings
4. Tabulate the results.

Presentation of results
1. On a simple graph, mark the position of tube on the abscissa and (p/ + Z) on
the ordinate. Join all ordinates to give hydraulic gradient line (HGL).
2. Mark velocity head, V 2/2g over (p/ +Z). Join the points to make total
energy line (TEL)
3. Add loss of head to TEL and a draw a horizontal line showing theoretical TEL.

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Questions

1. What are the assumptions made in deriving the Bernoulli's equation?

2. What are the applications of Bernoulli's equations?
3. What are steady and unsteady flows?
4. What additional terms will be introduced in the present from of
Bernoulli's theorem if the flow is unsteady and incompressible?

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Observations

Width of passage, b = cm Area of collecting tank, A = cm 2

SET — I
Height of water level in the upper vessel from datum= cm

S. Discharge Depth of Area of flow Velocity V2/2g Peizometric Total head Loss of
No. Rise of water Time Q= (A x h)/t flow passage passage, of flow head H= p/γ + Z+ head, hf
level, h taken, t d a=bxd V= Q/a p/γ + Z V2/2g

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Sample Calculatuion:

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SET -II
Height of water level in the upper vessel from datum = - cm

S. Discharge Depth of Area of flow Velocity V2/2g Peizometric Total head Loss of
No. Rise of water Time Q= (A x h)/t flow passage passage, of flow head, H=p/γ+Z+ head, hf
level, h taken,t d a=bxd V= Q/a p/γ+Z V2/2g

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2. IMPULSE - MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE

Date:…….

Many problems cannot be easily solved by consideration of energy principle

(Bernoulli's equation) alone due to complicated geometry of flow in some situations.
Examples of such flows are in pumps, turbines, vanes, pipe bends & enlargements etc. In
such cases impulse momentum principle can be conveniently used. It states that the
impulse of the force or product of the force and the time increment during which it
acts is equal to the change in the momentum of the body i.e. product of the mass of the
body on which the force acts and the velocity of the body.

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Objective: To verify Impulse-Momentum principle for flow over vane.

Theory

If Fx and Fy are the components of the force F along the two reference coordinate
directions, Vx and Vy the corresponding velocity components and Q the discharge.
( ) √

Apparatus required
1. An experimental set up consisting of nozzle issuing upward vertical jet of
water against a vane under test fixed on a vertical rod with a lever arm to carry
load
2. A col l ect i n g t ank
3. A stop watch
4. W ei ght s or l oads

Procedure
1. Fix a vane to the vertical rod. Note the weight of the vane, the rod and collar etc.
fixed to it. Alternately, balance the weight of the vane, rod and the lever by sliding a
balancing weight beyond the fulcrum of the lever.
2. Open the valve controlling the jet and adjust discharge such that the force of the
jet is just equal to the total weight (W) acting down on the vane and the vane and
the lever are balanced. Give a slight motion to the lever to minimize friction.
3. Note the discharge in the collecting tank.
4. Repeat by increasing the jet velocity and weight on vane.
5. Take different sets of readings.
6. Repeat using different vanes. Note the deflection angle of each vane.

Calculations

Calculate the rate of flow through the nozzle, Q = (Axh)/t and then velocity of jet, V
= Q/a
F theoretical = ρQV(1+cosθ)

F actual = w

% Error =

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Sample Calculation:

Presentation of results:

Plot F as abscissa Vs F a as ordinate. One should get a straight line at 45 ° to the

horizontal.

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Observations

Size of collecting tank = Area of collecting tank, A =

Size of jet, d = Area of jet, a =

Length of lever fulcrum to vane l 1 = Fulcrum to hanger l 2 =

Angle of vane =

S.No. DISCHARGE F O R C E %
Velocity of
Rise of error
Time, t Q=(Axh)/t jet, v Hydro- Weight
water
dynamic applied
level, h

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3. VENTURIMETER
Date:…….
Venturimeter is a rate meter used for measuring flow through closed conduits, circular
in cross-section and is specially suited for measuring large flows with least head loss.
It is considered to be far more superior to other meters like orifice meter and flow
nozzle of the class though more costly. It consists essentially of a convergent
divergent streamlined tube. The streamlined boundary contraction and expansion
cause a gradual pressure rise in the divergent section. To avoid separation of flow and
the consequent loss of energy due to formation of eddies, the angle of convergence is
limited to a maximum of 20 ° and the angle of divergence to a maximum of 7 °. The
present day venturimeters have a short cylindrical throat section of diameter from 1/4 to
3/4 (usually 1/2) of the pipe diameter. For accurate results, the venturimeters should be
preceded by a straight pipe of at least 30 pipe diameters.

Objective:
To calibrate the Venturimeter and study the effect of Reynolds number on
Venturimeter coefficient, Cd.
Theory
To find the discharge through the venturimeter, Bernoulli's equation may be applied to

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pipe section (1) and the throat section (2). Then,

( ) ( )

where Z1 and Z2 refer to the distance of the centre of the sections of the venturimeter
above an arbitrary datum and VI and V2 and pi and 132 refer to the uniform velocities
and pressures at sections (1) and (2) respectively. Also by continuity equation
A1V1 = A2V2

Solving these two equations

√ ( )
√{ ( ) }

Multiplying by cross-sectional area A2 of throat, theoretical discharge,

√ ( )
√ ( )

√
√

If a differential manometer is now connected to points (1) and (2) and if h is the
gauge reading, then by manometry principles

(p1 - p2)/  = h{(s1/s)-1}

Where s1 and s are specific gravities of gauge liquid and fluid flowing.

Further there will be loss of head between the sections (1) and (2) and this tends to
increase the observed value of h. To take this into account, a coefficient C d called the
coefficient of discharge is introduced thus modifying the discharge equations of the
Venturimeter to Cd is usually obtained by calibration of the meter.

√ ( )
√ ( )

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Apparatus required

1. Venturimeter fitted in a pipe line

2. Differential monometer connected to ti,le upstream enlarged end and throat
of the venturimeter
3. A collecting tank
4. A stop watch
5. A thermometer

Procedure

1. Note the dimensions of the cross section of collecting tank and sections of the
venturimeter;
2. Keep the drain cook of the collection tank open and open and valve on the
pipe line partly to allow some flow through the venturimeter. Open the
cocks of the venturimeter gradually and simultaneously thus connecting up
the manometer. Open the flushing cocks of the manometer gradually and
simultaneously to remove entrapped air bubbles in the manometer leads and after
flushing close the flushing cocks.
3. Note down the reading of the monometer and temperature of water.
4. Close the drain cock of the collecting tank. The water level in the tank
rises. When the level has reached a convenient full scale reading on the scale
attached to the gauge glass of the tank, start the stop watch and note
the time taken for the known rise of water level in the collecting tank.
This completes one set of readings.
5. Vary the discharge through the Venturimeter by manipulating the valve on
the pipe line Allow the condition of flow to become steady. Note the
manometer readings and the time for the water level in the collecting tank to
rise by a known height after lowering the water level in the tank to a convenient
level if necessary by opening the drain cock.
6. Repeat the experiment with various discharges to obtain at least ten sets of
readings.
7. Close the valve on the upstream side of the venturimeter completely, thus
cutting of the flow. Close the cocks of the venturimeter.

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Calculations

1. Calculate the area of cross-section of the collecting tank and the area A2 of the
throat section of the venturimeter.
2. From the area of cross-section of the collecting tank and the observed time for
water level in the tank to rise by a known height, calculate the discharge, Q for
each of readings.
3. From equation (6) calculate the values of the coefficient of discharge, Cd for
each set of observations S i and S being known or assumed.
4. Calculate Reynolds Number for each discharge as

Representation of Results

Draw the curves (1) manometric head, h Vs discharge, Q on the double log graph
paper (2) Cd with Reynolds number on semilog graph paper.

Questions

1. What are the advantages and dis-advantages of venturimeter as compared to

other similar meters? When do you use a venturimeter?
2. What happens if the convergence and divergence angles of a ventumeter are
increased?

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Sample Calculation

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Observation Table:

Size of collecting tank =

Dia. of Enlarged end of venturimeter, d 1 = Dia. at the throat, d 2 =
Temperature of Water = ˚C Kinematic Viscosity of Water, υ =
S.No Manometer reading Qth Actual Discharge Co-efficient of Velocity of Reynolds
discharge flow num
Left Right Diff., h Rise of Volume of Time for Cd
V
water in water the rise Q a c t u a l
collecting collected
tank

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4. ORIFICE METER
Date:…….

An orifice meter is another device used for the measurement of flow rate in a pipe
line. It consists of thin metal plate with an opening (generally circular concentric with
the pipe axis). The plate is held between two flanges in the pipe line. The flow
characteristics of an orifice meter differ from those of a venturimeter. The stream lines
approaching contacts and diverge suddenly before and after orifice meter. The
minimum cross- section of the jet occurs not within the orifice but downstream from
the orifice edge (approximately at a distance of half the orifice diameter). The section
of minimum area (a c ) is called vena-contracta. The ratio Cc = a c /a o is called
coefficient of contraction Discharge co-efficient of an orifice meter varies with the
type of orifice the pipe size, ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter., Reynolds
number and location of pressure connections.

Objective:

To calibrate and orifice meter and determine the variation of orifice meter co-efficient
with Reynolds number

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Theory

The device developed based on the concept of Bernoulli’s theorem. As per the
Bernoulli’s theorem, for constant potential energy and flow rate, increase in velocity
will decrease the pressure at any point and this concept can be used for discharge
measurement in pipes. Orifice meter consists of a. orifice plate as shown in above
figure. The amount of pressure changes between throat and inlet depending on the
flow rate. As flow area is suddenly reduced hence due to losses actual discharge will
be less than theoretical discharge.

Formula to be used:

Theoretical discharge Qt = √ , Actual discharge Q a = (A*y)/t

√

Pressure head in terms of water (h) h = 12.6 hm

Coefficient of Discharge C d = Qa / Qt

Where,

a1 – cross sectional area of inlet pipe

a2 – cross sectional area of orifice

A – area of measuring tank

y – rise of water level in measuring tank during the time t

hm – difference of mercury columns in differential U tube manometer

Apparatus Required
1. Orifice meter filled in a pipe line
2. Differential manometer connected to upstream section and at vena contracta
3. A collecting tank
4. A stop watch
5. Thermo meter

Procedure

1. Open the manometer cocks and ensure that there are no air bubbles present in connecting tubing
2. Open the outlet valve so that water blows through the pipe line and past orifice meter wait for
some time so that the flow is stabilized,
3. Note the manometer reading in the two limbs of the manometer
4. Measure the discharge by collecting water to a certain depth in the collecting tank for some

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time interval ‘t’

5. Change the valve opening and repeat steps 2-4 for 6 to 8 sets of reading

Calculations

Following calculations are to be carried out

1. Actual discharge, Qa = (Axh)/t.

2. Theoretical discharge Q t.
3. Coefficient of Discharge C d
4. Finally, calculate Reynolds number, Re= corresponding to different
discharges.

Presentation of Results

Plot the following graphs:

 Plot Qact Vs h on a double log graph paper and fit in straight line for
the plotted points.
 Plot C V s R e on a semi - log graph.

Questions

1. What is use of an orifice meter? Compare it with a venturimeter?

2. It there any factor to limit the minimum valve of d/D that is workable?
3. Why is vena-contracta formed?

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Sample Calculation

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Observation table:
Size of collecting tank =
Diameter of pipe, D = Cross sectional area of pipe, a =
Diameter of Orifice, d = Cross sectional area of Orifice, ao =
Temperature of water = ˚C Kinematic viscosity of water, ν =

S.No Manometer Q t h Actual Discharge Co- VelocityReynolds

reading efficient of flow num
LeftRightDiff., Rise of Volume of water Time of V
h water in collected for Q a c t u a l discharge
collecting the C
tank rise

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5. NOZZLE METER
Date:…….

Nozzle meter is a flow meter used for measuring flow through closed conduits. Unlike orificemeter,
in a nozzle meter the boundary edges are rounded and extended downstream for a short distance.
The boundary profile being made to conform to the jet of water coming out of the opening. Thus,
there is no contraction of the jet beyond the nozzle opening and therefore coefficient of contraction
is unity. Owing to the change in area of flow due to the insertion of the nozzle, there will be
difference of pressure between the one point just upstream of the nozzle, there will be difference of
pressure between the one point just upstream of the nozzle and one immediately downstream of it.
The difference of pressure can be measured by a differential manometer.

Objective

To calibrate the nozzle meter and find its coefficient of discharge.

Theory

To get the relationship for the discharge through a nozzle meter, apply Bernoulli’s equation to a
point just upstream of nozzle and to a point just downstream of nozzle.
(1)

The continuity equation is written as, A1V1=A2V2 (2)

Like in case of venturimeter, the above two equations can be solved to give the relation for
discharge through a nozzlemeter as

√ ( ) (3)
√ ( )

Cd is obtained by calibration of the meter.

Apparatus Required

1. Nozzle meter fitted in pipe line.

2. Differential manometer connected to the upstream of the nozzle and a point just downstream of
the nozzle.
3. A collecting tank.
4. A stop watch.
5. A thermometer.

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\
Procedure

1. Note the dimensions of the cross section of collecting tank and nozzle opening.
2. Keep the drain cock of the collection tank open and open the valve on the pipeline partly to
allow some flow through the nozzle meter. Open the flushing cocks of the manometer
gradually and simultaneously to remove entrapped air bubbles in the manometer leads and
after flushing close the flushing cocks.
3. Note down the reading of the manometer and temperature of the water.
4. Close the drain clock of the collecting tank. The water level in the tank rises. When the
level has reached a convenient full scale reading on the scale attached to the gauge glass of
the tank, start the stop watch and note the time taken for the for the known rise of water
level in the collecting tank. This completes one set of readings.
5. Vary the discharge through the nozzle meter by manipulating the valve on the pipe line.
Allow the condition to become steady. Note the manometer readings and the time for the
water level in the collecting tank to rise by a known height after lowering the water level in
the collecting tank to a convenient level if necessary by opening the drain cock.
6. Repeat the experiment with various discharges to obtain at least ten sets of readings.
7. Close the valve on the upstream side of the nozzle meter completely, thus cutting out the
flow. Close the cocks of the nozzle meter.

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Calculations

1. Calculate the area of cross section of the collecting tank and area A2 of the nozzle meter.

2. From the area of cross section of the collecting tank and observed time for water level in the tank
to rise by a known height, calculate the discharge, Q for each of the readings.

3. Calculate the values of coefficient of discharge Cd for each set of observations.

4. Calculate Reynolds number for each discharge as

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Observation table:
Size of collecting tank =
Diameter of pipe, d1 =
Diameter of nozzle, d2 =
Temperature of water = ˚C Kinematic viscosity of water, ν =

S.No Manometer Qth Actual Discharge Co- VelocityReynolds

reading efficient of flow num
of V
LeftRightDiff., Rise of water Volume of water Time for the rise discharge
h in collecting collected Qactual Cd
tank

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6. ORIFICES
Date:…….

Theory
Outlets in the form of openings or orifices in the walls of storage reservoirs are to be
provided for letting out water or any other fluid stored for various utilities. Almost in
every case it will be necessary to assess the quantity of fluid issuing from these
openings. Theoretically it is possible to obtain the discharge if the area (a) of the
orifice and the head (h) of the fluid above the centre of the orifice causing the flow are
known, because applying the energy principle to a point in the reservoir and another
on the jet issuing from the orifice h = ⁄ or Vth = √ where V is the velocity
of the jet.
Theoretical discharge Q th = a √ . But as the streamlines cannot take a sharp
turn, they converge to a minimum section of the jet called vena- contrata of area ac
at a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice from the plane of the sharp
edged orifice. The ratio C c = (ac /a) is called the coefficient of contraction or a c =
C c. a. Because of loss of head due to resistance to flow by the orifice edge and the
change in a direction, the actual velocity V a of the jet will be less than the theoretical
velocity.
The ratio Cv = is called the coefficient of velocity or Va = C v √
√

Because of the contraction of the jet and the loss of head due to resistance to flow by
the orifice boundaries, the actual discharge Q a will be less than the theoretical
discharge Qth.
Qa= C d Q th = a c .V th
= Cc . a . Cv √
= Cd . a . √
Where C d =C c . C v
If two of the three coefficients are determined directly, the third can be calculated. C d
is determined in the lab by measuring the actual discharge collected. C c can be
determined by the contraction gauge micrometer but this determination is usually
inaccurate. Hence, C v is calculated from the theoretical velocity, Vth and the actual
velocity, Va which is determined from the measured and plotted mean profile of jet as
Va = x/ √ x and y being the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates of any point on
the mean profile of the jet.
These coordinates of the jet are measured by scale and sliding apparatus (see fig)
mounted on the balancing tank vertically above the orifice.

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Objective

To determine the hydraulic coefficients of given orifice like Coefficient of Discharge (C d),

Coefficient of Velocity (C v) and Coefficient of Contraction (C c)

Apparatus Required

1. A balancing tank fitted with an orifice provided with a gauge glass and a scale.
2. A Collecting tank with gauge glass and scale and a drain valve.
3. Meter scale

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4. Stop Watch.

Procedure

1. Note the dimensions of the collecting tank and the orifice.

2. Open the valve of inflow pipe and adjust the valve such that head in a tank
over orifice remain constant while water is flowing from it .
3. Note the head over the orifice and measure x and y coordinates of jet at
particular location.
4. Collect water in measuring tank for appropriate time and record the rise
of water level in the tank.
5. Repeat steps 2-4.
6. Close the supply valve and drain out the tank and measuring tank and
adjust the head over the orifice and repeat the experiment.

Formula used:
Actual discharge - Q a = (A*Y)/t

Theoretical discharge Q th = a√

Coefficient of Discharge C d = (Qa / Qth)

Coefficient of Velocity Cv = √ ⁄
Coefficient of Contraction C c = (Cd/Cv)

Where A - area of measuring tank

a - area of orifice
d - diameter of orifice
H- height of liquid above the centre of the orifice in the tank in which orifice is
fitted
t- time to collect water
Y- Rise of water level in piezometer
x- horizontal coordinate of the jet at the measuring point
y- vertical coordinate of the jet at the measuring point

Calculations

1. Calculate the area of the collecting tank and the area of the orifice.
2. From the area C.S, of the collecting tank and the observed time for the water
level in the collecting tank to rise by a known ht. calculate the actual
discharge Qa for each set of readings.
3. Correct the readings of head of water taken on the scale attached to the gauge
glass for difference in elevation between the centre of the orifice and the zero
of scale. From the corrected head 11 calculate the theoretical velocity,
Vth =√
4. Calculate the theoretical discharge from the theoretical velocity and orifice
area.
5. Calculate C d =Q a /Q th .

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6. Plot the x and y co-ordinates of the jet, referred to the origin at the cr. of the
orifice, and draw the mean profile of the jet, taking a point on each of the
mean profiles calculate the actual velocities and hence C V.
7. Calculate C c = C d /C v for each set of readings.

Graphical Representation of Results

Draw the curves between (1) Cd, Cv, Cc and with head and discharge and (2) h with
Qa.

Questions

1. Where do orifices find application in Engineering works? Explain with a few

examples.
2. Explain with a neat sketch how the streamlines passing though an orifice
contract to a minimum section at 'Vena Contracta'
3. Does Cv have greater value for a sharp edged orifice or a flat and broad edged
orifice? Why?
4. Explain with sketches another method of measuring C v .
5. What will be C c in round edged orifice?
Figure

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Observation table:

Size of orifice = Area of orifice, a =

Size of collecting = Area of collecting tank, A =
Correction to head H = Correction to x= Correction to y=
S. Corrected Theoretical Theoretical Discharge measurement Cd Coordinate of jet Actual Co-effi. Cc=Cd/Cv
No. Head, h Velocity discharge velocity, of
Vth =√(2gh) Qth=a.Vth Level Rise Volume Time Actual x y Va Velocity
in of water taken discharge Cv
collecting collected
tank

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7. LOSSES IN PIPE LINES

Date:…….

Theory

Loss of head (energy per unit wt. of fluid, expressed in meters of fluid) occurs in any fluid
flow. The loss is caused by (i) fluid friction in pipe or conduit (ii) changes in
velocity or direction of flow. Losses of these two types are termed as major losses and
minor losses respectively. Fluid pipe friction loss is a continuous loss of head, h f
assumed to occur at a uniform rate along the pipe as long as the size and roughness of
the pipe remains constant and is commonly referred to as the loss of head du e to
friction. For turbulent flow in pipes, the major loss (h f) is normally taken as

Where,

f is called the friction factor which is dependent upon the material,

surface finish,age etc of the pipe and the Reynolds number of the flow.
1 is the length of pipe line in which the loss occurs
d is the diameter of pipe line
V is the velocity of flow in the pipeline

Minor losses

Consist of losses due to (i) change in cross-section i.e. Expansion loss and
Contraction loss (ii) obstruction to flow such as gates, valves etc. (iii) bends, curves
etc.
Minor losses are generally expressed as a constant times the velocity head, kV2/2g; k
differs from fitting to fitting

Objective

To compute the friction factor for commercial pipe.

Apparatus required

 Overhead tank supplying water in which the level is maintained constant.

 Pipeline with bends valves etc, each fitted with inverted U-tube manometer to
measure head loss.
 A collecting tank and stop watch, to measure the rate of flow.

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Procedure

1. Note the diameter (d) and length (1) of the pipe between manometer tappings.
2. Open the valve to allow water to flow through the pipe.
3. Connect all manometers on the pipe line to the flow opening the connecting
valves slowly and simultaneously (sudden opening of the valves will cause the
water to rush into the manometer limbs and drive the mercury out in case
mercury manometers are used.
4. Note down the difference in levels in the columns of the manometer.
5. Change the valve opening and repeat the above steps.
6. Note down the t emperature of water.

Calculations

Head loss over a length of pipe or in any fitting is given by the manometer connected.
From the above equation the friction factor f is calculated.

Questions
1. What are the hydraulic gradient and energy gradient lines?
Make a neat sketch of the pipe line for the experiment and draw the hydraulic
gradient and energy gradient lines.

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

Observation table
Length of pipe = Diameter of pipe = Area of pipe=
Area of collecting tank =
S. Manometer Loss of Discharge measurement Velocity Friction Remark
No. Reading head hf of flow Factor, f
Left Right Volume of Time Discharge Q
Water Taken, = V/t
collected, V t

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

8. REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
Date:…….

Flow of real fluids in any system offers resistance to flow due to viscosity of the fluid. When the
velocity of flow is low, the fluid particles move along smooth lines. Viscous forces are the
dominant and curb any tendency in the fluid particle to deviate from their smooth path. If the
velocity of the fluid increases after some limit the flow path of the fluid particles becomes wavy
as particles tend to deviate from their smooth path. But, still the paths are clear. When the
velocity is further increased, the fluid particles mix up thoroughly and the flow paths are highly
and unidentifiable.

Osborne Reynold studied the nature of flow in pipe line and classified them into various pipes
based on a number called ‘Reynolds number’.

Where, V is mean velocity of flow, D is diameter of pipe, is the density of fluid flowing, is
the dynamic viscosity of the fluid and is the kinematic viscosity of fluid.

When Re is less than 2000, the flow is laminar. Above this value and up to 4000, the flow is
transitional i.e. changing from laminar to turbulent. When Re greater than 4000, the flow is
turbulent.

Objective

To study various types of flow and to classify them based on Reynolds number.

Apparatus required

1. Reynolds apparatus consisting of a balancing tank from which a transparent pipe takes off
at the bottom. A regulating valve is fitted at the end of the pipe.
2. A pot of indicator (colored) liquid with a cock on a thin tube ending into a fine nozzle in
the transparent pipe.
3. A collecting tank (measuring jar).
4. Stop watch.

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

Procedure

1. Open the supply valve and admit flow into the balancing tank. When the water level rises
adequately, regulate the inflow and outflow so as to keep very low velocity of fluid
flowing in the transparent pipe. Keep the head in the balancing tank steady.
2. Admit the indicator fluid (color liquid) in to the transparent pipe by opening the valve.
Observe the flow line of the color liquid and note the flow pattern.

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

3. Collect the flow in to the collecting tank (measuring jar) and not the time taken for the
volume of water collected.
4. Increase the flow of fluid so that the velocity of flow increases. Again observe the nature
of flow of color liquid. Observes and note the nature of color streak.
5. Repeat the above steps to take at least two observations of straight, wavy and zig-zag
(mixing) patterns of color liquid in the transparent tube along with the main flow.
6. Note the diameter of the transparent tube and the temperature of the water.

Calculations

1. Calculate the discharge Q, from the volume of water collected in the measuring tank and
the time of collection.
2. Calculate the velocity V, of flow through the transparent tube by dividing the discharge
by the cross-sectional area of the tube.
3. Calculate the Reynolds number.

Result

1. Record the observed nature of the color streak and the corresponding value of Reynolds
number.
2. Write the classification of the flow.

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

Observation Table

Size of collecting tank: Dia. of transparent pipe:

Area of pipe:

S.no. Discharge Velocity Reynolds Type Visual

number of flow observation
Volume Time Discharge of flow
Collected

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

9. WATER METER
Date:…….

The water meters are used for knowing the volume of water passed through it over
any given period of time. Water meter are of two types.
1. Positive displacement type
2. Inferential type
The positive displacement type has pistons which are displaced by the flowing fluid
and a counting mechanism records the number of displacements, The primary parts
of a inferential meter are vanes or blades fixed to a shaft or spindle. The shaft
rotates due to reaction of the flow on the blades.

Objective
To calibrate the water meter.

Apparatus required

1. Water meter fitted in a pipe line.

2. Collecting tank, with drain cock, fitted with gauge glass and scale.
3. Stop watch and scale.

Procedure

1. Note the dimensions (Cross section) of the collecting tank.

2. Set the inlet regulating valve to an opening thus passing certain discharge through
the water meter.
3. Start the stop watch when the water meter pointer comes to a full division on the
dial and stop it when the pointer comes to full division again after some tim e. Note
the water meter readings (initial and final) and the time for the indicated flow.
4. Close the outlet valve of the collecting tank and note down the time required for a
fixed rise of water level in the collecting tank.
5. Repeat the measurements for various different flow rates by regulating the control
valve provided at the end of the pipe line.

Calculation

1. Calculate the indicated volume of water flow through the water meter and then
the discharge by dividing the volume by the time taken for the indicated flow.
Qind.=V/t.
2. Calculate the actual discharge from the volume of water collected in the
collecting tank and time taken for the same. Qact. = [( L x B) x h]/ t.
3. Calculate the difference between the indicated discharge and the actual discharge
as error. -ive of this error is correction to the meter reading.

Graphical representation
Draw on a simple graph the curve connecting Indicate discharge and actual
discharge.

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B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

Sample Calculation

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

Observation Table and Results

Size of collecting tank : Area of collecting tank (a) :

S. No. Water meter reading Time Indicated Collecting tank reading Time Actual Correction

Initial Final Difference (s) discharge Initial Final Rise Volume taken Discharge

(lit/s) level level h (a*h) (s) (lit/s)

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 B.Tech III SEM. C-1 Civil Engineering

THIS LAB MANUAL PREPARED BY

Dr. H.L. TIWARI & Dr M. K. Choudhary

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(An Institute of National Importance-Under MHRD, Government of India)
BHOPAL – 462003 (M.P.), INDIA
July 2024

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