Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia and its

bearing on the occurrence of hydrocarbons

John A. Katili
D e p a r t e m e n P e r t a m b a n g a n Dan Energi, Jalan Jendral, Gatot Subroto, Kaveling No. 49,
Jakarta, Indonesia

Received 9 January 1990; revised 3 February 1990

The evolution of the eastern Indonesian island arcs over the last 30 million years has been
strongly affected by the northward drift of the Australian continent and the westward thrust of
the Pacific Plate. As Australia drifted northward, New Guinea first collided with the Sepik island
arc about 30 million years ago. About 20 million years ago, a major reorganization in the
subduction pattern of the Indonesian region took place, resulting in the formation of an 8000 km
long, east-west trending arc-trench system stretching from the western tip of Sumatra to Buru
and even further to the Indonesian arc by way of Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Timor,
Tanimbar, Kai and Seram. Prior to the arrival of the Australian continent at the Southeast Asian
continental margin, a north-south oriented Sulawesi-Mindanao volcanic arc existed about
800 km east of Borneo. Further to the southeast, New Guinea and Sepik, now welded into a
bigger microcontinent, collided with the Inner Melanesian island arc. This opened the Australian
Plate to the influence of the WNW moving Pacific Plate. About 10 million years ago a south
dipping subduction zone broke through north of Irian Jaya but no volcanism accompanied this
process. The most dramatic event in the geologic history of Indonesia took place about 5 million
years ago when the anticlockwise rotation of Irian Jaya and continuous northward movement of
Australia trapped the Banda Sea and caused 'tectonic shaving' of the Birdhead of New Guinea
along the Sorong transform fault system. Subsequently, Buton and Sula and other
microcontinents collided with Sulawesi and Halmahera transforming the double island arcs into
a K-shaped form. A small west-dipping subduction zone developed in northern Sulawesi
accompanied by active volcanoes in Minahasa and the Sangihe island. Other small subduction
zones with reverse polarities subsequently developed in northwest Sulawesi and Halmahera,
which can be held responsible for the generation of, respectively, the active Una-Una volcano in
the Gulf of Gorontalo, Central Sulawesi, and the volcanoes in the western Halmahera arc. Active
collision accompanied by emplacement of ophiolites is presently taking place between the
west-facing Halmahera arc and the east-facing Minahasa-Sangihe arc. The tectonic evolution of
eastern Indonesia, which clearly envisaged a structural continuation of the Sunda-Banda arc and
the existence of the north-south trending Sulawesi-Mindanao arc during the Tertiary period,
could conveniently be used to explain the hydrocarbon occurrence in complex paleosubduction
or collision zones of Timor, Seram and eastern Sulawesi. Whereas oil and gas accumulation in
the pull-apart basins of Irian Jaya are found mostly in Tertiary deposits, the source rocks in the
collision zones are likely to be of Mesozoic age. Main exploration target areas in eastern
Indonesia are the intracratonic basins of the Arafura Shelf, the marginal (rift) basins skirting the
southern and eastern section of the Banda arc, the collision zones of Timor, Seram, East Sulawesi
and the thrustbelt of Irian Jaya.

Keywords: eastern Indonesia; tectonic evolution; island arcs

Introduction The Australian Shelf includes an undeformed,

unmetamorphosed sequence dating from Late
The Indonesian region results from the evolution and Paleozoic to Mesozoic through to the Present. Since the
convergence of the Eurasian continental plate, the Jurassic this has been deposited on a subsiding passive
Pacific oceanic plate, and the Indian Ocean-Australian continental margin only activated in the late Tertiary by
Plate (Hamilton, 1979). It is generally accepted that the collision with the island arc system to the north and
physiographic setting of the Indonesian archipelago is northwest.
dominated by two continental shelf regions: the Sunda The mobile belt presently expresses itself as a
shelf area (or Sundaland) lies to the west, and the volcanic inner arc and a non-volcanic outer arc of
Sahul/Arafura shelf area to the east. The intervening islands. The volcanic arc in eastern Indonesia
area comprises a geologically complex region of island comprises the Lesser Sunda Islands of Bali, Lombok,
arcs and deep sea basins (Van Bemmelen, 1949). Sumbawa, Flores and the smaller islands surrounding
The Sahul/Arafura Shelf, part of the Indian the Banda Sea to the east and northeast. The
Ocean-Australian continental plate, extends through non-volcanic outer arc comprises a submarine ridge
most of western New Guinea (Irian Jaya), the Arafura south of Java, with the non-volcanic islands of Timor,
Sea and the southern part of the Timor Sea and Tanimbar, Kai and Seram believed to be its eastern
southward on towards the present Australian landmass. continuation.
0264-8172/91/010070-14
©1991 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd

70 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February

 Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katili
The plate boundaries of eastern Indonesia exhibit a arc is postulated to account for the geology of eastern
variety of characteristics (Figure 1). Indonesia. Other hypotheses regarding the evolution of
The islands of Bali, Lombok and other parts of the eastern Indonesia such as structural discontinuity east
Sunda and Banda island arcs resulted from the of Sumba, complex and changing subduction pattern
subduction of the Indian Ocean-Australian Plate in and convergence of microplates have already been
the Java-Timor trench. This part of the Indonesian discussed in previous publications (Katili and Hartono,
island arc is an unusual convergent margin in that 1983; Katili, 1989).
oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath a continental
margin in the west while in the east, continental Structural continuity along the Sunda-Banda arc
lithosphere subducts beneath an area built on oceanic and its implications for the geology of eastern
crust. Whereas the oceanic crust entering the trench
Indonesia
south of Bali, Lombok and Sumbawa is only covered by
relatively thin pelagic sediments, a large part of the Except for the anomalous position of Sumba, here
shelf and slope sequences of the Australian platform is considered to be a microcontinent trapped behind the
carried passively on top of the Australian Plate into the eastern part of the Java trench, all available
Timor-Tanimbar and Seram trench. physiographic and geophysical data indicate structural
The 'fixist' interpretation of the evolution of eastern continuity along the Sunda-Banda Arc with some
Indonesia in the form of a simple subduction model was minor deviations.
not tenable even before the existence of microplates The trench, a bathymetric feature of 1500 to 3000 m
became known in the western part of Southeast Asia depth, may be traced along the arc continuously from
(Burret and Staff, 1984; Gatinsky and Hutchison 1984). the Java trench to Buru. The non-volcanic outer arc is a
Highly 'mobilistic' models were already applied by geologically complicated topographic ridge which can
Hamilton (1970) and Katili (1974) in eastern Indonesia be followed from the Sunda Arc to the Banda Arc. The
which is the site of a megatriple junction where the interarc basins do not maintain the same width and
eastern part of the Sunda arc-trench system, as part of depth, e.g. the wide Savu Sea, the narrow strait
the Greater Eurasian plate, is affected by the combined between Timor and Wetar, and the wide and deep
process of the northward drift of Australia and the Weber Basin. Recent investigations by Jacobson et al.
westward thrust of the Pacific Plate. (1979) show that the Savu Sea and Weber Basin are
As a result of this large translational movement, or underlain by oceanic crust.
probably by detachment processes, small continental The present volcanic arc follows the islands of Flores,
slivers, such as Buton, Sula, Banggai and a part of Buru Wetar, Damar, Teon, Nila, Manuk, Banda Api and
were transported to geologically unrelated neigh- Ambon. However, the lineament between eastern
bouring terranes in certain parts of eastern Indonesia Flores and Damar is not very smooth, and an
(Hamilton, 1970; Katili, 1974). ambiguous position is represented by the submarine
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the evolution volcanoes, Emperor of China, Niewerkerk and
of the eastern Indonesian arc complex and its bearing Gunung Api situated north of Wetar.
on the exploration of hydrocarbon resources. As a Numerous seismic reflection profiles (Beck and
premise, a structural continuity along the Sunda-Banda Lehner, 1974; Schtilter and Fritsch, 1985) across the

I SU L A W E S
S UBDUCTION ZONE 2 S U L A BANGGAI ISLANDS
3 BURU
~ THRUSTBELT 4 SERAM
® TRANSFORM FAULT 5
6
BANDA RIDGE8
IRIAN JAYA
RIFT GRABEN TI MOR
7
LIMIT OF SUBSURFACE AUSTRALIAN 8 FLORE8
CONTINENTAL CRUST 9 SUMBAWA
CONTINENTAL FRAGMENT IO 8UMBA
• ACTIVE VOLCANOES I I ARU

11~ SPREADING CENTER 12 HALMAHERA

13 SULAWE81 SEA
14 8AVU BASIN
15 PALU FAULT
16 MAKASSAR STRAIT
17 SUMBAWA BACK ARC THRUST

18 INDIAN OCEAN PLATE

19 T I b l O R TRENCH
20 T I M O R THRUST
21 TANIMBAR
22 SULAWESI BANGIHE MINDANAO ARC
23 TALAUD MAYU RIDGE
24 PHILIPPINE FAULT
ee ~ • 25 PHILIPPINE TRENCH
® 26 PACIFIC PLATE
27 B A N D A ARC
28 TARERA AIDUNA FAULT
29 SORONG FAULT
® 30 HAMILTON FAULT
31 SAHUL/ARAFURA SHELF
a2 WEBER BASIN
Ss PATERNOSTER FAULT
34 GORONTALO BASIN
35 BONE BASIN
Figure 1 Cenozoic tectonic features of eastern Indonesia

Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February 71

Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katie
f I

INDONESIA
5CAI.E IN MU.E$
I I
0 tO0 2O0 3O0 400

-%
~ ..i'!:" "

e"
. "-~.o

.5 °
!

IIIIIIIII Tertiary Subduction ....

:.'/.'.w :
,10~;-:.'-'.'.:.:Tertiary magmatic arc .....Imnl]'lllllUlllllilllllllllf l l l l i l i l f l t ~ 1 [ t ~ i ~

100 °
z
105 °
|
110° 115° 120 ° 1125~' 1:~0° 135° 1,~0°
F i g u r e 2 Structural continuity along the Sunda-Banda arc during Tertiary time (Katili and Hartono, 1983)

Timor, Aru and Seram troughs indicate downwarping during the Tertiary is also obvious (Figure 2). It is
of the Australian margin sedimentary section towards envisaged that during that time, the arc trench system
the trench. This whole complex dips under an stretched from the northwestern tip of Sumatra,
accretionary wedge exhibiting compressional through Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Timor,
deformation, confirming the presence of a subduction Tanimbar and Kai to Seram. Intensive volcanism
zone. Extension, in response to flexure, is interpreted accompanied the subduction, the products of which are
for the Aru Trough (Bowin et al., 1980) where now well exposed along the west coast of Sumatra, the
reflection profiles clearly show down-to-basin faulting south coast of Java, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.
along the Australian continental side. Granitic and volcanic rocks are found in South Sumatra
Seismic refraction studies combined with gravity data and Java. Flores, Alor and Ambon belong to this
have confirmed the presence of continental crust volcanic arc (Figure 3). Bowin et al. (1980) concluded
beneath the trench and outer-arc ridge. Its curved that a Miocene to Pliocene volcanic arc may have
boundary coincides approximately with the inner limit existed eastward from Wetar and Alor. It now lies
of the outer arc ridge, continuously following the along an arc exposed at Dai Island and continues
curvature of the arc. It ends at the western end of beneath the outer margin of the Weber trough to the
Seram. extinct volcanoes at Ambon and Ambelau. The
The Bouguer gravity anomaly map (Bowin et al., Tertiary volcanic materials at Buru also lie on this
1980) shows good continuity along the arc although it volcanic trend.
does not correlate exactly with topography and Calc-alkaline andesites were dredged by Silver et al.
bathymetry. It is clear that the gravity low defining the (1985) at three locations on the Banda ridges. They are
0 milligal contour forms a continuous zone. In Timor chemically and mineralogically similar to those of the
and Seram, it covers partly land and partly offshore Banda Arc except that rocks from the Banda ridges are
areas. Tanimbar falls within this zone, but the Kai generally higher in K20, lower in FeO, and more likely
islands lie to the east, where the zone coincides with the to have phenocrysts of biotite. Whole rock K - A r ages
eastern flank of the Weber Deep. for the andesites from the Lucipara ridge are 6.2
In spite of the smooth continuity represented by ___0.2 Ma. Other dredges from the southern and
various physical features, there are some features northern edges of the ridges yielded continental clastic
showing slight discontinuity along the arc. Bowin et al. sedimentary and metamorphic rocks including argillite,
(1980) concluded, from an interpretation of their chert, marble, phillite, slate and quartzite. Whole rock
seismic reflection profiles, that compressional K - A r dating yielded ages of 22.5 _+0.5 Ma and 10.8
conditions vary along the arc, with the Timor and _+0.1 Ma. So far no granitic rocks have been found in
Seram troughs showing compressional and the Aru the Banda ridges. Silver et al. (1985) suggest that the
Trough extensional conditions. The free air gravity Banda ridges represent continental borderland formed
anomaly map also shows irregular patterns of gravity in the middle to late Miocene by westward displace-
lows less than 100 milligal. Zones of low gravity include ment of fragments from the margin of Irian Jaya.
the Savu Sea, Timor and Aru Troughs, the Weber However, the rocks of the Banda ridges are difficult to
Deep, the area between Onin Peninsula and East correlate with those found in the Sula island where the
Seram, north of Seram and north of Manipa Strait granites are older (Permian), but one could consider
(between Seram and Buru). A positive free air gravity the volcanics as parts of the Tertiary volcano-plutonic
anomaly extends from the Onin Peninsula to the Kai arc to which the island of Ambon belongs. The high
Islands, separating gravity lows along the Weber Deep content of K20 of the rocks in the Banda ridges located
from those to the east. south of Ambon is in agreement with the theory that
Structural continuity along the Sunda-Banda Arc they represent hinterland volcanoes of the northern

72 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February

 Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katili

0 ~ Tertiary magmatic a r c

~ v. 13.0 Volcanics 1 With a b s o l u t e ages

SOUTHCHINASEA f ~ . ~ ~,- ~" g 10.6 Granite ;

5""

,o i!~;

o" ~ t z x . , - " ' r ~ ~ ~ 2 : i . . . 6 *°kl - *° oc~,~

7";op =*~ 2"--- , ~ ~ .':?r,~"..... ,--, ",U~\'~ * "~-
z o

,4 ~ ' 4 v,9.3 4.4 ":..O'.'".

~.z~'/ ~..... ri.~,.o ,: .: ~t ,~- \
g.r.r4 ~ I-v.~.o .' .... '.' ~, \

17.0 ~$AWU SEA ~ / ~ TIMOR S E A

JOe ~ ~(-""--PIIIOW havo6.1

C~ 58
| I I
I,O" 120" 130" | 140"
Figure 3 Radiometricages of granitic and volcanic rocks in eastern indonesia (Katiliand Hartono, 1983)

limb of the Tertiary volcanic arc. Tanimbar Trench and the Aru Trough. Previous
What are the tectonic implications for eastern investigations favour the idea that these two troughs
Indonesia if we accept a structural continuity of the represent the eastward continuation of the
Sunda-Banda Arc? Several important conclusions can Sunda-Timor subduction zone which was bent by the
be drawn of which the most important are as follows. eastward advancing Pacific Plate. The Benioff zone
dips towards the Asian continent and consequently, a
(1) S u b d u c t i o n along the Timor, Tanimbar and Seram chaotic wedge of imbricated sediments and crystalline
troughs basement is present on the northern side (Katili, 1975;
Although most geologists interpreted the Timor Hamilton, 1979).
Trough and its eastern extension as a subduction This one-plate model was challenged by Cardwell
zone, Audley-Charles and Milsom (1974) argued that and Isacks (1978) who distinguished two Benioff zones,
no subduction has occurred between Australia and the one extending northward beneath Timor to a depth of
outer Banda Arc. They further stated that the trace of 600 km and the other, separated by the Tarera-Aiduna
the subduction zone has always been north of the transform fault, extending southward beneath Seram to
outer-arc basin between the inner volcanic and the a depth of about 200 km. This two-plate model could
outer non-volcanic arc. Fitch and Hamilton (1974) perhaps accommodate the loop-shaped arc without
rightly pointed out that the trough inferred to be the challenging the concept of rigid plate injection.
trench by Audley-Charles and Milsom (1974) in the SchliJter and Fritsch (1985) on the other hand did not
outer-arc basin, lies south of Java and west of Sumatra separate the Seram and Tanimbar trench along the
between the outer-arc ridge of melange and the Tarera-Aiduna fault, but instead contended that the
inner-arc volcanoes. This geometric relationship was Tanimbar Trench suddenly terminates east of Kai
established by Vening Meinesz (1930) and reinforced Island while the Seram Trench commences west of Kai
by Kuenen's (1935) marine geological investigations Island. They consider the Tanimbar Trench to be the
during the first Snellius Expedition. Moreover, investi- eastern extension of the Timor Trench while to the
gations by oil exploration companies clearly show that north it deepens and merges laterally into the 3500 m
little deformed strata, continuous with those of the deep Aru Basin. Since the NNE-SSW trending
Australian Shelf, dip gently beneath Timor (Beck and contour lines turn abruptly northwestwards between
Lehner, 1974). Bowin et al. (1980) also concluded that the Tanimbar and Kai islands, a major fault is assumed
the Australian margin has been subducted beneath the by Schliiter and Fritsch (1985) in this area, separating
Timor and Seram accretionary wedges and that the the Tanimbar Trench from the Aru Basin.
tectonic front lies along the axis of these troughs. Southwest of Aru Island, numerous step faults
Subduction along the Tanimbar trench and Aru Trough delineate very narrow blocks of about 2.5 km wide with
has been demonstrated recently by the Sonne cruise an average throw up to 300 ms. According to Bowin et
(SchliJter and Fritsch, 1985). The Arafura Basin is al. (1980) the tectonic history of this area is very
bounded to the west by two prominent features: the complicated since the Aru Trough shows crustal

Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February 73

 Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katili
extension rather than compression. Schlfiter and account for the geology of Timor and Seram include the
Fritsch (1985) contended that the most prominent imbricated model (Fitch and Hamilton, 1974), the
difference between the Tanimbar and Kai segments of overthrust model (Wanner, 1913; Audley-Charles et
the Banda Arc is that vertical tectonic movements al., 1975; 1979), the upthrust model (Tappenbeck,
predominate along the eastern Aru Trough in contrast 1939; Crostella, 1977, Chamalaun and Grady, 1978),
to the Tanimbar Trench. Large vertical offsets (up to and a model of Barber (1979) incorporating elements of
1.8 s) on normal faults downthrown on the basinward each of the other models. Structural continuity of the
side occur along the eastern flank of the Aru Trough Sunda-Banda Arc implies that Timor is a subduction
but only small vertical offsets (up to 0.15 s) can be melange. According to the imbrication model
observed along the southeastern flank of the Tanimbar (Hamilton, 1979), the tectonic development of the
Trench. ridge of the Outer Banda Arc is an accretionary
Plate convergence along the Arafura Sea margin has complex consisting of slices of Mesozoic and Cenozoic
occurred since Late Miocene time. According to sediments interleaved with clay matrix melange.
Schlfiter and Fritsch (1985) the upper post-Late Coherent slices consist of deep to shallow water
Miocene, part of the platform sequence (sequence A1 sedimentary rocks which were stripped from the
to A4 of Figure 4), consists of poorly consolidated downgoing Australian margin and incorporated into
deposits such as mud, clay and silt, which have been the imbricate wedge, as well as pelagic sediments of
transformed into a thick, imbricated wedge of chaotic oceanic origin. The sheared, scaly-clay melange
sediments whose front coincides with the Aru Trough contains blocks and lenses of all sizes up to tens of
and Tanimbar Trench. The underlying lithified sedi- kilometres long and is considered an integral part of
ments of the Arafura Sea margin (sequence A5 to A6 in the deformed accretionary wedge. Because this chaotic
Figure 4) have been subducted to a depth of 10 to 12 km melange formed as a result of collision between an
at the base of the advancing wedge. Because this more island arc and oceanic/continental crust from the south,
consolidated pre-Miocene sequence has greater shear it is not possible to distinguish and map out units of
strength, little material from it was destroyed or Asiatic and Australian origin.
scraped off and incorporated into the chaotic wedge.
Schltiter and Fritsch (1985) further concluded that (4) S u m b a as a microcontinent
deformation of the chaotic wedge very much depends In general, Sumba is considered to be a
on the degree of consolidation and type of sediments microcontinent. Opinions differ as to whether Sumba
involved. The resistance to tectonic stress of the more originated from Southeast Asia (Hamilton, 1979;
consolidated pre-Late Miocene sequences is so great Burollet and Salle, 1985) or Australia (Audley-Charles
that they have been overthrusted by the imbricated et al., 1979). Bowin et al. (1980) considered Sumba to
chaotic wedge for a distance of at least 35 km. A recent be a part of the Sula Spur which was rifted away at an
plate tectonic model prepared by oil company early date, later colliding with the subduction zone
geologists (O'Sullivan et al., 1985) also shows clearly flanking Southeast Asia before the main mass of
that oceanic and continental crust are being subducted Australia did so. In a later study Audley-Charles (1985)
beneath the Seram Trough (Figure 5). reinforced his earlier view that the stratigraphy of
Sumba correlates well with the allochthonous deposits
(2) The Banda Sea as an old entrapped oceanic crust of Timor, and consequently postulated the Sumba
Katili's (1975) hypothesis that the Banda Sea nappe to be an elongated diapiric dome of the Sunda
represents an old oceanic crust trapped by the bending fore-arc that is being squeezed by the converging
of the Banda Arc is similar to that proposed by Bowin Australian margin against the volcanic islands of
et al. (1980) who further considered the trapped piece Sumbawa and Flores. Burrolet and Salle (1985) suggest
of oceanic crust to be Cretaceous or older. On the other an affinity between Sumba and the southeastern margin
hand Hamilton (1977; 1979) and Carter et al. (1976) of the Sunda Shelf during Mesozoic time. They based
suggest a late Tertiary age for part of the Banda Sea their view on the occurrence of a Cretaceous Tethys
crust. They maintain that the Banda volcanic arc was fauna with Asian affinities, and on the sedimentologic
originally continuous with the Sulawesi volcanic arc to conclusions of Von Den Botch et al. (1983). The
the north, and associated with a west-dipping present author supports the idea that Sumba is a
subduction zone. Late Tertiary back-arc spreading west microcontinent of southern origin which was trapped
of the Banda Arc caused the eastward migration of this behind the eastern part of the Java trench, because it is
arc away from the Sulawesi Arc, creating the Banda very difficult to imagine how Sumba could have passed
Sea. The curvature of the arc reflects its progressive through the east-west trending Tertiary Sunda
collision with the curved continental margin of volcanic arc.
northwestern Australia and Irian Jaya. Lapouille et al.
(1986) came to the conclusion that the Banda Sea crust (5) Sulawesi and Halmahera as double island arcs
had been formed in Early Cretaceous time as a part of Because of the structural continuity of the
the eastern Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Sunda-Banda Arc, the view is here maintained that in
Ocean, and subsequently was trapped, most probably Miocene time Sulawesi emerged as a double island arc
in Miocene time. Hilde etal. (1977), Bowin etal, (1980) east of Kalimantan. This is contrary to the conclusion
and Lee and McGabe (1986) suggest that the Banda of Hamilton (1979) who positioned Sulawesi close to
basin is a trapped fragment of Cretaceous oceanic crust Kalimantan in Miocene time, and of Audley-Charles et
of the Australian plate; magnetic lineations, heatflow al. (1972) who separated the eastern and western arm
and depth are consistent with this interpretation. of Sulawesi by placing them around continental
Australia during its drift northwards. The paired model
(3) T i m o r and Seram as subduction complexes of Sulawesi is maintained since it amply sustains the
The tectonic origins which have been proposed to polarity of the ophio[it,~ intrusive couple, and the

74 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February

 Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katili
'

1
CHAOTIC WEDGE (MELANGE WEDGE )-~J
~ELANGE WEDGE

" ,///" ~ 5 KM

~f

Figure 40verthrusting within slope sequence A5 a n d A6 c h a o t i c w e d g e structure in t h e A r u T r o u g h (simplified from SchlL~ter a n d

Fritsch, 1985)

MARGINAL DEPOSITS

IRIAN

.'-'.'-'.'.-'~'**~,;~ i,ll,,.'.'.~,. ~ T,,./>'~"~. ~ . - ~ " ~ . ' : ¢"T~ +.¢,+ * + * + +'*" "" + + "" +'~
• ".'.'- • .~.''.'-~'..'.'.:."J~4r.~l +,.t_~
.. ,r 4 - ' . ~ . , ,""
:~l~r~-'~.~.;. - CONTINENTAL CRUSt + ~ +
~.:..'.'.'.'.'.'.-....- r.'.-.'.'.-.'.-K,r: i ~ j . i ~ ' T + ~ l . j % r . , ~ , ' ~ ~-+ + + , + t. + + + + ++~
\-:-'-'-'~..:-'-;.'.:'~1-'~.'/.~~+~.¢"-t.'.~, , . . , . . , , - • + ~- . ..
~'" ~ - "L::." ':':-::':'1' ~ ~ . : . - : - : : : .
~,~ ..=.~ t:.~ /.,I + +~- + ~. + ~- + + . . . . . .-.. ..'.. :...: .. '-. '.... : ..2.. .' .., ..-. . . . . .. :.. .. ... .. ... . , . . . . . -

-.-.-.-.°~ - . . , - . . ° - ... %-o ° . - ,

IRIAN
OLISTOSTROME

~ ,MARGINAL
~ ~ ~ ~ DEPOSITS

BLOCK DIAGRAM L It~I "1I,',lr

If ~ .\ t /,.~.,\
-,~,~',~'.:'~'~\' t~.~':.-" :':: :'.::':
÷C u +\+.~.~k-~..':.;".:.',;.'-'.'.':.',
" ~ q I ~it / \ t Z,~'.'-:':':':':-.-:,..:...:.:.:.',
S ERA M A REA ~ ' i : ! : ! : ! :,T ! ' i : i : ; ::!:!:!:!:!:i:i:i:i:i::::!~::
i X ::~:::::::::::'~:
: ::c
:,:.. :.:,.,:,,.~.=
.....:;:'-'~,..='-
40 Km .: :::.~ ASTHENO.~PHERE

I00 Km

F i g u r e 5 Plate t e c t o n i c model, eastern Indonesia type (after O'Sullivan et al., 1985)

Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February 75

Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katili
presence of glaucophane schist facies between them, system between the Banda Arc and the Sangihe-Talaud
(Myashiro, 1961, Zwart, 1967). The Sulawesi- Bridge leading to the Philippines. During this
Mindanao arc, striking perpendicular to the Banda movement Banggai and Buton Island were swept
Arc, is envisaged to have existed about 800 km east of against the northeastern and southeastern arms of East
the present Sulawesi island. This volcano-plutonic arc Sulawesi respectively.
extended from western Sulawesi to Mindanao, whereas It is postulated that the Tertiary Sunada-Banda arc
the Tertiary Sulawesi subduction zone followed the had its origin in a spreading centre situated in the
Talaud Ridge, the submarine Mayu Ridge and eastern Indian Ocean while the Sulawesi-Mindanao arc trench
Sulawesi. The extent of the subduction zone is system was generated by a spreading centre located in
confirmed by the presence of ophiolites or melanges in the Pacific Ocean (Katili, 1975a).
the islands mentioned, whereas the extent of the extinct The convergence history of the Banda and
magmatic arc is confirmed by granites and volcanics Sulawesi-Mindanao arcs is not clear but may have the
that have been radiometrically dated (Katili and character of a sinistral arc-to-arc transform fault. It is
Hartono, 1983). not unlikely that the present northeast-southwest
For the Halmahera arc-trench system a similar origin trending fault zone along which Buton and Tukang Besi
during a younger phase of crustal movement could be Islands were transported towards the southeastern arm
advocated. The shape of the two eastern arms of of Sulawesi, had its origin in a Tertiary transform fault
Sulawesi and Halmahera is being compared with an that linked the Sulawesi-Mindanao and Banda arcs.
'arrowhead' pointing westward, with the two larger, This former southeast-northwest directed fault
slightly arcuate western arms as a 'wave front' together with Seram had been rotated anticlockwise by
preceding it. It is now well known that the eastern the northward drift of Australia and the westward
arcuate arms, convex westwards, consist of ophiolites, thrust of the Pacific Plate.
and that the western arcs comprise volcanoes, which in
western Sulawesi ceased in Quaternary times (Figure
6). Thus Sulawesi and Halmahera were once Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia
north-south trending island arcs convex towards the
Based on the tectonic framework of Southeast Asia
Pacific with westward-dipping subduction zones.
(Katili and Reinemund, 1989) and on studies
Moreover, after collision with the Irian Jaya plate,
reverse polarities occurred both in Sulawesi and concerning reconstruction of movement of megaplates
Halmahera as demonstrated by the trenches which in Southeast Asia (Daly, 1986; Downey, 1986) an
developed west and northwest of Sulawesi and west of attempt will be made to compile the tectonic evolution
Halmahera. The westward movements of the Pacific of eastern Indonesia.
Plate along the Sorong transform fault system could
thus easily explain the geologic complexities and also Eastern part of Southeast Asia before the arrival of
similarities of the Sulawesi-Halmahera region and can Australia
also account for the interruption of the island arc The break-up of Gondwana, resulting in the

~'~ ~.~3v" e • ~ Volcano p l u t o -

\ 9" 0 eC~'~ SOvo * ~ nic rocks.

,ou.H c.,N. SE. ) ~.................... t " D 10phiol'¢c$

.,,u., / ~,
d /.// U• ,,,,oo,,,

. / ~ ! 5 0 °. ~ , . . S,r..,,, ,o,-

~rsu,AWES,. . q .' ( \""-"''"" "',c.F-J

~ ~ BANDASEA
o

Figure 6 Geological resemblance between Sulawesi and Halmahera (Sukamto, 19891

76 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February

 Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katifi
Eastern part of Southeast Asia during and after
collision with Australia and New Guinea
About 20 million years ago, New Guinea and Sepik,
now welded into a larger microcontinent, arrived at the
edge of the Southeast Asian plate and collided with the
Inner Melanesian arc (Daly, 1986). This allowed
Ik interaction between the northward moving Australian
plate and the WNW moving Pacific Plate (see also
MELANESIAN
Figure 8).
The consequence of collision and the interaction of
the northward moving Australian plate and WNW
thrust of the Pacific plate have produced various
structural features.
3O
Major east-west trending wrench fault systems were
developed such as the Sorong and Tarera-Aiduna fault.
tab MACCLE$ FIELD BANK
Pull-apart basins on the wrench faults were
RB REED BANK
subsequently formed like the Salawati and the northern
basins. A major fold-thrust belt was generated,
trending WNW across Papua New Guinea and Irian
Figure 7 Plate locations of eastern Indonesia and Australia
30 Ma (data modified from Downey, 1989 and Katili, 1978) Jaya and swinging NNW to the Lengguru area. The
Tarera Aiduna fault acted as a lateral ramp to the
thrusts (Figure 9).
development of a major spreading axis in the Indian About 10 million years ago a south dipping
Ocean, was subsequently followed by a major subduction zone broke through north of Irian Jaya
reorganization in the subduction pattern of the which is still operating at the present time (Daly, 1986).
Indonesian region. As Australia drifted northward, However, no volcanism accompanied this subduction in
New Guinea approached and collided with the Sepik Irian Jaya (Figure 10).
island arc (Downey, 1986) about 30 million years ago The most dramatic event in the geological history of
(Figure 7). eastern Indonesia took place about 5 million years ago
About 20 million years ago, an 8000 km long, when anticlockwise rotation of New Guinea and
east-west trending arc-trench system developed continuous northward movement of Australia caused
extending from the western tip of Sumatra to Buru and the westward bending of the east-west trending Banda
even further eastwards to the Melanesian arc by way of arc and consequently trapped the Banda Sea. 'Tectonic
Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Timor, Tanimbar, Kai shaving' of the Birdhead of New Guinea took place
and Seram (Figure 8). along the Sorong transform fault system (Hamilton,
Prior to the arrival of the Australian continent at the 1979; Katili, 1986). Subsequently, Buton and Sula and
Southeast Asian continental margin, a north-south other microcontinents collided with the east-facing
oriented Sulawesi-Mindanao volcanic arc existed about Sulawesi and Halmahera arc thereby transforming the
800 km east of Borneo (Katili, 1978). Further to the double island arcs into a K:shape form (Figure 11)
southeast the older east-west trending Sepik island arc (Katili, 1975).
welded with New Guinea, separated the Australian This collision caused obduction of the ultrabasic
continent from the Pacific plate. rocks of the eastern and southeastern arms and
thrusting of these rocks over the island arc. Continuous
westward-directed tectonic forces along the Sorong
0
transform fault system and the Matano fault zone in
Sulawesi gradually pushed Sulawesi towards the Asian
continent against Kalimantan and thus closed the
southern part of the ancient Sulawesi Sea. The closure
- - - "
of this sea resulted in the obduction of the
Cretaceous-Early Tertiary Meratus and Pulau Laut
submerged subduction complex, and the formation of
the Meratus mountain range (Katili. 1978). The rise of
these mountains was not accompanied by plutonic
activity; they were wholly caused by compressive
forces, as there is no record of plutonic rocks of this age

N=
(van 13emmelen, t949).
The South Sulawesi Sea (now called the Strait of
Makassar) reopened, starting at the end of the Pliocene
(see also Figure 1). There is still controversy regarding
2o the age of the formation of the Makassar basin. Van
Bemmelen (1949) was of the opinion that
Pliocene-Pleistocene diastrophism resulted in the
breakdown of the crust to the west and east of South
Sulawesi forming the Makassar basin and the Bone
Figure 8 Plate locations of eastern Indonesia and Australia Trough.
20 Ma (data modified from Downey, 1986 and Katili, 1978) Hamilton (1979) argued that the formation of the

Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February 77

 Tectonic evolution o f eastern Indonesia." J. A. Katili
' ,

•° ",¢") @
P A C / F / C
, O C E A N
O" )R-RTHERN BASIN 1
(PULL APART) J

Wrench faults

S u b d u c t i o n zone

BINTUNI Thrusf ...JL_ /

5°S
(FORELAND) o
,.. T h i c k n e s s of I °
A. Y A un(:l.eforrn~d --3-- I
r..~-~ . ?-----.~ seoimen~ (in km )
,#
N D 0 N E S I A
o
• .
0
,...~\"-~SOUTHE RN BASIN[ . ...l.l.l.~ k,,.
// ~ (FORELAND) J ,,~",~
F

I0°$ ARAFURA MARGIN]

SEA

13~E 134"E ,~o-e J

,i,-e
Figure 9 Late Tertiary foreland and pull-apart basins in Irian Jaya (after Downey, 1986)

Makassar basin was due to the opening (spreading) of Makassar Strait occurred during Pliocene-Pleistocene
the Makassar Strait in Middle or Upper Miocene time. The Quaternary spreading of the Strait of
time. Rose and Hartono (1978) related the formation Makassar is also demonstrated in an unpublished
of the basin to the counterclockwise rotation of regional tectonic map (Conoco, 1980).
Kalimantan during Late Cretaceous-Early Paleogene The opening was caused by spreading along
times, while Situmorang (1982) assumed that rifting in transform faults, the most important being the
this area took place during E o c e n e - L o w e r Miocene Paternoster fault. Eastward spreading south of the
times. Katili (1978) proposed that the rifting of the Paternoster transform fault caused subduction and the

J
f

Q
IOMo

Figure 10 Plate locations in Southeast Asia, 10 Ma (data modified from Daly, 1986 and Katili, 1978)

78 M a r i n e a n d P e t r o l e u m G e o l o g y , 1991, Vol 8, F e b r u a r y
 Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katili

IN DIA
SCH
Q
Philippines plofe

~O

t
5 Mo
AUSTRALIA

Figure 11 Plate locations in Southeast Asia 5 Ma (data modified from Daly, 1986 and Katili, 1978)

formation of Quaternary volcanoes of Lompobatang consisting primarily of subduction melange and

and Barupu in the southern arm of Sulawesi (Katili, imbricated complexes of Tertiary age;
1978). A short period of subduction in the Strait of (3) outer-arc basins, which include the LOmbok Basin,
Makassar was also proposed by Taylor and van the Sawu Basins and Weber deep;
Leeuwen (1980) to account for the mineralization in (4) the trench, over 6000 m deep south of Bali and
South Sulawesi. The cessation of volcanicity was caused Sumbawa, 5000 m deep north of Buru and
by subsequent spreading of the western Halmahera arc elsewhere an average of 2000 m in depth.
(see also Figure 1). Active collision accompanied by The tectonic evolution and model proposed for
emplacement of ophiolites is presently taking place eastern Indonesia which has been discussed here in
between the west-facing Halmahera arc and the detail, can be used to explain conveniently the
east-facing Sangihe arc (Silver and Moore, 1981). hydrocarbon occurrence in complex paleo-subduction
or collision zones such as Timor, Seram, eastern
Sulawesi and perhaps Buton (Katili and Soekendar,
1985).
Hydrocarbon prospects The oil and gas occurrence in the Bobonaro
The evolution of the Southeast Asian arc complex has olisostrome in Timor (Audley-Charles et al., 1975) and
clearly demonstrated that in the western part of the petroleum occurrence of the Sula and Nief fields in
Indonesia the development of the island arc system had Seram (Gribi, 1974) can be explained using this model,
only been slightly affected by the collision of India and due to the similarity in the geological and tectonic
Eurasia. environment. In support, note that Fontaine and
The prevailing structural elements such as Manguy (1982) have suggested that the Seram oil was
trench, non-volcanic outer-arc, fore-arc basins, probably derived from Triassic source rock.
volcano-magmatic arc, back-arc basins and craton have The convergence and collision of the fragmented
developed regularly since Paleozoic time (Katili, 1973). Bird Head continental crust, to which Peleng, Banggai
In the eastern part of Indonesia, the regular and Sula islands belong with Sulawesi, must have taken
development of a double island arc system was, as place as early as Pliocene-Pleistocene and resulted in
previously discussed, severely interrupted by collision general uplift of the eastern arm followed by erosion
of the northward Australian continent with the Banda and deposition of Molasse type sediments and
arc and westward thrust of the Irian Jaya continental olistostromes.
crust towards Sulawesi. The continental crust and its overlying Mesozoic
The resulting complex processes did not produce a platform sediments have been subducted deeply below
simple geologic setting, such as in the western part of the eastern arm of Sulawesi, although minor amounts
Indonesia, since back-arc basins did not come into apparently have been incorporated into the imbricated
existence. Within the U-shaped Banda region the structure, as can be observed from the common
following structural elements are discernible: occurrence of slices of platform sediments between the
(1) an inner volcanic arc consisting of Bali, Sumbawa, ophiolites (Figure 12).
Flores, Wetar, Damar and Banda Api; If the platform or marginal sag basin deposits are rich
(2) an outer arc ridge comprising the islands of Sawu, in organic material, underthrusting and compression
Roti, Timor, Tanimbar, Kai, Seram and Buru combined with burial depth will increase the maturity

M a r i n e and P e t r o l e u m G e o l o g y , 1991, Vol 8, F e b r u a r y 79

Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katili

TECTONO-STRATIGRAPHIC
SETTING
MOLASSE
QUART ,...BIAK F M DEPOSIT

TRENCH SLOPE/ z
>. ~~...... "" OLISTOSTROMAL
a,. !'" ". DEPOSITS m
- - Z tu
<_ MELANGE " o
t-- -IN

= i IMBRICATE o
_ ~ / y ~~V ZONE

" Atti
UNDERTHRUST

BANGGAI- SULA C.CR

,NOEX .,P

4. 4.1. 4" 4" _ 4.

o&)*

H I : 250.000
SCALE ." ~ I ; 125. 000

Figure 12 Block diagram exhibiting structural and stratigraphic setting of the eastern Sulawesi (Katiliand Soekendar, 1985)

of the organic material. If the trench slope basin

deposits and other clastic sediments can function as
good reservoir rocks, and the fault zones as migration
paths, then it appears that accumulation of
hydrocarbons must be considered possible.
It is important to note that oil seepages which are
thought to be related to the ophiolite-clastic
sedimentary boundary, have previously been reported
from several places in the eastern arm of Sulawesi. It is
also of interest to note that after the construction of the
Tanimbar-Aru subduction model by Schliiter and
Fritsch (1985) and its application to the search for
hydrocarbon deposits in eastern Sulawesi by Katili and
Soekendar (1985), oil was discovered by Union Texas
in the Bay of Tomori, eastern Sulawesi. Exploration
data published subsequently by Kartaadipoetra and
Samuel (1988) show much resemblance to our pro-
posed model (compare Figure 12 and Figure 13).
Fore-arc basins encountered in eastern Indonesia
comprise the Savu basin, the Weber deepl the
Gorontalo basin and presumably also the Bone basin.
The fore-arc basins around the Banda arc have
developed in an early stage of arc-continent collision
i.e. collision between the Australian continent and the
Banda island arc system. The fore-arc Savu basin is
underlain by oceanic crust. The ocean floor is covered
by more than 2 km of flat-lying sediments which
thicken westwards towards Sumba. Seismic profiles of
the continental slope north of Sumba indicate material Figure 13 Exploration play in the collision zone of Seram and
slumping onto the floor of the basin. Although the Savu Tomori (Kartaadipoetra arid Samuel, 1988)

80 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February

 Tectonic evolution of eastern Indonesia: J. A. Katili
Sea occupies the position of an interarc trough between exploration at the present time.
the outer arc ridge, represented by the islands of Savu The Gorontalo forearc basin is supposed to have
and Timor, and the volcanic arc, its age and origin are been formed in a mature stage of continent-arc
unknown. Presumably the sediments are mainly of collision i.e. between the Australia-New Guinea
volcanoclastic origin from the inner volcanic arc continental plate and the Sulawesi arc. The sediments
(Kartaadipoetra and Samuel, 1988). in the basin are probably mostly elastics with both
The Savu basin off Kupang, at the upper continental volcanic and quartzose derived sediments. No
slope, shows extensive deformed sediments with hydrocarbon exploration has been carried out in this
characteristic growth faults in the Upper Neogene. Five region (Kartaadipoetra and Samuel, 1988).
seismic units separated by unconformities can be Hydrocarbon potentials of the Arafura Shelf area
distinguished. Within the units, parallel layered and the southern coastal plain of Irian Jaya have been
reflectors can be traced over great distances. Locally described in a previous publication (Katili, 1986).
diapirs appear to be present. In the western part of the Major hydrocarbon occurrences are not yet known in
Savu Basin shallow gas is seen as gaspockets down to the Arafura Sea and very little information is available
200 m below the seabed (Subardjio, 1986). The margin regarding source rocks in the area.
to the north of the island Sumba is characterized by Another promising area for petroleum exploration is
large scale sediment gravity and slump scars can be the southern lrian Jaya coastal plain (Figure 14). The
seen in the sediment surface. This gravitational existence of thick sedimentary deposits of the old
emplacement is the result of the uplift of rocks near the Kembelengan formation, plus the presence of the
Savu/Sumba ridge, where thrust faults and strongly Tarera-Aiduna transcurrent fault, might prove that
faulted blocks can be recognized. this area is suitable for oil exploration. Exploration of
The same geological setting as that of the Savu Basin the Kembelengan formation situated at an approximate
is encountered in the Weber depocentre. However, in depth of 1000 to 1500 m requires deeper drilling
contrast to the Savu Basin it is not bordered by compared to other exploration wells in Irian Jaya
emerged lands. It is an unusually deep forearc basin, (Katili, 1986).
reaching depths in excess of 7.5 km and is underlain by Recently oil was struck in the Papua New Guinea
oceanic crust. It possesses a thin sedimentary cover. (PNG) foldbelt. According to Hill (1990), within a
The great water depth is a major deterrent to 30 km wide strip along the southwestern Papuan Fold

TARGET AREA FOR EXPLORATION

o
IN E A S T - INDONESIA
Ct
A -- MARGINAL R I F T BASIN IN ARAFURA SEA

B - THRUST BELT IN IRIAN JAYA

C " COLLISION Z O N E OF TIMOR AND SERAM
D - COLLISION ZONE OF EAST SULAWESI
E _- PULL APART BASINS IN IRIAN JAYA
C3 F- FORE LAND BASIN IN IRIAN JAYA

/-
IRIAN dAYA

B A N D A SEA

,4 R A F U R A

Figure 14 Eastern Indonesia showing target areas for hydrocarbon exploration

Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1991, Vol 8, February 81

T e c t o n i c e v o l u t i o n o f e a s t e r n I n d o n e s i a : J. A. K a t i l i
B e l t , the e n t i r e s e d i m e n t a r y section has b e e n thrust Bowin, C., Purdy, G. M., Johnston, C., Shor, G., Lawyer, L.,
faulted to form large ramp anticlines. These structures Hartono, H. M. S. and Jezek, P. (1980) Arc-continent collision
in the Banda Sea region. Bull, Am. Assoc. Pet. GeoL 64,
have been successfully drilled for oil and gas 868-915
condensate trapped in the Tithonian-Neocomian Toro Burrett, C. and Strait, B. (1984) Southeast Asia as a part of an
Sandstone reservoir. The ramp anticlines were formed early Paleozoic Gondwanaland Abstract 5th Reg. Conf. Geol.
in the Pliocene, but the hydrocarbons may have Miner. Resour. SE Asia, 3
Burollet, P. F. and Salle, C. (1985) Tectonic significance of the
migrated into pre-existing extensional structures in the Banda Sea Proc. Indon. Pet. Assoc. 4th Ann. Session
Late Cretaceous and/or Miocene and been preserved or 447-490
locally re-migrated during compression. Since the fold Cardwell, R. K. and Isacks, B. L. (1978) Geometry of subducted
belt extends to Irian Jaya, hydrocarbon exploration lithosphere beneath the Banda Sea in eastern Indonesia from
seismicity and fault plane solutions J. Geophys. Res. 83,
along the lrian Jaya fold belt is strongly suggested. 2825-2838
There are many different styles of structural traps in the Carter, D. J., Audley-Charles, M. G. and Barber, A. J. (1976)
Papuan fold belt, some of which have never been tested Stratigraphical analysis of island arc-continental margin
by drilling. collision in eastern Indonesia Q. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 132,
In conclusion it can be stated that whereas oil and gas 179-198
Chamalaun, F. H. and Grady, A. E. (1978) The tectonic
accumulation in the area of Irian Jaya are found in development of Timor: a new model and its implications for
Tertiary deposits, i.e. in the pull-apart basins of petroleum exploration. APEA J. 18, 102-108
northern Irian Jaya, the Salawati basin in the Vogelkop Conoco (1980) Personal communication
area and the foreland basin of the Bintuni area, the Crostella, A. (1977) Geosynclines and plate tectonics in the
Banda Arc, eastern Indonesia Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 61,
source rocks in other parts of eastern Indonesia could 2063-2081
be encountered in older rocks, i.e. in Mesozoic layers. Daly, M. (1986) Personal communication
Main exploration target areas are the intra-cratonic Downey, J. W. (1986) Personal communication
basins of the Arafura Shelf, the marginal (rift) basins in Fitch, T. J. and Hamilton, W. (1974) Reply to comments by M. G.
the Arafura Shelf skirting the eastern section of the Audley-Charles and J. S. Milsom on paper: Plate
convergence, transcurrent faults, and internal deformation
Banda arc (the Timor gap, and the rift zones to the adjacent to Southeast Asia and the western Pacific
East) and the collision zones of Timor, Seram, East J. Geophys. Res. 79, 4982-4985
Sulawesi and the thrustbelt of Irian Jaya. Fontaine, H. and Manguy, M. (1982) Don't forget Asia's older
rocks Pet. News Mag. 12 (11), 8-10
Gatinsky, Y. G. and Hutchison, Ch.S. (1984) Cathaysia
Gondwanaland and the Paleothethys in the evolution of
Continental Asia Abstract 5th Reg. Conf. Geol. Miner. Resour.
Acknowledgements SE Asia, 11
Gribi, E. A., Jr (1974) Petroleum geology of the Moluccas,
Thanks are extended to BP Indonesia for inviting the eastern Indonesia. In: Proceedings of SE Asia Petroleum
author to participate in the East Indonesia workshop in Exploration Society Singapore (Eds L. R. Beddocs and J. S.
London and for granting him permission to reproduce Wonfor) 1, 23-30
Hamilton, W. (1970) Tectonic map of Indonesia, a progress
and/or modify figures from unpublished reports pre- report U.S. GeoL Survey, Denver, Colorado, 1-29
pared by the BP research group led by Dr Daly. Since Hamilton, W. (1977) Subduction in the Indonesian region in
the synthesis in the unpublished reports on plate island arcs, deep sea trenches and back-arc basins Am.
reconstruction of eastern Indonesia is more or less Geophys. Union, Maurice Ewing Ser. 1, 15-31
in harmony with the author's idea on the tectonic Hamilton, W. (1979) Tectonics of the Indonesian region. U.S.
GeoL Survey Prof. Paper 1078:1-345
evolution of this region, these data have been exten- Hilde, T. W. C., Uyeda, S. and Kroenke, L. (1977) Evolution of the
sively used and incorporated in the present paper. western Pacific and its margin Tectonophysics 38, 145-166
However, for any misinterpretation of BP's data, the Hill, K. C. (1990) Structural styles and hydrocarbons in the
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Petroleum Convention, Port Moresby (Eds. G. J. and Z.
Carman)
Jacobson, R. S., Shor, G. G., Jr, Kieckhefer, R. M. and Purdy,
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