UNIT-III

MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC)

 MAC stands for Media Access Control Address. It is a hardware identification

number that identifies each device connected to a network. The MAC address is
embedded into network interface cards (NIC) in your computer such as an
Ethernet card or Wi-Fi card, at time of manufacturing by the vendor, so it cannot
be changed.

Types of Channel allocation are two types 1.Static channel allocation

2. Dynamic channel allocation

Types of Dynamic channel allocation: 1.Satation Model

2. Single channel assumption
3. Collision assumption
4. Continuous or slotted time
5. Carrier sense or no carrier sense

Random Access
 In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a
channel.
 In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station
 All station send a data simultaneously
 Flow chart of CSMA/CD

CSMA/CA
 It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol
for carrier transmission of data frames
 It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.
 When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to
check whether the channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own)
acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been successfully
transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in
which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared
channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an
acknowledgment signal.

Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:
Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle,
and if it gets the channel is idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of
this, it waits for some time, and this time period is called the Interframe space or
IFS. However, the IFS time is often used to define the priority of the station.
 Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into
different slots. When the station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it
chooses a random slot number of slots as wait time. If the channel is still busy, it
does not restart the entire process, except that it restarts the timer only to send
data packets when the channel is inactive.

Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the

data frame to the shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of
time.

Flow chart of CSMA/CA

CONTROLLED ACCESS

 In the Controlled access technique, all stations need to consult with one
another in order to find out which station has the right to send the data.
 The controlled access protocols mainly grant permission to send only one
node at a time; thus in order to avoid the collisions among the shared
mediums.
 No station can send the data unless it has been authorized by the other
stations.

The protocols lies under the category of Controlled access are as follows:

1. Reservation 2.Polling 3.Token passing

1. Reservation

 In this method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending the

data.
 Time is mainly divided into intervals.
 Also, in each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frame that is
sent in that interval.
 Suppose if there are 'N' stations in the system in that case there are
exactly 'N' reservation minislots in the reservation frame; where each minislot
belongs to a station.
 Whenever a station needs to send the data frame, then the station makes a
reservation in its own minislot.
 Then the stations that have made reservations can send their data after the
reservation frame.

Example

 Let us take an example of 5 stations and a 5-minislot reservation frame. In

the first interval, the station 2,3 and 5 have made the reservations. While in
the second interval only station 2 has made the reservations.

2. Polling

 The polling method mainly works with those topologies where one device is
designated as the primary station and the other device is designated as the
secondary station.
 All the exchange of data must be made through the primary device even
though the final destination is the secondary device.
 Thus to impose order on a network that is of independent users, and in order
to establish one station in the network that will act as a controller and
periodically polls all other stations is simply referred to as polling.
 The Primary device mainly controls the link while the secondary device
follows the instructions of the primary device.
 Therefore the primary device is always an initiator of the session.

It performs two types of functions 1. Poll function 2.Select function

Poll function

 In case if primary devices want to receive the data, then it usually asks the
secondary devices if they have anything to send. This is commonly known
as Poll Function.
 There is a poll function that is mainly used by the primary devices in order
to solicit transmissions from the secondary devices.
  When the primary device is ready to receive the data then it
must ask(poll) each secondary device in turn if it has anything to send.
 If the secondary device has data to transmit then it sends the data frame,
otherwise, it sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK).
 After that in case of the negative response, the primary then polls the next
secondary, in the same manner until it finds the one with the data to send.
When the primary device received a positive response that means (a data
frame), then the primary devices reads the frame and then returns an
acknowledgment (ACK )frame,

Select Function

 In case, if the primary device wants to send the data then it tells the
secondary devices in order to get ready to receive the data. This is commonly
known as the Select function.
 Thus the select function is used by the primary device when it has
something to send.
 We had already told you that the primary device always controls the link.
 Before sending the data frame, a select (SEL ) frame is created and
transmitted by the primary device, and one field of the SEL frame includes
the address of the intended secondary.
 The primary device alerts the secondary devices for the upcoming
transmission and after that wait for an acknowledgment (ACK) of the
secondary devices.
3. Token Passing
Channelization

 Channelization is basically a method that provides the multiple-access and in

this, the available bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency, or
through the code in between the different stations.
Channelization Protocols are classified as follows
 FDMA (Frequency-Division Multiple Access)
 TDMA (Time-Division Multiple Access)
 CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access)

FDMA (Frequency-Division Multiple Accesses):

 With the help of this technique, the available bandwidth is divided into
frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band in order to send its data.
 In order to prevent station interferences, the allocated bands are separated
from one another with the help of small guard bands.
 The Frequency-division multiple access mainly specifies a predetermined
frequency for the entire period of communication.

Advantages of FDMA
 This technique is efficient when the traffic is uniformly constant.
 In case if the channel is not in use then it sits idle.
 FDMA is simple algorithmically and the complexity is less.
 For FDMA there is no restriction regarding the type of baseband or the type of
modulation.

Disadvantages of FDMA

 By using FDMA, the maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.

In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands
that are separated by guard bands.

TDMA (Time-Division Multiple Access)

 With the help of this technique, the stations share the bandwidth of the
channel in time.
 A time slot is allocated to each station during which it can send the data.
 Data is transmitted by each station in the assigned time slot.
 When using the TDMA technique then each station needs to know the
beginning of its slot and the location of its slot.
 If the stations are spread over a large area, then there occur propagation
delays; in order to compensate this guard, times are used.
 The data link layer in each station mainly tells its physical layer to use the
allocated time slot.
Examples of TDMA are as follows

1. Personal digital calculator

2. Universal Terrestrial Radio
Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access)

 CDMA technique differs from the FDMA and TDMA because only one channel
occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.
 The CDMA technique simply means communication with different codes.
 In the CDMA technique, there is only one channel that carries all the
transmission simultaneously.
 The data from the different stations can be transmitted simultaneously but
using different code languages.

Advantages of CDMA

 Provide high voice quality.

 CDMA operates at low power levels.
 The capacity of the system is higher than the TDMA and FDMA.
 CDMA is better cost-effective.
Difference between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

FDMA TDMA CDMA

FDMA stands for TDMA stands for CDMA stands for Code
Frequency Division Time Division Division Multiple Access.
Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

In this, sharing of In this, only the In this, there is sharing

bandwidth among sharing of time of of both i.e. bandwidth
different stations takes satellite transponder and time among
place. takes place. different stations takes
place.

There is no need of any There is no need of Codeword is necessary.

codeword. any codeword.

In this, there is only In this, guard time In this, both guard

need of guard bands of the adjacent slots bands and guard time
between the adjacent are necessary. are necessary.
channels are necessary.

Synchronization is not Synchronization is Synchronization is not

required. required. required.

The rate of data is low. The rate of data is The rate of data is high.
medium.

Mode of data transfer is Mode of data Mode of data transfer is

continuous signal. transfer is signal in digital signal.
bursts.

It is little flexible. It is moderate It is highly flexible.

flexible.
Wired LAN

Ethernet – (IEEE 802.3)

Types of Ethernet are four types

1. Standard Ethernet
2. Fast Ethernet
3. Gigabyte Ethernet
4.10 Gigabyte Ethernet

1. Standard Ethernet:

 The data rate of standard Ethernet is 10Mbps

 It is a unreliable
 It is also connection less service
 This is a first generation of Ethernet
 Each frame is independent

FRAMING STRUCTURE of STANDARD ETHERNET

 Ethernet framing structure as 7 fields

Destination Source Length

Preamble SFD Data CRC
Address Address ot Type
7 bytes 1 byte 6 bytes 6 bytes 2 bytes
46bytes to 4 bytes
1500 bytes

 The Preamble consists of seven bytes all of the form 10101010, and is used by
the receiver to allow it to establish bit synchronization. It alert the receiving
system.
 SFD it consist of 0’s and 1’s,it is start frame delimiter

 Destination address is a link layer address it consist of 6 bytes, it is a ending

address
  Source address is a link layer address , it consist of 6 bytes, it is a starting
address
 Type is contain upper layer protocols like IP,ARP etc..
 The minimum data contains 46 bytes and maximum data contains 1500 bytes
 CRC means error detection method

Minimum Length of the Ethernet fame is 64bytes (6+6+2+46+4)

Maximum Length of the Ethernet frame is 1518 bytes (6+6+2+1500+4)

Addressing

 Ethernet MAC contains 6 bytes address

 It contain 12 hexa decimal digits separated by colon

E.g.: 4A:30:10:21:10; 1A

Various types of address in Ethernet are Unicast, Multicast and broad cast

Hexa decimal to binary table format

Conversion example 4A:30:10:21:10; 1A

4A: 01001010 21:00100001

30:00110000 10:00010000

10:00010000 1A:00011010
Categories of Slandered Ethernet

1.10Base 5: In this implementation thick coaxial cable is used and length is 500m

2.10 Base 2: In this implementation thin coaxial cable is used and length is 185m

3.10 Base T: In this implementation 2 UTP cable is used and length is 100m

4.10 Base F: In this implementation 2 Fiber cable is used and length is 100m

Here all categories are used Manchester encoding

Here 10 represent a Data rate, Base represent a digital signal and 5 represent a
length of the cable.

2. Fast Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u)

 It is upgradable data rate of 100Mbps

 It keep the standard Ethernet framing structure
 Here also MAC contain 48 bits address
 Here new feature is add also called Auto negotiation means that in network
two devices having different data rates.
 It supports to point to point and star topologies

Categories of Fast Ethernet

1.100Base TX: In this implementation 2 pair of UTP and STP cables are used and
length is 100m

2.100 Base FX: In this implementation 2 wire fiber cable is used and length is
185m

3.100 Base T4: In this implementation 4 wire UTP cable is used and length is
100m

Encoding and Decoding Process in fast Ethernet

Giga Byte Ethernet IEEE 802.3z

 It is upgradable data rate of 1000Mbps

 It keep the standard Ethernet framing structure
 Here also MAC contain 48 bits address
 Here new feature is add also called Auto negotiation means that in network
two devices having different data rates.
 It supports and connected to point to point and two more star topologies
 It supports Full Duplex mode

Categories of Fast Ethernet

1.1000Base SX: In this implementation 2 wires of short wave fiber cable is

used and length is 550m
2.1000 Base LX: In this implementation 2 wires of long fiber cable is used
and length is 5000m
3.1000 Base CX: In this implementation STP cable is used and length is 25m
4. 1000 Base T: In this implementation 4 wire UTP cable is used and length
is 100m

Encoding and Decoding Process in Giga Ethernet

10Giga Byte Ethernet IEEE 802.3al

 It is upgradable data rate of 10000Mbps

 It keep the standard Ethernet framing structure
 Here also MAC contain 48 bits address
 Here new feature is add also called Auto negotiation means that in network
two devices having different data rates.
 It supports and connected to point to point and two more star topologies
 It supports Full Duplex mode
 It is used in metropolitan area networks
 In this no need for CSMA/CD protocol

Categories of Fast Ethernet

1.10GBase SR: In this implementation 2 wires of fiber cable is used and

length is 300m
2.10G Base LR: In this implementation 2 wires of fiber cable is used and
length is 10km
3.10G Base EN: In this implementation 2 wires of fiber cable is used and
length is 40km
4. 10G BaseX4: In this implementation 2 wires of fiber cable is used and
length is 300m to 10km

Ethernet Protocol

The most popular and oldest LAN technology is Ethernet Protocol, so it is more
frequently used in LAN environments which are used in almost all networks like
offices, homes, public places, enterprises, and universities. Ethernet has gained
huge popularity because of its maximum rates over longer distances using optical
media.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allowing you to make
voice calls over a broadband Internet connection instead of an analog (regular)
phone line. Some VoIP services allow you to call people using the same service,
but others may allow you to call anyone. They can have a telephone number –
including local, long-distance, mobile, and international numbers or not. Some
VoIP services only work over your computer or a special VoIP phone while other
services allow you to use a traditional phone connected to a VoIP adapter.
How VoIP / Internet Voice Works – Voice is converted into a digital signal by
VoIP services that travel over the Internet. If the regular phone number is called,
the signal is converted to a regular telephone signal i.e. an analog signal before it
reaches the destination.
VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer having a special VoIP
phone, or a traditional phone connected to a special adapter. Wireless hot spots in
locations such as airports, hospitals, cafes, etc allow you to connect to the
Internet and can enable you to use VoIP service wirelessly.

Equipments Required – A high-speed Internet connection is required which can

be through a cable modem or high-speed services such as a local area network. A
computer, adaptor, or specialized phone is required. Some VoIP services only work
over your computer or a special VoIP phone. Other services allow you to use a
traditional phone connected to a VoIP adapter. If you use your computer some
software and an inexpensive microphone are needed. VoIP phones plug directly
into your broadband connection and operate largely like a traditional telephone. If
you use a telephone with a VoIP adapter, you can dial just as you always have,
and the service provider may also provide a dial tone.
Example: Whatsup, Face book messenger, viber etc