LECTUREONE

DEVELOPMENTCONCEPTS&THEORI
ES

Dev
elopmenti
samul
ti
facet
edconcept
swhi
chhav
edi
ff
erentmeani
ngf
ordi
ff
erent
peopl
eorcount
ri
es.Di
ff
erentcount
ri
eshav
edi
ff
erentpr
ior
it
iesi
nthei
rdev
elopment
pol
ici
es.Ther
eisnouni
ver
salaccept
abl
edef
ini
ti
onofwhatexact
lydev
elopment
mean.Accor
dingt
oCher
ry(
2008)t
her
eisnoconsensust
owhatdev
elopmentmeans
orr
equi
res,
sinceWor
ldWarI
Itheabi
li
tyt
oconcept
ual
izeddev
elopmenthasbecome
i
ncr
easer
elev
ant
.

I
nmostcases,
dev
elopmenti
srel
atedt
ogr
owt
hfr
om onest
aget
oanot
her
,ther
efor
e,
dev
elopmenti
sinev
itabl
ytr
eat
edasanor
mat
iveconcept
,asal
mostasynonym f
or
i
mpr
ovementf
rom onest
aget
oanot
her
,

 I
nthedi
rectpost
-warper
iod,dev
elopmentwasusual
lydef
inedi
nter
msof
economi
c gr
owt
hfocuseson t
heGr
owt
h Nat
ionalPr
oduct
s(GNP)
.Itwas
ar
guedt
hateconomi
cgr
owt
hwoul
dleadt
oat
ri
ckl
e-downef
fect
,meani
ngt
hat
economi
c gr
owt
h was a necessar
y condi
ti
ons and r
equi
rementf
orsoci
al
i
mpr
ovement
.

 Dev
elopmentaseconomi
cgr
owt
htooof
tencommodi
tyout
putasopposedt
o
peopl
eis emphasi
zed measur
es ofgr
owt
hin Gr
owt
h Nat
ionalPr
oduct
s.
Howev
er,t
her
eis di
ff
erences bet
ween human dev
elopmentand economi
c
gr
owt
h as t
he count
ry can hav
e economi
c gr
owt
h/dev
elopmentbutst
il
l
maj
ori
tyoft
hepopul
ati
onr
emai
npoor
,unempl
oyed,poorheal
thser
vicesand
hi
ghi
nequal
it
ygap.

Themoder
nschol
arsofdev
elopment
,cr
it
ici
zet
hei
deaofeconomi
cgr
owt
hasdi
rect

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
r
elat
edt
odev
elopment
.Theyf
ocusi
ndi
cat
orssuchassoci
ali
ndi
cat
orssuchas
wel
far
eandpov
ert
ywhi
chr
esul
ttocr
eat
eUN’
sHumanDev
elopmentI
ndex(
HDI
)
i
ncl
udel
if
eexpect
ancy,
educat
ionandi
ncome.

 Theyar
guet
hatdev
elopmenti
snotpur
elyan economi
cphenomenon but
r
atheramul
ti
dimensi
onalpr
ocessi
nvol
vingr
eor
gani
zat
ionandr
eor
ient
ati
onof
ent
ir
eeconomi
candsoci
alsyst
em.Dev
elopmenti
sthepr
ocessofi
mpr
ovi
ng
t
hequal
it
yofal
lhumanl
iveswi
tht
hequal
it
yimpor
tantaspect
s.

 Uni
tedNat
ion(
UN)document
semphasi
son“
HumanDev
elopment
”measur
ed
byl
if
eexpect
ancy,adul
tli
ter
acy
,accesst
oeducat
ionaswel
laspeopl
e’s
av
eragei
ncome.Theconceptofhumandev
elopmenti
ncor
por
ateal
laspectof
i
ndi
vi
dualwel
l-bei
ngf
rom t
hei
rheal
thst
atust
othei
reconomi
candpol
it
ical
f
reedom.

 Accor
ding t
othe Human Dev
elopmentRepor
t(1
996)publ
ished by Uni
ted
Nat
ionalDev
elopmentPr
ogr
am (
UNDP)
,Human dev
elopmenti
sthe End-
economi
cgr
owt
hasMeans.Economi
cgr
owt
hbyi
ncr
easi
nganat
ion’
stot
al
weal
th and enhance i
ts pot
ent
ialf
orr
educi
ng pov
ert
y and ot
hersoci
al
pr
obl
ems.

Ther
efor
e,t
hegov
ernmenthav
etoensur
ebal
ancebet
weeneconomi
cgr
owt
hand
humandev
elopmentt
oensur
esust
ainabl
edev
elopment
.

- Condi
ti
onsf
orenabl
ingeconomi
cgr
owt
hincudes:

1
. Peopl
eknowl
edgeandski
lls(
humancapi
tal
)

2.Ef
fi
cientuseofnat
uralr
esour
cesi
.el
and,
mineset
c.

3.St
abl
egov
ernmentandgoodgov
ernance

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page2
 4.SoundEconomi
cPol
ici
es

- Condi
ti
onsf
orenabl
inghumandev
elopmenti
ncl
udes:

1
. Goodheal
thser
vices

2.Educat
ionser
vices

3.Empl
oymentoppor
tuni
ti
es

4.Democr
acyandpar
ti
cipat
ion

5.Env
ironmentpr
otect
ion

Khol
i(2005)pr
ovi
de f
orpol
it
ical di
mensi
on ofdev
elopmentby f
ocusi
ng on
democr
ati
zat
ionpr
ocess.Thecount
rywi
llonl
ybeconsi
der
edasdev
elopbasedon
t
heext
enti
tpr
ovi
depar
ti
cipat
ionandi
nvol
vementofci
ti
zensasamaj
orst
akehol
der
s
i
n dev
elopmentpr
ocess. The gov
ernmentshoul
d secur
e pr
oper
tyr
ight
s and
f
avor
abl
einv
est
mentcl
imat
egener
ati
nghi
ghereconomi
cgr
owt
h.

OBJECTI
VESOFDEVELOPMENT

Accor
ding t
o Todor
o and Smi
th(
2005)pr
ovi
def
ormaj
ort
hree(
3)obj
ect
ivesof
dev
elopmentasf
oll
ows:

1
. Rai
singpeopl
e’sl
ivi
ngl
evel
si.
e.i
ncomesandconsumpt
ionf
ood,shel
ter
s,
heal
thser
vicesandeducat
ion.I
tai
medati
ncr
easi
ngt
heav
ail
abi
li
tyandwi
den
t
hedi
str
ibut
ionofbasi
cli
fesust
aini
nggood.

2.Cr
eat
ingcondi
ti
onconduci
vet
othegr
owt
hofpeopl
e’ssel
f-est
eem t
hrought
he
est
abl
ishmentofsoci
al,pol
it
icalandeconomi
cwhi
chpr
omot
ehumandi
gni
ty
andr
espect
.Ie.Const
ruct
ionofr
oadsandpeace.

3.I
ncr
easepeopl
e’sf
reedom t
ochoosebyenl
argi
ngt
her
angeoft
hei
rchoi
ces

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page3
 v
ari
abl
es.Fr
eedom ofmov
ement
,tr
ade,associ
ati
on,pol
it
icalpar
ti
cipat
ion.I
t
ai
med atexpand t
he r
ange ofeconomi
c and soci
alchoi
ce av
ail
abl
eto
i
ndi
vi
dualbyf
reei
ngt
hem f
rom ser
vit
udeanddependencenotonl
yinr
elat
ion
t
oot
herpeopl
eandnon-
stat
ebutal
sot
othef
orceofi
gnor
anceandhuman
mi
ser
ly.

DI
STI
NCTI
ONBETWEENDEVELOPEDANDUNDERDEVELOPEDCOUNTRI
ES

Thef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
uresdi
sti
ngui
shdev
elopedandunder
dev
elopedcount
ri
es:

. 3rdwor
1 ldcount
ri
es’
economi
esar
edi
sti
ngui
shedf
rom dev
elopedeconomi
eson
t
hebasi
sofpercapi
tali
ncome.Thosecount
ri
eswi
thl
esst
han500000dol
lar
peryearconsi
der
edasunder
dev
elopedcount
ri
es

2.Thedi
ff
erencei
sunder
equi
ppedwi
thcapi
talr
elat
iont
oit
spopul
ati
onand
nat
uralr
esour
ces.Ther
ateofgr
owt
h empl
oymentandi
nvest
mentbehi
ndt
he
r
ateofgr
owt
hpopul
ati
on

3.I
ndust
ri
aldev
elopment
.Dev
elopedcount
ri
espossesshi
ghl
evelofi
ndust
ri
al
dev
elopmentpar
ti
cul
arl
ymaf
uct
uri
ngi
ndust
ri
es

4.Dev
elopedcount
ri
eschar
act
eri
zedbyhi
ght
echnol
ogycompar
etot
hir
dwor
ld

5.Dev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esar
echar
act
eri
zedwi
thpoorpr
ovi
sionofsoci
alser
vices
suchaseducat
ionandheal
thser
vices

6.St
abl
egov
ernmenti
smai
nchar
act
eri
sti
cofdev
eloped count
ri
eswi
thhi
gh

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page4
 adher
encet
opr
inci
plesofgoodgov
ernance.

7.St
andar
dofl
ivi
ngopt
hepeopl
eincl
udi
ngt
hei
rincome,f
oodandot
herbasi
c
needs.

THEORI
ESOFDEVELOPMENTSTUDI
ES

At
heor
yisasetofi
nter
rel
atedst
atementt
hatpr
ovi
deanexpl
anat
ionf
orchai
nof
i
nvent
s,i
tisawayt
obi
ndi
ngt
oget
heramul
ti
tudeoff
actsot
hatmaycompr
ehend
t
hem al
latonce (
Kel
ly,1
955)
.A t
heor
yser
ve as a gui
de t
o cer
tai
n act
ion by
f
ormul
ati
ngat
heor
y,oneat
temptt
omakesenseofexper
iences.

At
heor
yasi
nter
connect
edl
ogi
calsyst
em ofconcept
sthatpr
ovi
deaf
ramewor
kfor
or
gani
zing,under
standi
ngand obser
vat
ionofsoci
alf
act
s.Theor
iesal
lowsust
o
under
standandpr
edi
ctt
hebehav
iourofsomeaspect
soft
hewor
ld.

I
ndi
scussi
ngdev
elopmentt
heor
ies,t
her
ear
evar
ioust
heor
iest
hatt
ryt
oexpl
aint
he
way
ssoci
etydev
elopf
rom onest
aget
oanot
her
.Theset
heor
iespr
ovi
desf
ort
he
st
rat
egi
est
obeusedt
oimpr
oveeconomi
csi
tuat
ionofagi
vencount
ri
es.

- Ther
eismaj
ort
hree(
3)t
heor
iesofdev
elopmentnamel
y:

i
. Moder
nizat
ionTheor
y

i
i. DependencyTheor
y

i
ii
. Mar
xistTheor
y

MODERNI
ZATI
ONTHEORY

I
tisat
ransf
ormat
ionalpr
ocess whi
ch enabl
es t
radi
ti
onalsoci
eti
es t
o become
moder
nsoci
eti
es.Thi
stheor
ycanber
elat
edt
othet
heor
yofev
olut
iont
hathumani
ty
i
smov
ingf
rom t
hepr
imi
ti
vet
omor
eadv
ancedst
ate.

- Thet
heor
yai
medt
oar
ti
cul
atet
hepr
obl
em ofdev
elopmenti
nter
m oft
heneed

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page5
 t
otr
ansf
ormt
hebackwar
d“t
radi
ti
onal he3rdWor
”oft ldcount
ri
eseconomyi
nto
moder
neconomy.i
.e.encour
agei
mpor
tsubst
it
uti
on,f
orei
gnai
ds,t
echnol
ogy
andot
her
s.

- Thet
heor
yst
atet
hat
,gi
vent
her
elat
ivel
ylowl
evelofnewcapi
talf
ormat
ioni
n
he3rd wor
mostoft ld count
ri
es,t
heyr
equi
resmassi
vecapi
tali
nvest
ment
t
hroughf
orei
gnai
dfort
hem t
odev
elop.

- Thet
heor
yadv
ocat
ethatt
hesour
ceofunder
dev
elopmenti
npoorcount
ri
esi
s
i
nter
nal
ly or
ient
ed t
han ext
ernal ones.These i
ncl
ude cor
rupt
ions,good
gov
ernanceandpol
it
icali
nst
abi
li
ty.

- Moder
nizat
ion i
s associ
ated wi
tht
he dev
elopment ai
dfr
om dev
eloped
count
ri
es.Thi
sideabor
rowedf
rom t
heMar
shalPl
anoft
hepostWor
ldWarI
I.
The Pr
ogr
ams such as St
ruct
ure Adj
ust
mentPr
ogr
am (
SAPs)
,Mi
llenni
um
Dev
elopmentGoal(
MDGs)
,PSRP,
LGRPar
ethepr
oductofmoder
nizat
ion
t
heor
y.

- Moder
nizat
iont
heor
yisani
rr
ever
sibl
epr
ocess,oncest
art
edmoder
nizat
ion
cannotbest
opped.

- I
tisev
olut
ionar
ychangeandnotr
evol
uti
onar
ychangeasdependencyt
heor
y.I
t
wi
llt
akeyear
sandgener
ati
ont
ocompl
ete.

NURKE’
SVI
CIOUSCI
RCLEOFPOVERTY

Thev
ici
ousci
rcl
eofpov
ert
yint
roducedbyPr
of.RagnarNur
kes,wr
oteabooki
n1952
anal
yzet
hecycl
eofpov
ert
yandpossi
blewayt
obr
eakt
hedeadl
ock.Accor
dingt
o
poor“
thecount
ryi
spoorbecausei
spoor
”.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page6
  Vi
ciousCi
rcl
eiti
sasi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chonepr
obl
em causesanot
herpr
obl
ems
t
hatt
hen causet
hef
ir
stagai
n,so t
hatt
hewhol
epr
ocesscont
inuet
o be
r
epeat
ed.

 Accor
ding t
o Ragnar poor count
ri
es wi
ll nev
er dev
eloped wi
thout t
he
assi
stanceoft
hedev
elopedcount
ri
es.Theyhav
etogetr
esour
cef
rom out
side.

 Hesuggestt
hatpoorcount
ri
esi
nvesti
nhumancapi
tal

 Tr
ansf
eroft
echnol
ogyf
rom dev
elopedcount
ri
est
opoorcount
ri
esi
sessent
ial
.

 Acount
ry/
soci
etyi
ndev
elopi
ngcount
ri
eschar
act
eri
zedwi
thl
ow i
ncome,and
t
her
efor
e,duet
olow i
ncomehav
ebot
hlow l
evelofsav
ing and l
evelof
consumpt
ion.

 The l
ow l
evelofsav
ings mean t
hatt
he count
ry possess l
ow l
evelof
i
nvest
mentduet
olackofcapi
tal

 Low i
nvest
menti
ntur
nmeansl
it
tleabi
li
tyoft
hatcount
ryt
oexpandt
oit
s
pr
oduct
ivecapaci
ty.

HOW TOBREAKVI
CIOUSPOVERTYCYCLE

1
. Pr
operuseofNat
uralResour
ce:Pr
operuseofnat
uralr
esour
cei
ncr
easet
he
pr
oduct
ionandpercapi
tali
ncome

2.Est
abl
ish f
orSel
fRel
iance Pol
icyt
oreduce dependencyf
rom dev
eloped
nat
ions

3.Encour
agepr
ivat
esect
ordev
elopment
:pr
ivat
esect
orwi
lli
ncr
easet
her
ateof
i
nvest
ment

4.Appl
icat
ionofcapi
talmustbemadet
oawi
der
angeofdi
ff
erenti
ndust
ri
es

5.I
ncr
easesav
ing:t
hegov
ernmentofl
essdev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esshoul
dpr
ovi
de
i
ncent
ivest
oencour
aget
her
ateofsav
ing.

6.Reduct
ionofI
mpor
t:Thecount
ryshoul
dpr
oducesubst
it
utei
nor
dert
hecount
ry

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page7
 t
osav
efor
eignexchange.

7.I
nvesti
nTechnol
ogy

8.Cont
rolPopul
ati
oni
nor
dert
obal
ancet
hepopul
ati
onandav
ail
abl
enat
ural
r
esour
ces.

WEAKNESSOFRAGNERTHEORYOFDEVELOPMENT

1
. Thet
heor
yignor
ether
ootcausesofunder
dev
elopmentoft
hepoornat
ions
suchascol
oni
ali
sm.

2.Thet
heor
ycr
eat
ethedependencyeconomyt
othedev
elopi
ngwor
ld. The
t
heor
ycr
eat
eanenv
ironmentf
ormassi
vei
nvest
mentandbal
anceofgr
owt
h.

3.Thet
heor
yignor
ecur
rentandongoi
ngexpl
oit
ati
ver
elat
ionbet
weendev
eloped
anddev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es

ROSTOWI
ANSTAGESOFDEVELOPMENT

Thet
heor
yint
roducedbyWal
tRost
ow i
n1960swhopost
ulat
evar
iousst
ageof
dev
elopmentwi
th hi
sf TheSt
amousbook“ ageofEconomi
cGr
owt
h”.Rost
ow
ar
guedt
hatf
oranycount
ryt
oachi
eveeconomi
cgr
owt
hmustpasst
hroughf
ive(
5)
st
ages.

Thi
smodelassumet
hatcount
ryi
sabl
etodev
elopeconomi
cal
lybyf
ocusi
ngon
r
esour
cest
hatar
eshor
tsuppl
yinor
dert
oexpandbeyondl
ocali
ndust
ri
est
oreach
gl
obalmar
ket(
Todar
o,2005)
.Iti
sev
olut
ionar
ytheor
yofdev
elopment

 Tr
adi
ti
onalSoci
etySt
age:

Thef
ir
stst
agei
sknownast
radi
ti
onalsoci
etywhi
chi
sassoci
atedwi
tht
hecount
ry
t
hathasyetdev
eloped.Thei
nvest
mentl
eveli
slesst
hat5percentofnat
ional
i
ncome

- Maj
ori
tyoft
hepopul
ati
onundert
hisst
ageengagedi
nsubst
anceagr
icul
tur
e

- Thesoci
etyi
schar
act
eri
zedbyusi
ngbar
tersyst
em ast
hesyst
em ofmonet
ary

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page8
 ar
enotdev
eloped

- Themanuf
act
uri
ngsect
orsandi
ndust
ri
esi
ntr
adi
ti
onalsoci
etygr
owbyl
imi
ted
byi
nadequat
esci
ent
if
icknowl
edge(
lowpr
oduct
ivi
ty)

- Thesoci
etychar
act
eri
zedmassi
veconcent
rat
ionofpol
it
icalpoweri
nthehand
ofl
andowner
s

- Thesoci
alst
ruct
urei
sfeudal
ist
ici
nnat
ure

 Pr
e-condi
ti
onf
orTakeOf
fSt
age:

Thi
sissecondst
ageofdev
elopmentaspr
oposedbyRost
ow,
undert
hisst
aget
he
count
ryunder
goapr
ocessofchangef
orbui
ldi
ngupofcondi
ti
onf
orgr
owt
hand
t
akeof
f.Undert
hisst
agesoci
etychar
act
eri
zedbyspeci
ali
zat
ion,pr
oduct
ionof
sur
plusgood.Thei
nvest
mentl
eveli
sabov
e5percentofnat
ionali
ncome

- Thechangei
nthi
sst
age,t
hesoci
etyandt
heeconomyar
efundament
ali
n
nat
urei
nthepol
it
icalst
ruct
ureandpr
oduct
iont
echni
que.

- Tr
adeandot
hercommer
cialact
ivi
ti
esar
ebr
oadenedt
oreachnotonl
ylocal
mar
ketbutal
soi
nter
nat
ionalmar
ket
.

- I
tischar
act
eri
zedbymassi
vedev
elopmentofmi
ningi
ndust
ri
es

- I
ncr
easei
ncapi
talusei
nagr
icul
tur
eandbecomecommer
cial
ized

- I
nvesti
ntr
anspor
tinf
rast
ruct
urei
sdev
elopedt
osuppor
ttr
ade

- Thest
ageencour
agesav
ingandi
nvest
mentandent
repr
eneuremer
ge.

- Theeconomyshi
ftf
rom agr
ari
ant
oindust
ri
alormanuf
act
uri
ngi
ndust
ry

 TakeOf
fSt
age:

Somet
imei
scommonl
yknownaseconomi
ctakeof
fSt
age.I
tchar
act
eri
zedby
dynami
ceconomi
cgr
owt
hwhi
chi
sdueshar
pst
imul
ateofeconomi
c,pol
it
icaland
t
echnol
ogi
cali
nnat
ure.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page9
 - I
tischar
act
eri
zedbysel
f-sust
ainedeconomi
cgr
owt
h

- I
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ioni
ncr
easeandi
ncr
easeandeconomyswi
tchesf
rom agr
icul
tur
e
t
omanuf
act
uri
ng.Decl
inei
nthenumberofempl
oyeesi
nagr
icul
tur
esect
or

- Newpol
it
icalandsoci
ali
nst
it
uti
onar
einv
olv
ingt
osuppor
tindust
ri
es

- Dr
amat
ict
echnol
ogi
caldev
elopmenti
nbot
hindust
ryandagr
icul
tur
e

- Si
gni
fi
canti
ncr
easei
ninv
est
ment

- I
ncr
easeur
banpopul
ati
onduet
oindust
ri
ali
zat
ion

Not
e:Oncet
hecount
ryt
akeof
fwi
llt
akeasl
ongasf
if
ty(
50)year
stohundr
ed(
100)
year
stor
icht
omat
uri
tyasi
twast
hecaseofi
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
on.

 Dr
ivet
oMat
uri
tySt
age:

Thi
sst
ageofdev
elopmentconcer
nedwi
tht
heext
ensi
onofmoder
ntechnol
ogy
ov
erot
hersect
orsi
ntheeconomy/
soci
ety
.

- Thi
sst
ager
efert
otheper
iodwhenacount
ryhasef
fect
ivel
yappl
iedt
her
ange
ofmoder
ntechnol
ogyt
obul
kofi
tsr
esour
ces.

- Att
hisst
ageeconomydi
ver
sif
iesi
ntonewar
easandbecomesel
f-sust
ain

- Economyf
indi
tspl
acei
nthei
nter
nat
ionaleconomy(
impor
tedgoodbegant
o
bepr
oducel
ocal
ly.i
.e.car
s

- Lessr
eli
anceoni
mpor
tmuchemphasi
sinexpor
t

 Hi
ghMassConsumpt
ionSt
age:

- Thel
eadi
ngsect
ori
nthesoci
etyshi
ftt
owar
ddur
abl
econsumergoodsand
ser
vices.Accor
dingPr
est
on(
1988)i
tischar
act
eri
zedbyhi
ghout
putl
evel
s.At
t
hisst
aget
heeconomygear
snotmasspr
oduct
ionandser
vicesect
orbecomes
i
ncr
easi
ngl
ydomi
nat
ing.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
0
 - Undert
hisst
agechar
act
eri
zebyhi
ghmassconsumpt
ionofconsumerdur
abl
es

- I
ncr
easei
nempl
oymenti
ntheser
vicesect
ors

- Hi
ghl
yincr
easedi
npercapi
tali
ncome

- Att
hisst
aget
hesoci
etyi
sabl
etochoosebet
weenconcent
rat
ingonmi
li
tar
y
andsecur
it
yissue.Agoodexampl
eisUni
tedSt
ateofAmer
ica

- Equal
it
yinwel
far
eissuesordev
elopi
ngl
uxur
iesf
ori
tsuppercl
ass

CRI
TIQUETOROSTOW STAGESTHEORY

1
. Thet
heor
yfai
ledt
oemphasi
zet
hatdev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esar
epol
it
ical
lyand
economi
cal
ly di
ver
se (
Haynes,2008)
.They can’
tfol
low si
mil
arst
age i
n
dev
elopment
.

2.Cr
it
iquebydependencyt
heor
istt
hat
,weal
thynat
ionexpl
oitt
hepoorcount
ri
es
andr
emai
nthem under
dev
elopment
.

3.Thet
heor
yfocusonl
yoni
nter
nalcausesofunder
dev
elopmentand r
eject
ext
ernalf
act
ors

4.Thet
heor
yiscr
it
ici
zedf
orf
ail
ingt
oconsi
dert
hepoorascent
erpeacei
n
pov
ert
yreduct
ion i
nit
iat
ives.I
gnor
ing t
he i
nvol
vementofpoorcount
ri
es.
Exampl
etoi
ntr
oduct
ionofSAPs

- El
imi
nat
etr
adi
ti
onalv
aluesi
ndev
elopmentpr
ocess.

5.Theor
yfai
ledt
orecogni
zet
hecr
eat
ivi
tyandi
nit
iat
iveoft
heAf
ri
can(
West
ern
Or
ient
ed)
.Ideasofmoder
nizat
ion i
mpov
eri
shed Af
ri
can bycr
eat
eeconomy
dependency.

DEPENDENCYTHEORY

Dependencyt
heor
yofbodyofsoci
alsci
encet
heor
ies,
itcont
endst
hatr
esour
cesf
low

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
1
f
rom aper
ipher
yofpoorandunder
dev
elopedcount
ri
est
oacor
eofweal
thyst
ates.I
t
enr
ichest
hel
att
eratt
heexpensesoft
hef
ormer
.

Not
e:Thi
stheor
yev
olv
ed ar
ound 1
950sasr
eact
ion t
o someear
li
estt
heor
iesof
dev
elopmentsuch asmoder
nizat
ion t
heor
y.Butt
olar
geext
ent
,thi
stheor
ywas
popul
ari
n1960sand1
970sasr
eact
iont
otheear
li
estt
heor
iessuchasmoder
niz
ati
on.
The moder
nizat
ion hel
dthatal
lsoci
eti
es pr
ogr
ess t
hrough si
mil
arst
ages of
dev
elopment
.Dev
elopmentcount
ri
eswer
einsi
tuat
iont
hati
ssi
mil
art
othatf
aced
t
oday’
sunder
dev
elopedcount
ri
es.

Theyar
guet
hatf
orpoornat
ionst
odev
elop,
poorcount
ri
esneedsi
nvest
ment
,tr
ansf
er
oft
echnol
ogy,
int
egr
atei
ntowor
ldmar
ket
.

 Ther
efor
e, dependency r
eject
s t
hese i
deas. Dependency ar
gued t
hat
under
dev
elopmentcount
ri
esar
enotmer
elypr
imi
ti
vev
ersi
on ofdev
eloped
count
ri
es;r
athert
heyhav
euni
quef
eat
uresandst
ruct
ureoft
hei
rown.Theyar
e
j
ustweakermember
sinaWor
ldMar
ketEconomy.

TYPESOFDEPENDENCY

Ther
eismaj
ort
wo(
2)mai
nst
ream ofdependencyt
heor
y.

i
. TheSt
ruct
ural
ism St
ream:Thesest
ream i
ncl
udePr
ebi
sch,HansSi
nger
,
Fur
ti
nandSmi
r,t
heyar
guedt
hatper
ipher
al–cent
ralr
elat
ioni
samaj
or
causesofunder
dev
elopmenti
npoorcount
ri
es.

- Theyar
gued t
hatt
hisr
elat
ionshi
p af
fectnegat
ivel
ysel
f– sust
aini
npoor
count
ri
esandmakest
hem t
odependonr
ichcount
ri
es.

- HansSi
nger&Pr
ebi
schobser
vedt
hatt
het
ermsoft
radef
orpoorcount
ri
es,
r
elat
ivet
othe dev
eloped count
ri
es had det
eri
orat
ed ov
ert
ime.Exampl
e,
dev
elopi
ng count
ri
esar
e abl
eto pur
chase f
ewerand f
ewermanuf
act
ured
goodsf
rom t
hedev
elopedcount
ri
esi
nexchangef
oragi
venquant
it
yoft
her
aw
mat
eri
alexpor
t.(
Unequalt
rade bet
ween dev
eloped and poorcount
ri
es –
west
erncount
ri
est
ocont
rolpr
icesf
ort
hepr
oduct
spr
oduced.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
2
 - I
nwor
ldsyst
em,poorcount
ri
esbecomeonl
yrawmat
eri
alpr
oducerofcot
ton,
si
sal
,cof
fee,
ther
efor
e,pr
ovi
dei
nput
sforadv
ancednat
ion.

 Si
nger– Pr
ebi
schanAr
gent
ini
aneconomi
statt
heUN Commi
ssi
onf
orLat
in
Amer
ica (
UNCLA)Suggestt
hatunder
dev
eloped nat
ion mustempl
oysome
degr
ee ofpr
otect
ioni
sm i
ntr
ade i
fthey wer
etoi
ntera sel
fsust
aini
ng
dev
elopmentpat
h.Theyadv
ocat
edf
orr
egi
onali
ntegr
ati
onsanduni
tyamong
poorcount
ri
es.

 Theyar
gued,i
nopposi
ti
ont
ofr
eemar
ketandsuggestt
hatunder
dev
eloped
count
ri
esneedt
oreducet
hei
rconnect
ionwi
tht
hewor
ldmar
ket&pur
suet
hei
r
ownpat
h.

 Theyencour
agef
orI
mpor
tSubst
it
uti
onI
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion(
ISI
)andnotat
rade
andexpor
tor
ient
ati
on.

- Thet
heor
yfocusesont
he“
Cent
re–Per
ipher
y”/
Nor
th–Sout
hrel
ati
onshi
ps.I
t
st
atet
hatpoorst
atesar
eimpov
eri
shedandr
ichst
atesar
eenr
ichedbyt
heway
poorst
atesar
eint
egr
atedi
nthewor
ldsyst
em.

- Theyar
guedt
hatt
hemaj
orcauseofunder
dev
elopmenti
next
ernalor
ient
ed.I
t
i
gnor
esi
nst
it
uti
onalst
ruct
uresuchascor
rupt
ion,unpr
oduct
ivel
andhol
ding,
concent
rat
ion of weal
th, poor pol
it
ical syst
em as t
he cause of
under
dev
elopment
.

i
i. TheMar
xianTheor
y:Thi
sst
ream i
ncl
udesGundaFr
ank,Bar
an,Swezyand
ot
her
s.PaulBar
ani
n1957wr
ot ThePol
eabook“ it
icalEconomyofGr
owt
h”.

- Theyar
gued t
hatdev
elopmentand under
dev
elopmentar
etwo aspect
sof
economi
cst
ruct
ure.

- Theyshow t
hel
inkbet heeconomyand power
weent ,thewayi
nter
nat
ional
economy i
nfl
uence orconst
rai
ned t
he dev
elopmentpr
ocess ofNat
ional
economy.

- I
tar
guedt
hati
tisdi
ff
icul
tforweal
thnat
ions/
stat
est
odev
eloppoornat
ions,

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
3
 t
her
efor
eunder
dev
elopednat
ionswoul
dhav
etocr
eat
ethei
rowneconomi
c
pat
h(Regi
onalI
ntegr
ati
ons)

- Monopol
ycapi
tal
ism hadv
est
edi
nter
esti
nmai
ntai
ningbackwar
dnessand
dependencei
ntheper
ipher
y.

TheBasi
cPr
emi
sesofDependencyTheor
y

 Poornat
ionalpr
ovi
denat
uralr
esour
ces&cheapl
abourt
ost
rongst
ates.Poor
nat
ionar
eindi
sadv
ant
agei
nthei
rmar
keti
nter
actwi
thweal
thnat
ions.

 Weal
thynat
ionsact
ivel
yper
pet
uat
east
ateofdependencebyv
ari
ousmean
suchasf
inanci
alai
ds,
technol
ogi
calassi
stances,
schol
arshi
ps,
for
eigncapi
tal
f
lowandot
her
s.

 Weal
thynat
ionsact
ivel
ycount
eral
lat
tempt
smadebydependentnat
ionst
o
r
esi
stt
hei
rinf
luencebymeansofFor
ce/
war(
USA i
nvadeI
raq)
,Economi
c
sanct
ion(
Libya)

THECENTRALPROPOSI
TIONOFDEPENDENCYTHEORY

i
) Under
dev
elopment i
s a condi
ti
on f
undament
all
y di
ff
erent f
rom
undev
elopment
.Undev
elopmentr
efer
stot
hecondi
ti
oni
nwhi
chr
esour
ces
ar
enotbei
ngused.i
.emi
ner
alsandl
andnotact
ivel
ycul
ti
vat
ed

Under
dev
elopmentr
efer
stot
hesi
tuat
ion i
n whi
ch r
esour
cesar
ebei
ng
act
ivel
yusedbuti
nawaybenef
itt
hedomi
nantst
atesandnott
hepoor
.

i
i) Thet
heor
yar
gued t
hatpoorcount
ri
est
heyar
enotpoorbecauset
hey
l
aggedbehi
ndt
hesci
ent
if
ict
ransf
ormat
ionbutt
heyar
epoorbecausewer
e
coer
civ
elyi
ntegr
atedi
ntot
hecapi
tal
isteconomi
csyst
em.

i
ii
) Dependencyt
heor
istr
elyuponabel
ieft
hatt
her
eexi
stsacl
ear“
Nat
ional
Economi
cInt
erest
”whi
char
ti
cul
atedbyr
ichcount
ri
es.Ther
ichi
nter
actwi
th
t
hepoort
ogai
nthenat
ionali
nter
estasadv
ocat
edbyr
eal
ism t
heor
yof

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
4
 i
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions.

i
v) The powerel
it
es i
n dependantsat
es mai
ntai
n dependantr
elat
ionshi
p
becauseoft
hei
rownsel
fint
erestofdomi
nantst
ates.

v
) Under
dev
elopment i
s compl
etel
y di
ff
erent phenomena f
rom non-
dev
elopment
.Atsomet
ime,
thecur
rentdev
elopedst
ateswer
eundev
eloped.
Themaj
orpr
obl
em poorcount
ri
esf
ailt
oexpl
oitt
hei
reconomi
calpot
ent
ial
.

v
i) Dependency r
elat
ionshi
p mai
ntai
ned t
hrough a compl
ex net
wor
k of
pol
it
ical
,cul
tur
alandeconomi
cmeansandsomet
imesmi
li
tar
ymeasur
es.
Exampl
etheov
ert
hrowofSaddam Regi
mebyUSAandUni
tedKi
ngdom

COMMONFEATURESSHAREDBYALLDEPENDANCETHEORI
ES

i
) Dependencyt
heor
ychar
act
eri
zed byt
he i
nter
nat
ionalsyst
em whi
ch
compr
ise of t
wo set
s of st
ates.Exampl
e domi
nant
/dependency,
cent
er/
per
ipher
y,met
ropol
it
an/
sat
ell
it
es

i
i) Bot
hdef
ini
ti
onshav
eincommont
heassumpt
iont
hoseext
ernalf
orces
ofsi
ngul
ari
mpor
tancet
otheeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
eswi
thi
nthedependent
st
ates.

 Ext
ernalf
orces i
ncl
ude Mul
tiNat
ionalCor
por
ati
ons (
MNSs)
,
i
nter
nat
ionalmar
ket
,for
eignassi
stancemani
festt
hei
nter
estof
r
ichcount
ri
es.

i
ii
) Al
lindi
cat
ethatt
her
elat
ionbet
weendomi
nantanddependentst
ates
st
ati
csar
edynami
cs.Ther
elat
ionshi
pisal
waysi
sangoi
ngpr
ocess
suchpr
e-col
oni
alper
iod,
col
oni
alper
iod,
imper
ial
ism andgl
obal
izat
ion.

CRI
TICI
SM OFDEPENDENCYTHEORY

 Thet
heor
yignor
eint
ernalf
act
orsf
orunder
dev
elopmentsuchascor
rupt
ion,
pol
it
icali
nst
abi
li
tyandot
her
s

 Toi
mpr
ovedomest
icmar
ketbysubst
uti
ngi
mpor
tedmanuf
act
uredgoodswi
th

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
5
 domest
icone.

 Thecount
ri
esont
heper
ipher
yofdev
elopmentar
enotdest
inedt
ost
agnat
ion.
Sodependencyt
heor
yisani
ncompl
ete&i
naccur
atedescr
ipt
ionoft
hesoci
al-
economi
ccondi
ti
onofLDCs.

 Ther
e ar
e many dependent count
ri
es on t
he per
ipher
y whi
ch adopt
ed
moder
nizat
ionchanget
hei
reconomi
cst
ruct
ureandachi
ever
api
deconomi
c
dev
elopment
.Exampl
e,I
ndi
a,Nor
thKor
ea,
Tai
wan

 Thi
stheor
yhasnor
elev
ancet
omanynat
ionswhi
char
enei
theri
ntheper
ipher
y
nori
nthecent
resuchasChi
na,Sout
hAf
ri
ca.Theyar
ecal
ledSemi
-per
ipher
y
Count
ri
es

 Thenat
ional
izat
ionofkeysect
orsoft
heeconomyanddonotgi
vet
ofor
eigner
s.

 Ful
lut
il
izat
ionofnat
uralr
esour
cesf
ort
hebenef
itofpoorcount
ri
es.

Not
e:Wi
theconomi
cgr
owt
hofI
ndi
aandot
herf
ive(
5)Ti
ger
sofAsi
adependency
t
heor
yhasl
osti
tsv
ali
dit
y.

REFERENCES:

1
. Ami
n,S(
1976)UnequalDev
elopment
:AnEssayont
heSoci
alFor
mat
ionsof
Per
ipher
alCapi
tal
ism,
NewYor
k,Mont
hlyRev
iewPr
ess.

2.St
igl
it
z, 2002)Gl
J( obal
izat
ionandI
tsDi
scont
ent
s,W.
W Nor
ton&CompanyLt
d

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
6
 LECTURETWO

ENVI
RONMENTMANAGEMENTANDDEVELOPMENT

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

TheWor
ldCommi
ssi
ononEnv
ironmentandDev
elopment( ,“
WCED) OurCommon
Fut
ure”emphasi
sont
heneed f
orasust
ainabl
edev
elopmentwhi
chnotonl
y
addr
esst
hecur
rentenv
ironment
alchal
lengesbutendur
esassecur
esoci
etywel
l
i
nthef
utur
e.Accor
dingt
oWCEDt
heenv
ironment
,economi
candsoci
ali
ssuesar
e
i
nter
rel
ated.

 Thechangedr
iver
s,suchaspopul
ati
ongr
owt
h,economi
cact
ivi
ti
esand
consumpt
ionpat
ter
nhav
epl
acei
ncr
easi
ngpr
essur
eont
heenv
ironment
.
Env
ironmentconcer
nisagl
obalphenomenont
hati
sthecor
nerst
oneoft
he
dev
elopment pr
ocess. Ther
e i
s gr
eat
er l
ink bet
ween env
ironment
managementanddev
elopmentpr
ocesses.Accor
dingt
oBr
ookf
iel
d(1
990)

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
7
 ar
guedt
hati
tisv
erydi
ff
icul
ttoachi
evesust
ainabl
edev
elopmentwi
thout
at
tai
ningenv
ironmentmanagement
.

Env
ironment

Env
ironmenti
snotanewconcepti
namoder
ndev
elopmentandi
tssi
gni
fi
cancet
o
dev
elopmenti
snoti
nev
itabl
e.Bydef
ini
ti
oni
sal
lsur
roundi
ngandev
eryt
hingt
hat
af
fectanor
gani
sm dur
ingi
tsl
if
eti
me.

 I
not
herwor
ds“Env
ironmenti
sasum t
otalofwat
er,ai
randl
andandl
and
i
nter
rel
ati
onshi
pamongt
hemsel
vesandot
herl
ivi
ngor
gani
sm andpr
oper
ty

 Gener
all
y,env
ironmenti
ncl
udest
hephysi
calf
act
orsoft
hesur
roundi
ngof
humanbei
ngsi
ncl
udi
ngl
ands,wat
erat
mospher
e,cl
imat
ebot
hnat
uraland
t
hebui
ldenv
ironment
.

Sust
ainabl
edev
elopment

Bysust
ainabl
edev
elopmentsi
mpl
ythedev
elopmentt
hatmeet
sthegoal
soft
he
pr
esentwi
thoutcompr
omi
singt
heabi
li
tyoft
hef
utur
egener
ati
onst
omeett
hei
rown
needs(
Wor
ldCommi
ssi
on,
1987:
43)

I
UCN(
1980:
1
)def
inedi
tasmanagementofhumanuseoft
hebi
ospher
esot
hati
tmay
yi
eldt
hegr
eat
estsust
ainabl
ebenef
itt
othepr
esentgener
ati
onswhi
lemai
ntai
ningi
ts
pot
ent
ialt
heneedsandaspi
rat
ionsoff
utur
egener
ati
ons.

RELATI
ONSBETWEENENVI
RONMENTANDDEVELOPMENT

Theconceptofdev
elopmentandenv
ironmentar
eint
ert
winedconcept
s,si
mpl
ymean
t
heydependeachot
her
.Env
ironmentcanaf
fectdev
elopmentposi
ti
vel
yornegat
ivel
y,
att
hesamet
ime,
dev
elopmentmayaf
fectt
heenv
ironmentposi
ti
veandnegat
ivel
y.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
8
Bef
oret
heBr
undt
landCommi
ssi
ondev
elopmentpr
ocesswashi
ghl
yassoci
atedwi
th
i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ionandnotenv
ironmentmanagement
.Env
ironmentwasnotr
egar
dedas
essent
ialt
oolf
ordev
elopment
.Env
ironmentpr
otect
ion and managementwas
consi
der
edasobst
acl
etodev
elopment
.

 Whenmoder
ntheor
iesofeconomi
cgr
owt
hfi
rstbegant
odev
elopi
nthe
1
950sand1
960s,
nat
uralr
esour
ceandenv
ironmentessent
ial
lywer
eabsent
.

 I
nor
dert
oachi
eveagr
icul
tur
edev
elopmentandi
ncr
easepeopl
e’si
ncome,
t
he count
ry hav
eto ensur
e good cl
imat
ic condi
ti
on,pr
otect
ion on
env
ironmentensur
egoodcl
imat
e.

 Humanbei
ngneedf
reshai
rfort
hei
rsur
viv
alandr
educet
her
ateofdi
sease
t
ransmi
ssi
on.Bot
hindoorandout
doorpol
lut
ioni
sst
il
lcausi
ngpr
e-mat
ure
deat
htowomenandchi
ldr
en.

 I
ncomegener
ati
on,
maj
ori
tyoft
hepoorpeopl
edependonnat
uralr
esour
ce
f
orgener
ati
ngi
ncome,
thi
sincl
udef
ishi
ng(
Wat
erbodi
es)
,ti
mber
inge.
t.
c

 Good env
ironment ensur
e cl
ean wat
er t
o human and i
ndust
ri
al
consumpt
ions.I
ndust
ri
alexpansi
oni
sal
sonecessi
tyt
othedev
elopment
pr
ocess.

NOTE:Thedev
elopmentact
ivi
ti
eshav
ebeencausi
nggr
eathar
mtot
heenv
ironment
andhi
nder
ingt
oat
tai
nmentofsust
ainabl
edev
elopment
.

THEI
MPACTSOFENVI
RONMENTALDEGLADATI
ON

 Env
ironmentdegr
adat
ioni
sther
efor
e,under
mini
ngdev
elopmentandt
hreat
en
f
utur
edev
elopmentpr
ogr
ess.

 Env
ironment
aldegr
adat
ional
sot
hreat
enal
laspect
sofhumanwel
l-bei
ng.I
t
r
elat
est
ohumanheal
thpr
obl
emssuchascancer
,vect
or-
bor
ndi
seasesand
r
espi
rat
orydi
seases.I
tisest
imat
edt
hatabout20percentoft
het
otalbur
den
of di
seases i
n dev
elopi
ng count
ri
es associ
ated wi
tht
he env
ironment
al
pr
obl
ems.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page1
9
  Env
ironment
alpr
obl
ems can i
ncr
ease human v
ulner
abi
li
ty because may
r
esul
tsi
ntohumanmi
grat
ionandsecur
it
ysuchast
hecaseofst
ormsand
dr
ought
s.

 Env
ironment
alpr
obl
em decr
easeagr
icul
tur
epr
oduct
ivi
ty,r
esul
ti
ngt
olower
i
ncomeandr
educef
oodi
nsecur
it
y

POSI
TIVEI
MPACTS/
ROLESOFENVI
RONMENTTODEVELOPMENT

 Env
ironmentbr
oughtf
oodandshel
ter
stohumanbei
ng.Accor
dingt
oUN
Mi
llenni
um Dev
elopmentGoalNo.7 on Env
ironment
alSust
ainabi
li
ty.
Nat
uralr
esour
cesar
ethebasi
sofeconomyi
nthe3rd wor
ldcount
ri
es.I
t
cont
ri
but
edt
o26percentoft
heweal
thoft
hel
owi
ncomecount
ri
es

 Env
ironmenti
ncr
easepeopl
e’si
ncomeanddev
elopmenti
.et
imber
ingand
ot
hereconomi
c act
ivi
ti
es.I
n ot
herwor
d empower
ing poorpeopl
e and
mar
ginal
izecommuni
ti
es.

 Goodcl
imat
econdi
ti
onssuchasf
reshai
r,adequat
erai
nfal
lse.
t.
c

 Env
ironmentmai
ntai
ningsoi
lfer
ti
li
tyandi
ncr
easeagr
icul
tur
epr
oduct
ion

 Env
ironmentpr
oducemedi
cine(
phar
maceut
ical
s)f
orhumanl
if
e

 Nat
uralr
esour
cesi
sessent
ialf
ordev
elopment

 Wat
erbodi
es(
such asr
iver
s,l
akes,wet
lands)ar
eessent
ialf
orhuman
consumpt
ions.

 Bi
odi
ver
sit
ycont
ri
but
etoecol
ogi
calst
abi
li
tyaswel
last
our
ism

MAJORCAUSESOFENVI
RONMENTPLOBLEM

I
nmostcaset
heact
ivi
ti
esoft
hehumanbei
ngt
olar
geext
entaf
fectnegat
ivel
yon
env
ironmentsust
ainabi
li
ty.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethei
mpact
sofhumandev
elopmentt
o
env
ironment
.

Ther
ear
emaj
ort
wocausesofenv
ironment
:

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page20
 i
) HumanFact
ors

i
i) Non-
HumanFact
ors(
Nat
uralFact
ors)

Fort
hepur
poseofourst
udi
eswewi
llf
ocusonhumanf
act
orsf
orenv
ironment
pr
obl
ems.

i
) HUMANFACTORS

 I
lli
ter
acy:t
hei
gnor
anceandi
lli
ter
acyamongt
hepeopl
eisgr
eat
ercont
ri
but
or
t
otheenv
ironmentpr
obl
ems

 Pov
ert
y:I
n mostcases poorar
ethe maj
orcont
ri
but
ors ofenv
ironment
degr
adat
ion.i
.e.cut
ti
ngt
reef
orchar
coalandener
gy,t
imber
ingandbui
ldi
ng.
Poornat
ionof
tenengagei
nlandr
esour
cest
ri
ppi
ngj
ustf
ort
hei
rsur
viv
al

 Popul
ati
on Gr
owt
h:I
ncr
easi
ng i
n popul
ati
on go hand wi
th hand wi
tht
he
env
ironmentdegr
adat
ion.Thepl
acewi
thhi
ghpopul
ati
onl
ikeMbagal
awi
ll
l
ikel
ytof
aceenv
ironmentpr
obl
em compar
etoMasaki

 I
ndust
ri
alDev
elopment
:Inmostcases,i
ndust
rydev
elopmentaf
fect
snegat
ive
i
mpact
sonenv
ironment
.Emi
ssi
onofunwant
edgasesi
ntoat
mospher
eaf
fect
s
t
heai
randcl
imat
e.

 Agr
icul
tur
eAct
ivi
ti
es:Pooragr
icul
tur
eact
ivi
ti
esr
esul
tedt
olanddegr
adat
ion
anddef
orest
ati
on.

 I
nfr
ast
ruct
ureDev
elopment
:suchasr
oadconst
ruct
ionsandbui
ldi
ngsaf
fect
t
heenv
ironment

 Mi
ning Act
ivi
ti
es:The ar
eas wi
th mi
ning act
ivi
ti
es ar
e hi
ghl
y af
fect
ed by
env
ironment
.

 PoorEnv
ironment
alPol
ici
es:Thel
ackofpol
it
icalwi
llandpoorpol
icyi
n
env
ironmentpr
otect
ioni
smaj
orcauseofenv
ironmentdegr
adat
ion.

i
i) NATURALFACTOR

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page21
  Ear
thquake

 Fl
oodsanddr
oughti
.e.Kat
ri
naandTsunami

 Vol
cani
cEr
upt
ions

ENVI
RONMENTPROBLEMS/
ISSUES

Env
ironment
al pr
obl
ems became a gl
obal concer
n when we ar
etal
king of
dev
elopment
.Inor
dert
oachi
evedev
elopment
,thei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty’
srequi
res
addr
essi
ngt
hepr
obl
em ofenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion.Asweal
lknow t
hatt
her
eis
gr
eat
erl
inkbet
weenenv
ironmentanddev
elopment
:thef
oll
owi
ngsar
eenv
ironment
al
i
ssuest
hatr
equi
respeci
alat
tent
ion:

i
) Cl
imat
eChangeandGl
obalWar
ming

i
i) LandDegr
adat
ion

i
ii
) Ai
rPol
lut
ion

i
v) Def
orest
ati
on

v
) Habi
tatDest
ruct
ion

v
i) Wat
erPol
lut
ion

LANDDEGRADATI
ON

WHATI
SLANDDEGRADATI
ON?

Landdegr
adat
iondef
ineddi
ff
erent
lybydi
ff
erentschol
arsofdev
elopment
.

LDr
efert
othenat
uralandhumani
nducesr
educt
ioni
nthecapaci
tyoft
hel
and
t
o pr
ovi
de ecosyst
em f
unct
ions and ser
vice t
hat suppor
t soci
ety and
dev
elopment(
FAO,
201
0)

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page22
 Accor
dingt
oBei
nrot
h(1
994)def
ineLDasr
esul
tfr
om mi
smat
chbet
weenl
and
qual
it
yandl
anduse.

Accor
dingt
oUNDPLDi
soft
hel
eadi
ngEnv
ironmentpr
obl
em i
ndev
elopi
ng
count
ri
es.

Appr
oxi
mat
ely,
1.
5bi
lli
onpeopl
e,aquar
teroft
hewor
ldpopul
ati
on,
dependi
ng
di
rect
lyondegr
adedl
and.

THECAUSESOFLANDDEGRADATI
ON

1
. Nat
uralCauses

- Ear
thQuake

- Sal
ini
zat
ion

- Wi
nder
osi
on(
commonl
yinar
id&semi
-ar
idcl
imat
eint
heper
iodofdr
aught
andr
emov
emostf
ert
il
esoi
l)

- Fl
oods(asr
esul
tofi
ntensi
fyr
ainf
all
)

- Vol
cani
cer
upt
ions

- Fer
ti
li
tydepl
eti
on

- Leachi
ng

2.Humancauses:

- PoorAgr
icul
tur
e(monocul
tur
e,t
heuseexcessi
vef
ert
il
izerpol
lut
ethesoi
l)

- Def
orest
ati
on(
i.
e.cut
ti
ngt
reeser
odesoi
l)

- I
ncr
easePopul
ati
on(
resul
ttol
andshor
tageandov
ercul
ti
vat
ing)
.Ther
ear
e
st
rongr
elat
ionsbet
weenpopul
ati
ondensi
tyandLD.

- Ov
ergr
azi
ng(
i.
e.masai
landl
eav
ethesoi
lexposedt
oer
osi
on)

- Ur
bandev
elopmentwi
thoutwel
ldesi
gn.i
.e.i
ndust
ri
es,
roads,
damset
c.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page23
 - Mi
ningAct
ivi
ti
es

MAJORI
MPACTSOFLANDDEGRADATI
ON

Lossofpr
oduct
ivi
ty(
i.
eagr
icul
tur
e,f
oodi
nsecur
it
y,Br
untl
andRepor
twar
ned
t
hat5.
4Km2off
ert
il
elandbeaf
fect
edbyLD )

Lossofbi
odi
ver
sit
y(ani
mal
sandpl
ant
s)

Deser
ti
fi
cat
ion(
duet
osoi
ler
osi
on)

HumanHeal
th'
s(Dusti
nat
mospher
e)

Pov
ert
yduet
othel
ossofi
ncome

Cl
imat
eChange(
rel
easeofCO2f
rom t
hepoolofsoi
lor
gani
c car
bon,
drought
cont
ri
but
etoCo2)

Ai
rpol
lut
ion(
LDr
esul
ttoPer
sist
entOr
gani
cPol
lut
ant– POP)Lossofsoi
l
or
gani
ccar
bon,
nut
ri
ent
s

Deser
ti
fi
cat
ion(Al
mosthal
fofAf
ri
ca’
slandi
svul
ner
abl
etodeser
ti
fi
cat
ion)

SUSTAI
NABLELANDMANAGEMENT(
SLM)

SLM canbeusedt
odescr
ibet
heut
il
izat
ionoft
err
est
ri
alr
esour
ces(
land)f
ort
he
pr
oduct
ionofgoodst
osat
isf
ychangi
ngneeds,wi
thoutdet
ri
mentt
othel
ongt
erm
pr
oduct
ivepot
ent
ialoft
hoser
esour
cesandt
hei
renv
ironmentf
unct
ions.

Asweagr
eeunsust
ainabl
elandusei
samaj
ordr
ivi
ngofl
anddegr
adat
ion.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page24
  SLM i
scr
uci
alt
omi
nimi
zingl
anddegr
adat
ion,r
ehabi
li
tat
ingdegr
adedar
eas
andensur
ingt
heopt
imaluseofl
andr
esour
cesf
ort
hebenef
it
sofpr
esentand
f
utur
egener
ati
on.

 SLM appl
y“Opt
ionsAnal
ysi
s”f
orl
andmanagementwher
edi
ff
erentpossi
ble
sol
uti
onsar
eexpl
oredt
oaddr
esst
hecausesandi
mpact
sofLD.

 I
tincl
udesal
lmeasur
est
akent
omai
ntai
nthepr
oduct
ivef
unct
ionsoft
hel
and

MAJORFOUR(
4)PRI
NCI
PLESOFSLM

1
. Land–user–dr
iven&par
ti
cipat
oryappr
oach

2.I
ntegr
ateduseofnat
uralr
esour
cesatecosyst
em &f
armi
ngsyst
em l
evel
.

3.Mul
ti
lev
el&mul
tist
akehol
der
sinv
olv
ement

4. Tar
get
edpol
icy&I
nst
it
uti
onsuppor
t(i
.e.i
ncomegener
ati
ont
olocall
evel
)

SLM i
sdeal
ingwi
tht
hef
oll
owi
ngs:

 Rehabi
li
tat
ionofdegr
adedl
and(
rest
orat
ionofaf
fect
edl
andt
obecomeusef
ul)

 Li
nkt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenl
andanddev
elopment

 Est
abl
ishgoodpol
icyandact
stoaddr
essl
andpr
obl
ems(
i.
e.Env
ironmentAct
)

 Suppor
ti
ngt
rai
ningandeducat
iont
opeopl
ebyi
mpr
ovi
ngknowl
edgeonl
and
managementski
lls

 EnhanceI
nst
it
uti
onaldev
elopmentand pol
ici
esi
ssues(
i.
epov
ert
yreduct
ion
ef
for
ts)

 I
mpr
ovesust
ainabl
eagr
icul
tur
e,past
oralmanagementandsust
ainabl
efor
est

 Ref
orest
ati
onofdegr
adedl
and(
i.
e.pl
ant
ingt
rees)

 Ensur
ing l
ocalpeopl
e par
ti
cipat
ion i
n Land managementi
ncl
udes t
hei
r
i
ndi
genousknowl
edge'
s.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page25
AI
RPOLUTI
ON

WHATI
SAI
RPOLLUTI
ON?

Nat
ionalI
nst
it
uteofEnv
ironment
alHeal
thSci
ence(
201
0)def
inedai
rpol
lut
ionasa
mi
xtur
eofnat
uralandman-madesubst
ances(
sol
idpar
ti
clesandgases)i
nthe
at
mospher
e.

Thegaseouspol
lut
ant
sincl
udesul
furdi
oxi
de(
SO2)
,ni
tr
ogenoxi
de(
NO2)
,car
bon
di
oxi
de(
CO2)
,ozone(
O3)andot
her
s.

TYPESOFAI
RPOLLUTI
ON

1
.Indoorpol
lut
ion:Thi
stypeofai
rpol
lut
ioni
sor
igi
nat
edf
rom domest
icuseat
f
ami
lyl
evel
.Iti
ncl
udecooki
ngandheat
ingwi
thsol
idf
uel
sonopenf
ir
eor
t
radi
ti
onst
oveswhi
chr
esul
ttohi
ghl
evelofi
ndoorpol
lut
ion

 I
tref
erst
otoxi
ccont
ami
nant
sthatweencount
eri
nourdai
lyl
ivesi
nour
homes,
schoolandwor
kpl
aces.

 Thi
sisaser
iouspr
obl
em i
nunder
dev
elopedcount
ri
esespeci
all
yin
r
uralar
eas.

2.Out
doorpol
lut
ion:canbedef
inedast
hepr
esenceofsol
id,l
iqui
d,orgasesi
n
out
doorai
rint
heamount
sthatar
einj
uri
ousordet
ri
ment
alt
ohumanheal
th
andt
heenv
ironment
.

 Out
doorpol
lut
ion i
slar
gel
y caused by human act
ivi
ti
es such as
i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion,
transpor
tat
ionandot
her
s.

MAJORCAUSESOFAI
RPOLLUTI
ON

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page26
Thesour
ceofai
rpol
lut
ioncanbecat
egor
izedi
ntwomaj
orgr
oups’
namel
yashuman
f
act
orsandnat
uralf
act
ors.Fort
hepur
poseofoursubj
ectassoci
alsci
ent
ist
,wewi
ll
f
ocusesont
hehumanf
act
ors.

Not
e:Pol
lut
ionf
rom nat
uraloccur
rencear
enotv
eryof
ten.

1
. HUMANFACTORS:

 I
ndust
ri
alAct
ivi
ti
es:Manuf
act
uri
ngact
ivi
ti
esi
.emanuf
act
uri
ngi
ndust
ri
es
andpowerpl
ant
semi
thi
ghl
evelofcar
bonmonoxi
deandchemi
cali
nto
t
heai
r.Exampl
e,Cementi
ndust
ri
es.

 PoorWast
eDi
sposal
:Thesei
nmostcasesor
igi
nat
efr
om t
hehousehol
d.
I
e.Thedumpi
ngofwast
epr
oductanddust
s,poorbur
ningofwast
e.

 Popul
ati
onGr
owt
h:t
her
eisgr
eat
erl
inkbet
weenpopul
ati
ongr
owt
hand
ai
rpol
lut
ion.The hi
ghert
he numberoft
he popul
ati
on t
he mor
e
env
ironmentdegr
adat
ion.Thebur
ningoff
ossi
lincr
eases,mot
evehi
cle
i
ncr
ease

 Agr
icul
tur
eAct
ivi
ti
es:t
hisi
ncl
udef
armi
ngchemi
cal
si.
ecr
opdust
ing,
f
ert
il
izerdust
sandot
her
s

 Tr
anspor
tSect
or:I
tisor
igi
nat
esf
rom carandheav
ydut
ytr
ack,t
rai
n,
shi
ppi
ngv
esseland ai
rpl
anesal
lbur
nlot
soff
ossi
lfuelt
owor
k.
Exampl
e,i
ncr
easeofv
ehi
cul
arf
leet
s40% i
sei
thersecond hand or
r
econdi
ti
onedv
ehi
cles

 Mi
ningAct
ivi
ti
es:i
ncl
udet
heer
upt
ionofduste.
t.
c

 Domest
icuseofCoal
,st
ovesandcooker
spr
oducecar
bonmonoxi
de

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page27
 2.NATURALCAUSES

 Vol
cani
cEr
upt
ion

 Ev
apor
ati
onofOr
gani
cCompound

 Nat
uralRadi
oAct
ivi
ty

 Wi
ndEr
osi
on

I
MPACTSOFAI
RPOLUTI
ONTOHUMAN&DEVELOPMENT

 Heal
thPr
obl
em:Bot
hindoorandout
doorai
rpol
lut
ionar
eassoci
atedbywi
th
abr
oad r
angeofacut
eand chr
oni
cimpact
son heal
th such asr
espi
rat
ory
di
seasesandcancer
.(Mostoft
hem r
esul
ttopr
emat
uredeat
h.

 Theheal
thi
mpact
sofai
rpol
lut
ionar
ecl
osel
yli
nkedwi
thpov
ert
yandgender
i
ssues.Exampl
e,i
n poorf
ami
li
es bear
s a di
spr
opor
ti
onat
e bur
den oft
he
i
mpact
sduepoorcooki
ng.

 I
taf
fectAgr
icul
tur
e:r
egi
onal–scal
eimpact
soncr
opyi
eldscausedeconomi
c
l
ossesf
or23ar
abl
ecr
opi
nEur
ope

 Ai
rpol
lut
ioncausedamaget
opl
ant
sandani
mal
s,af
fect
ingbi
odi
ver
sit
yand
cr
opsyi
eld.

 Cl
imat
eChange:bypr
oduci
nggr
eenhousegas

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page28
 CLI
MATECHANGE

WHATI
SCLI
MATECHANGE?

Cl
imat
eChangecanbedef
inedasal
ong– t
erm shi
fti
nweat
hercondi
ti
ons
i
dent
if
iedbychangei
ntemper
atur
e,pr
eci
pit
ati
on,wi
ndandot
heri
ndi
ctor(
IPCC)
.
Cl
imat
echangei
scur
rent
lyagl
obalphenomenonandr
equi
resgl
obalef
for
tst
o
r
educei
tasi
tsi
mpactcutacr
ossdi
ff
erentcount
ri
esr
egar
dlessofi
tsbor
der
s.

 The good i
ndi
cat
oroft
he cl
imat
e change and gl
obalwar
ming i
sthe
i
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
eandmel
ti
ngofi
cel
ikeMountKi
li
manj
aro.

MAJORCAUSESOFCLI
MATECHANGE

Mostcl
imat
esci
ent
ist
sagr
eet
hatt
hemai
ncausesoft
hecur
rentgl
obalwar
ming
t
rendi
sthehumanexpansi
onoft
he“
GreenhouseEf
fect
”whi
chi
sdi
rect
lyassoci
ated
wi
tht
heemi
ssi
onofgr
eenhousegasesi
nat
mospher
e.

Cer
tai
n gases i
nthe at
mospher
e bl
ock heatf
rom escapi
ng.Long-
li
ved gases,
r
emai
ningsemi
-per
manent
lyi
ntheat
mospher
e,whi
chdonotr
espondphysi
cal
lyor
chemi
cal
lyt
ochangesi
ntemper
atur
ear
edescr
ibed as"
for
cing"cl
imat
echange
wher
easgases,suchaswat
er,whi
chr
espondphysi
cal
lyorchemi
cal
lyt
ochangesi
n
t
emper
atur
ear
eseenas"
feedbacks.
"

Gasest
hatcont
ri
but
etot
hegr
eenhouseef
fecti
ncl
ude:

 Wat
erv
apor
.Themostabundantgr
eenhousegas,buti
mpor
tant
ly,i
tact
sasa
f
eedbackt
othecl
imat
e.Wat
erv
apori
ncr
easesast
heEar
th'
sat
mospher
e
war
ms,butsodoest
hepossi
bil
it
yofcl
oudsandpr
eci
pit
ati
on,maki
ngt
hese
someoft
hemosti
mpor
tantf
eedbackmechani
smst
othegr
eenhouseef
fect
.

 Car
bondi
oxi
de(
CO2)
.Ami
norbutv
eryi
mpor
tantcomponentoft
heat
mospher
e,
car
bondi
oxi
dei
srel
easedt
hroughnat
uralpr
ocessessuchasr
espi
rat
ionand
v
olcanoer
upt
ionsandt
hroughhumanact
ivi
ti
essuchasdef
orest
ati
on,
landuse
El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page29
 changes,andbur
ningf
ossi
lfuel
s.Humanshav
eincr
easedat
mospher
icCO2
concent
rat
ionbyat
hir
dsi
ncet
heI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ionbegan.Thi
sist
hemost
i
mpor
tantl
ong-
li
ved"
for
cing"ofcl
imat
echange.

 Met
hane.A hydr
ocar
bon gas pr
oduced bot
hthr
ough nat
uralsour
ces and
human act
ivi
ti
es,i
ncl
udi
ng t
he decomposi
ti
on of wast
es i
n l
andf
il
ls,
agr
icul
tur
e,andespeci
all
yri
cecul
ti
vat
ion,aswel
lasr
umi
nantdi
gest
ionand
manur
emanagementassoci
atedwi
thdomest
icl
ivest
ock.Onamol
ecul
e-f
or-
mol
ecul
ebasi
s,met
hanei
saf
armor
eact
ivegr
eenhousegast
hancar
bon
di
oxi
de,
butal
soonewhi
chi
smuchl
essabundanti
ntheat
mospher
e.

 Ni
tr
ous oxi
de.A power
ful gr
eenhouse gas pr
oduced by soi
l cul
ti
vat
ion
pr
act
ices,especi
all
ytheuseofcommer
cialandor
gani
cfer
ti
li
zer
s,f
ossi
lfuel
combust
ion,
nit
ri
caci
dpr
oduct
ion,
andbi
omassbur
ning.

 Chl
orof
luor
ocar
bons(
CFCs)
.Synt
het
iccompoundsofent
ir
elyofi
ndust
ri
al
or
igi
n used i
n a numberofappl
icat
ions,butnow l
argel
yregul
ated i
n
pr
oduct
ionandr
eleaset
otheat
mospher
ebyi
nter
nat
ionalagr
eementf
ort
hei
r
abi
li
tyt
ocont
ri
but
etodest
ruct
ionoft
heozonel
ayer
.Theyar
eal
sogr
eenhouse
gases.

FACTORTHATI
NFLUENCETHECLI
MATECHANGE

Thef
act
orst
hati
nfl
uencet
hecl
imat
echangear
eassoci
atedwi
tht
hei
rcont
ri
but
iont
o
t
he emi
ssi
on ofgr
eenhouse gases i
ntot
he at
mospher
e.These f
act
ors can be
cat
egor
izedi
ntot
woasf
oll
ows:

1
. HumanFact
ors:whi
chi
slar
gel
ycausedbybur
ningf
ossi
lfuelandconv
ersi
on
ofl
andf
oragr
icul
tur
e?

 I
ndust
ri
alAct
ivi
ti
es:The i
ndust
ri
alact
ivi
ti
es t
hatourmoder
n ci
vi
li
zat
ion
dependsuponhav
erai
sedat
mospher
iccar
bondi
oxi
del
evel
sfr
om 280par
ts
permi
lli
ont
o379par
tspermi
lli
oni
nthel
ast1
50year
s.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page30
  Agr
icul
tur
alAct
ivi
ti
es:Pooragr
icul
tur
efar
mingandbur
ningf
ossi
lresul
tto
gr
eenhousegases

 Tr
anspor
tSect
or:Thet
ranspor
tfaci
li
ti
essuchaspl
ane,busesandol
dcar
s
cont
ri
but
est
otheemi
ssi
onofgr
eenhousesgases

 Mi
ningAct
ivi
ti
es

2.Nat
uralFact
ors:Thesear
enat
uralf
act
orst
hatar
eext
ernalt
othecl
imat
e
syst
em,
iti
ncl
udes:

 Vol
cani
cEr
upt
ion

 Sol
arOut
put

 Ear
thObi
tandt
heSun

I
MPACTSOFCLI
MATECHANGE

1
. Spr
eadofDi
seases:Tol
argeext
entcl
imat
echangei
nmostcasecont
ri
but
edt
o
r
espi
rat
oryi
nfect
ions,
tropi
caldi
seasessuchasmal
ari
a.Thi
shasgr
eati
mpact
t
ounder
dev
elopedcount
ri
es.

2.Negat
ivel
yaf
fectagr
icul
tur
epr
oduct
ion:Cl
imat
echanger
esul
tst
othechange
t
he pat
ter
n ofr
ainf
all
.Mostdev
elopi
ng count
ri
es t
hatl
argel
ydepend of
seasonalr
ainf
allf
orf
armi
ngar
elar
gel
yaf
fect
edbycl
imat
echange.

3.Nat
uralDi
sast
er:Suchas“
Kat
ri
na”i
nUni
tedSt
ates,
“Tsunam”i
nSr
iLankae.
t.
e

4.I
ncr
easeWor
ldTemper
atur
e:Onav
erage,Ear
thwi
llbecomewar
mer
.Some
r
egi
ons maywel
come war
mert
emper
atur
es,butot
her
s may not
.War
mer
condi
ti
onswi
llpr
obabl
yleadt
omor
eev
apor
ati
onandpr
eci
pit
ati
onov
eral
l,but
i
ndi
vi
dualr
egi
onswi
llv
ary,
somebecomi
ngwet
terandot
her
sdr
yer
.

5.War
mtheOceansandMel
tGl
aci
er:Ast
rongergr
eenhouseef
fectwi
llwar
mthe
oceansandpar
ti
all
ymel
tgl
aci
ersandot
heri
ce,i
ncr
easi
ngseal
evel
.Ocean
wat
eral
sowi
llexpandi
fitwar
ms,
cont
ri
but
ingf
urt
hert
oseal
evelr
ise.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page31
 LECTURETHREE

GLOBALI
ZATI
ONANDDEVELOPMENT

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Theconceptofgl
obal
izat
ioni
snotanew phenomenont
othepeopl
ear
oundt
he
wor
ld.I
tiscommont
ohearaper
soncl
aimt
hechi
ldr
enar
enowadaysmi
sbehav
e
si
mpl
y because oft
he i
ncr
easi
ngl
y gl
obal
izat
ion.Ther
eis no si
ngl
e/uni
ver
sal
def
ini
ti
on of whati
s gl
obal
izat
ion. Gl
obal
izat
ion i
s cur
rent
ly a popul
arand
cont
rov
ersi
ali
ssuet
houghof
tenr
emai
ningal
ooseandpoordef
ineconcept
.

I
namoder
ndev
elopmenti
sver
ydi
ff
icul
ttosepar
atebet
weengl
obal
izat
ionand
dev
elopment
.The gl
obal
izat
ion pr
ocess may f
ast
erorhi
nder
ing dev
elopment
pr
ocesses.Ther
efor
e,t
hest
udyofgl
obal
izat
ionandi
tsi
mpact
stodev
elopmenti
s
essent
ial
.

 Gl
obal
izat
ion i
s a power
fulr
ealaspectoft
he new wor
ld syst
em and i
t
r
epr
esentoneoft
hemosti
nfl
uent
ialf
orcei
nthedet
ermi
ningt
hef
utur
ecour
se
oft
hepl
anet
.

 I
tincr
eases t
he wor
ldwi
de t
rade and exchanges i
n an i
ncr
easi
ngl
yopen,
i
ntegr
ated and bor
der
less i
nter
nat
ional economy.The pr
ocess i
ncr
ease
opennessi
nthei
nter
nat
ionaleconomy,i
ntegr
atet
hewor
ldmar
ketandmov
e
t
owar
dbor
der
lesswor
ldbyi
ncr
easi
nggl
obalf
lows.

Accor
ding t
o Car
ney(
2002)r
edef
ine gl
obal
izat
ion as r
edef
ines t
he r
elat
ionshi
p
bet
ween t
err
it
ori
ali
ty and aut
hor
it
y,shi
ft
ing aut
hor
it
yfr
om t
he l
evelofst
atet
o
supr
anat
ional(
suchasI
MF&Wor
ldBank)andsubnat
ionaluni
ts.

El
imel
eckP.
Akyoo(
PhD) Page32
Gl
obal
izat
ioni
sthepr
ocesst
hatencompassest
hecauses,
cour
se,
andconsequences
oft
ransnat
ionalandt
rans-
cul
tur
ali
ntegr
ati
onofhumanandnonhumanact
ivi
ti
es
(
Jones,
201
0)

Lar
sson(
2001
)def
inegl
obal
izat
ionast
hepr
ocessofwor
ldshr
inkageofdi
stances
get
ti
ngshor
ter
,thi
ngsmov
ingcl
oser
.Thegl
obal
izat
ioni
ncr
easest
radel
iber
ali
zat
ion
whi
chr
educest
radepr
otect
ionandmov
ementofpeopl
eeaser
.

 Accor
dingt
oNj
unwa(
201
0)def
inedasapr
ocesst
hat
,basedoni
nter
nat
ional
st
rat
egi
esai
msatexpandbusi
nessoper
ati
ononwor
ldwi
de(
global
)lev
el.

 Accor
ding t
o Fr
iedman (
1999)gl
obal
izat
ion def
ined as an i
ncr
easi
ng and
deepeni
ngi
nter
act
ionbet
weeni
ndi
vi
dual&or
gani
zat
ionacr
osst
hegl
obal
.

Ot
herschol
arsofdev
elopmentschol
arsdef
inet
heconceptofgl
obal
izat
ioni
na
negat
iveways.Theyf
ocusont
henegat
ivei
mpactofgl
obal
izat
iont
othedev
elopment
oft
het
hir
dwor
ldcount
ri
es.

 Accor
dingt
oKhor(
1995)st
atedt
hat“
Global
izat
ioni
swhatwei
nthet
hir
dwor
ld
hav
eforsev
eralcent
uri
eswi
t henameofcol
ht oni
ali
sm”
.AsKwameNkr
umah
r
efer
simper
ial
ism ast
hehi
ghestst
ageofcol
oni
ali
sm,t
her
efor
e,t
her
eisno
di
ff
erencesbet
weeni
mper
ial
ism andt
hecur
rentgl
obal
izat
ion.

 Accor
dingt
oSt
eingar
d(1
995)def
inegl
obal
izat
ionasani
deol
ogi
calconst
ruct
dev
icest
osat
isf
ycapi
tal
ism’
sneedf
ornew mar
ketandl
aboursour
ceand
pr
opel
ledbyuncr
it
ical“
Sycophancy”oft
hei
nter
nat
ional academi
cbusi
ness
communi
ty.