INTRODUCTION TO

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Dr. Zeliha BAYRAM

 Introduction to endocrine
system
Classes of Chemical Messengers
1. Autocrine chemical messengers: released by cells and have a
local effect on the same cell type from which chemical signals
released; e.g., prostaglandin

2. Paracrine chemical messengers: released by cells and affect

other cell types locally without being transported in blood; e.g.,
somatostatin

3. Neurotransmitter: produced by neurons and secreted into

extracellular spaces by presynaptic nerve terminals; travels short
distances; influences postsynaptic cells; e.g., acetylcholine.

4. Endocrine chemical messengers: type of intercellular signal.

Produced by cells of endocrine glands, enter circulatory system, and
affect distant cells; e.g., estrogen

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 Principal functions of the endocrine
system
• Maintenance of the internal environment in the body
(maintaining the optimum biochemical environment).

• Integration and regulation of growth and

development.

• Control, maintenance and instigation of sexual

reproduction, including gametogenesis, coitus,
fertilization, fetal growth and development and
nourishment of the newborn.

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 Endocrine System

Helps to maintain homeostasis by Integration &

control.

Secretion of chemical signals called hormones

that travel through the bloodstream to act on
target cells.

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 Endocrine versus Nervous system

Nervous System Endocrine System

• regulates long term ongoing
• performs short term crisis metabolic activity
management • uses chemicals messenger called
hormones to “communicate”.
• sends electrical messages to
control and coordinate the • Hormones alter metabolic
body activities of tissues
• Nerve impulse is delivered by • A hormone is secreted by a group
of specialized cells called gland
the axon of a nerve cell called
neuron • Hormones are transported by the
blood vessels
• Paracrine communication
involves chemical messengers
between cells within one tissue

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 Endocrine system
• Includes all cells and endocrine tissues that produce hormones or
paracrine factors
• Following are important endocrine glands
• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Pineal Gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid gland
• Thymus
• Adrenal Gland
• Gonads (testes/ovaries)
• Pancreatic Islet
• Heart
• Kidney
• Digestive Tract

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The Endocrine System

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 Hormone structure
1) Amino acid derivatives hormones e.g. epinephrine
Structurally similar to amino acids

2) Peptide hormones e.g. insulin

Chains of amino acids

3) Lipid derivatives hormones e.g. eicosanoids and

steroid hormones (prostaglandin is an example of a
steroid hormone)

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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
 General characteristics of hormones
A. Stability
1. Half-life: The length of time it takes for half a dose of substance
to be eliminated from circulatory system
2. Long half-life: regulate activities that remain at a constant rate
through time. Usually lipid soluble and travel in plasma attached
to proteins
3. Short half-life: water-soluble hormones as proteins, epinephrine,
norepinephrine. Have a rapid onset and short duration
B. Communication
1. Interaction with target cell
2. Lipid soluble hormones pass through cell membrane and usually
travel to nucleus
3. Water soluble hormones generally attach to a receptor site on
cell membrane
C. Distribution
1. Hormones dissolve in blood plasma and are transported in
unbound or are reversibly bound to plasma proteins.
2. Hormones are distributed quickly because they circulate in the
blood.
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 Mechanisms of hormone action
• Each hormone’s shape is specific and can be
recognized by the corresponding target cells

• The binding sites on the target cells are called

hormone receptors.
• Receptors for peptide hormones, are located on the
surface of cell membranes because they can not cross
the membrane to enter the cell
• Thyroid and steroid hormones can cross the membrane
and bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus

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 G Proteins and Hormone Activity

• Hormones that can not cross the membrane (e.g. Peptide hormones) bind to the receptor on the surface of the cell
• Binding of hormones to the receptor activate secondary messenger (in this figure binding of hormone activates G protein, and activated G protein
activates adenylcyclase or activate PDE or activates PLC
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 Hormone Effects on Gene Activity
Hormones that can cross the membrane (e.g. steroid hormones) bind to the receptor inside the cell, at the
cytoplasm, or they will enter the nucleus and bind to the receptor at the nucleus and initiate transcription)

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 Control of Hormone Synthesis and
Release
• Blood levels of hormones:
• Are controlled by negative feedback systems
• Vary only within a narrow desirable range

• Hormones are synthesized and released in response to:

• Humoral stimuli

• Neural stimuli

• Hormonal stimuli

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 Control by Humoral Stimuli
Humoral stimuli – secretion of hormones in
response to changing levels of ions or
nutrients in the blood.
• Example: concentration of calcium ions in
the blood
• Declining blood Ca2+ concentration stimulates
the parathyroid glands to secrete PTH
(parathyroid hormone)
• PTH causes Ca2+ concentrations to rise and the
stimulus is removed

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 Control by Neural Stimuli
Neural stimuli – nerve fibers stimulate
hormone release
• Preganglionic sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) fibers stimulate the adrenal medulla to
secrete catecholamines

Figure 17.3b
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 Control by Hormonal Stimuli

Hormonal stimuli – stimulation

received from other hormones
• The hypothalamic hormones
stimulate the anterior pituitary
• In turn, pituitary hormones stimulate
targets to secrete still more hormones

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 Feedback control of
hormone secretion
1) Negative feedback: Prevents over secretion of the
hormone or over activity at the target tissue.

2) Positive feedback: There are two or more variables, if

one increases the second one ,the second one in turn
increases the first one or the 3rd one. E.g. Ovulation.

3) Cyclical variations occur in hormone release

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 Feedback Control of Hormone
Production
Feedback loops are used
extensively to regulate
secretion of hormones in the
hypothalamic-pituitary axis. An
important example of a negative
feedback loop is seen in control of
thyroid hormone secretion

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Negative feedback effects of cortisol

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 Learn the 2 endocrine glands on this slide:
Hypothalamus
Pituitary (hyophysis)

Hypothalamus__
Anterior pituitary__ _____________Posterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis) (neurohypophysis)

Hypothalamus___________
Pituitary__________
(hypophysis)

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The Pituitary
Pituitary secretes 9 hormones

Two divisions: 1. TSH The first four are “tropic”

2. ACTH hormones, they regulate the
3. FSH function of other hormones

• Anterior pituitary 4. LH
________
5. GH
(adenohypophysis) 6. PRL
7. MSH
_________________________________________________________________

• Posterior pituitary 8. ADH (antidiuretic hormone), or vasopressin

(neurohypophysis) 9. Oxytocin

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What the letters stand for…
• TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone
• ACTH: adrenocorticotropic hormone
• FSH: follicle-stimulating hormone
• LH: luteinizing hormone
• GH: growth hormone
• PRL: prolactin
• MSH: melanocyte-stimulating hormone

• ADH: antidiuretic hormone

• Oxytocin
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 Hypothalamus controls anterior pituitary hormone
release

• Releasing hormones (releasing factors) of hypothalamus

Secreted like neurotransmitters from neuronal axons into capillaries and veins to
anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
TRH (thyroid releasing hormone) TSH
CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)  ACTH
GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)  FSH and LH
PRF (prolactin releasing hormone)  PRL
GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone)  GH

• Inhibiting hormones of hypothalmus

PIF (prolactin inhibiting factor)  PRL
GH (growth hormone) inhibiting hormone  GH

The hypothalamus controls secretion of hormones which in their turn control

the secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland, the adrenal cortex and
gonads: in this way the brain controls these endocrine glands

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 PITUITARY HORMONES FUNCTION

The four tropic ones regulate the function of other hormones:

• TSH stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormone

• ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce

corticosteroids: aldosterone and cortisol

• FSH stimulates follicle growth and ovarian estrogen

production; stimulates sperm production and androgen-
binding protein

• LH has a role in ovulation and the growth of the corpus

luteum; stimulates androgen secretion by interstitial cells
in testes
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The others from the anterior pituitary…

• GH (somatrotropic hormone) stimulates growth

• PRL stimulates mammary glands in breast to

make milk

• MSH stimulates melanocytes

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From the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

• ADH (antidiuretic hormone vasopressin) stimulates

the kidneys to reclaim more water from the urine,
raises blood pressure

• Oxytocin prompts contraction of smooth muscle in

reproductive tracts, in females initiating labor and
ejection of milk from breasts

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 Summary

• Endocrine glands throughout body are key to chemical

integration and homeostasis

• Protein, polypeptide, amine and a few steroid hormones

are plasma soluble and target membrane

• Surface receptors transduce signals into cell and

activate via second messengers

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 Summary

• Most steroid and some amine hormones are lipophilic,

can pass into cell, bind on cytoplasmic or nuclear
receptors and activate DNA for protein synthesis

• Hypothalamus, pituitary trophic hormone pathways

coordinate endocrine regulation

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Thank you for your attention

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