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MOHAMED SATHAK A.
J COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
SIRUSERI I.T., PARK., CHENNAI -603103
MA3354 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
UNIT – I LOGIC AND PROOFS
Proposition:
A statement that is either true or false put not both is called a
proposition.
Example:
1. 2+2=4 --- True
2. 4 is a even prime number ----- False
Statement:
Declarative sentences which cannot be further split into simpler
sentences are called atomic statement.
Example:
India is a country.
Molecular statements :
New statement can be formed from atomic statement using
connectives. The resulting statements are called molecular statements.
Example:
Jack & Jill went upto hill.
Conjunction:
Let P & Q be a propositions then the conjunction of P & Q is
denoted by P Q. The truth table is as follows.
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Disjunction:
The disjunction of two statement P&Q is defined by PVQ. The truth
table is as follows.
Page No: 1
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
P Q PVQ
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Conditional:
If P&Q are any two statements, then the statement PQ, “if P then
Q” is called conditional proposition (or) statement.
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Biconditional :
If P & Q are any two statements, then the statement p Q is called
biconditional statement.
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Tautology and Contradiction:
A statement that is true for all possible values of its propositional
values is called a tautology (or) universally valid formula or logical truth.
A statement which is false for all possible truth values of the
variables in the statement is called contradiction.
Prove that (7P (7Q R)V(Q R)V(P R) R
Solution:
(7P (7QR) V (Q R) V(P R)
<=> (7P (7Q R)V(QVP) R [distributive law]
<=> (7P 7Q R V(QVP) R [Associative law]
<=> (7(PVQ) R )V(QVP) R [Demergan’s law]
<=> 7(PVQ)V(PVQ) R [Distributive law]
Page No: 2
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
<=>T R [Tautology law]
<=> R [Identity law]
Using the truth table verify that the proposition (P Q) 7(PVQ)
Solution:
P Q P Q PVQ 7(PVQ) (P Q 7(PVQ)
T T T T F F
T F F T F F
F T F T F F
F F F F T F
Show that the proposition (PVQ) (QVP) is a tautology.
Solution:
P Q PVQ QVP (PVQ) (QVP)
T T T T T
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F F F T
Let p: There is rain and q: I buy an Umbrella
Contrapositive: q → p
That is “If I don’t buy an umbrella, then there is no rain”
Converse: q → p
That is “If I buy an umbrella , then there is rain”
Inverse: p → q
That is “ If there is no rain ,then I will not buy an umbrella”
Get the contra positive of the statement “If it is raining then I get wet”
Let p: it is raining and
q: I get wet
Given p → q.
Its contra positive is given by q → p
That is “If I don’t get wet then it is not raining”
Page No: 3
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Write the contra positive of the conditional statement: “If you obey traffic
rules, then you will not be fined.
Let p: you obey traffic rules and
q: you will be fined
Given p → ┐q.
Its contra positive is given by q → ┐p.
That is “you will be fined only if you won’t obey traffic rules”
Universal quantification
The Universal quantification of a predicate formula P(x)
is the proposition, denoted by xP(x) that is true if P (a) is true for all subject a.
Existential quantification
The Existential quantification of a predicate formula
P(x) is the proposition, denoted by xP(x) that is true if P(a) is true for some
subject a.
Rewrite the following using quantifiers “Every student in the class studied
calculus”.
Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is a student and
𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 studied calculus
Symbolic form xP(x) Q(x)
Write the statement in symbolic form “Some real numbers are rational”.
Let 𝑅(𝑥): 𝑥 is a real number and
𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 is rational
Symbolic form: x R x Q x .
Write the statement in symbolic form “Some integers are not square of any
integers”.
Let 𝐼(𝑥): x is an integer and
S(x): x is a square of any integer
Symbolic form:
x I( x) S( x).
Express in symbolic form, everyone who is healthy can do all kinds of work.
Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is healthy and
𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 do all work
Symbolic form is
Page No: 4
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
xP(x) Q(x)
PART - B
1 What is meant by Tautology? Without using truth table, show that
((P Q) (P (Q R))) (P Q) (P R) is a tautology.
Solution: A Statement formula which is true always irrespective of the truth
values of the individual variables is called a tautology.
Consider (P (Q R) (P (Q R) P (Q R) (P Q) (P R) (1)
Consider (P Q) (P R) (P Q) (P R) ((P Q) (P R)) (2)
Using (1) and (2)
((P Q) (P Q) (P R)) ((P Q) (P R))
[(P Q) (P R)] [(P Q) (P R)] T
2 Prove that (P Q) (P (P Q)) (P Q) .
Solution:
Let S= (P Q) (P (P Q)) (P Q)
(P Q) (P (P Q) ((P Q) (P Q))
(P P Q) (Q Q P)
(F Q) (Q P)
(F) (Q P)
(Q P)
3 Prove that (P Q) (R Q) (P R) Q .
Solution:
(P Q) (R Q) Reasons
(P Q) (R Q) Since P Q P Q
(P R) Q) Distribution law
(P R) Q De morgan’s law
since P Q P Q
P RQ
4 Without constructing the truth table obtain the product-of-sums canonical
form of the formula (P R) (Q P). Hence find the sum-of products
canonical form.
Solution:
Let
Page No: 5
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
S (P R) (Q P)
((P) R) ((Q P) (P Q))
(P R) (Q P) (P Q)
[(P R) F ] [(Q P) F ] [(P Q) F ]
[(P R) (Q Q) [(Q P) (R R)] [(P Q) (R R)]
(P R Q) (P R Q) (Q P R) (Q P R)
(P Q R) (P Q R)
S (P R Q) (P R Q) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
(PCNF)
S The remaining maxterms of P,Q and R.
S (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R).
(S) Apply duality principle toS
S (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (PDNF)
5 Obtain PCNF and PDNF of the formula (P Q) (P R) (Q R) ]
Solution:
Let S=(P Q) (P R) (Q R)
= (P Q T ) (P R T ) (Q R T )
=(P Q (R R)) (P R (Q Q)) (Q R (P P))
= (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
Which is PDNF of S
To find PCNF
The PDNF of S is (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
(S) S (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
Which is PCNF of S
6 Obtain PCNF and PDNF of the formula (P (Q R)) (P (Q R)) ]
Solution:
Let S= (P (Q R)) (P (Q R))
S (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
(P Q R) (P Q R)
Which is PCNF of S
To find PDNF
(S) S (P Q R) (P Q R)
Which is PDNF of S
7 Show that R S can be derived from the premises P (Q S), R P & Q
Solution:
Type your text
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 6
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Steps Premises
Rule Reason
1 R Assumed Premises
premises
2 R P Rule P
3 RP Rule T P Q P Q
4 P Rule T P, P R R
5 P (Q S) Rule P
6 QS Rule T P, P R R
7 Q Rule P
8 S Rule T P, P R R
9 RS Rule CP
8 Show that the following sets of premises are inconsistent P Q , P R ,
Q R , P .
Solution:
Step Derivation Rule
1. PQ Rule P
2. Q R Rule P
3. P R from (1) & (2) Rule T
4. P Rule P
5. R Rule P
6. PR Rule P
7. P Rule T from (5) & (6)
8. P P Rule T
9 Show the premises R Q, R S, S Q, P Q, P are inconsistent.
Solution:
Step Derivation Rule
1. P Rule P
2. PQ Rule P
3. Q from 1,2 by rule T
4. S Q Rule P
Page No: 7
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
5. Q S from 4 by equivalences
6. S from 3 and 5
7. RS Rule P
8. R S from 7
9. S R from 8
10. R from 6 and 9
11. R Q Rule P
12. Q from 10 and 11
13. Q Q from 3 and 12
10 Prove that the premises P Q,Q R, R S, S R and P S are
inconsistent.
[Nov/Dec -2017]
Solution:
Step Premises Rule Reason
s
1 PQ P Assumed Premises
2 QR P Assumed Premises
3 PR T P Q,Q R P R
4 RS P Assumed Premises
5 PS T PR,RSPS
6 S R P Assumed Premises
7 P R T P S , S R P R
8 P R T P Q P Q
9 (P R) T Demorgan’s Law
10 (P S) P Assumed Premises
11 P T (P S) P
12 R T(8,3) P, P R R
13 (P R) T(11,12) P, R P R
14 (P R) (P R) T(9,13) P,Q P Q
11 Show that the following premises are inconsistent.
Page No: 8
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
(1) If Raja Kumar misses many classes through illness then he fails
high school.
(2) If Raja Kumar fails high school, then he is uneducated.
(3) If Raja Kumar reads a lot of books then he is not uneducated.
(4) Raja Kumar misses many classes through illness and reads a lot
of books.
Solution:
E : Raja Kumar misses many classes
S: Raja Kumar fails high school
A: Raja Kumar reads lot of books
H: Raja Kumar is uneducated
Statement:
(1) E S
(2) S H
(3) A ~ H
(4) E A
Premises are : E S, S H , A ~ H , E A
1) E S Rule P
2) S H Rule P
3) E H Rule T, 1,2
4) A ~ H Rule P
5) H ~A Rule T,4
6) E ~A Rule T,3,5
7) ~ E ~ A Rule T,6
8) ~(E A) Rule T,7
9) EA Rule P
10) (E A) ~ (E A) Rule T,8,9
Which is nothing but false
Therefore given set of premises are inconsistent.
12 Show that R S is a valid conclusion from the premises C D ,
C D H , H A B , A B R S .
Solution:
Page No: 9
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Step Derivation Rule
(1) C D H P
(2) H A B P
(3) C D A B T, (1), (2) and hypothetical syllogism
(4) A B R S P
(5) C D R S T, (3), (4) and hypothetical syllogism
(6) C D P
(7) R S T, (5), (6) and modus ponens
13 Show that the hypotheses, “It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder
than yesterday,” “We will go swimming only if it is sunny,” “If we do not
go swimming then we will take a canoe trip,” and “If we take a canoe trip,
then we will be home by sunset “lead to the conclusion “we will be home by
sunset”.[Nov/Dec-2013]
Solution:
p – It is sunny this afternoon
q- It is colder than yesterday
r- we will go swimming
s- we will take a canoe trip & t- we will be home by sunset
The given premises are p q, r p,r s & s t
Step Premises Rule Reason
1 p q Rule P
2 p Rule T P Q = P
3 rp Rule P
4 r Rule T P,Q P Q
5 r s Rule P
6 s Rule T P, P R R
7 st Rule P
8 t Rule T P, P R R
Page No: 10
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
14 Show that “it rained’ is a conclusion obtained from the statements. ‘
if it does not rain or if there is no traffic dislocation, then the sports
day will be held and the cultural programme will go on “ “ if the
sports day is held, the trophy will be awarded” and “ the trophy was
not awarded”
Solution: The given premises are (p q) (r s), r t,t
The conclusion is p
Step Premises Rule Reason
1 p q (r s) Rule P
2 (p (r s)) (q (r s ))Rule T,1
3 p (r s) Rule T,2 P Q = P
4 (r s) p Rule T,3 P Q Q P
5 rt Rule P
6 t Rule P P, P R R
7 r Rule P,Q P Q
T,5,6
8 s r Rule T,7 P, P R R
9 (r s) Rule T,8
10 p Rule T, P,Q P Q
3,9
15 Prove that x P x Q x x P x x Q x .
Solution:
Step Derivation Rule
1. x P x Q x P
2. P y Q y ES, (1)
3. P y T, (2), P Q P
4. Q y T,(2), P Q Q
5. x P x EG, (3)
6. x Q x EG, (4)
7. x P x x Q x T, (4), (5), DeMorgans law
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 11
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
16 Show that the premises “ A student in this class has not read the book” and
“Everyone in this class passed the first examination” imply the conclusion
“ Someone who passed the first examination has not read the book”.
[Nov/Dec-2018]
Solution:
S(x): x is a student in the class
R(x): x reads books
F(x): x is passed the first examination
A student in this class has not read the book
(x)(s(x) R(x))
Every one in this class passed the first exam
(x)F(x)
Conclusion:
Someone who passed the first examination has not read the book
(x)(F(x) R(x))
Steps Premises Rule Reason
1 (x)(s(x) R(x)) P Premises
2 (s( y) R( y)) ES
3 R( y) T P Q = Q
4 (x)F(x) P
5 F ( y) US
6 (F( y) R( y)) T P,Q = P Q
7 (x)(F(x) R(x)) EG
17 Show that x( p(x) q(x)) xp(x) xq(x) using the indirect method
Solution:
Steps Premises Rule Reason
1 [xp(x) xq(x) Rule P Assumed
Premises
2 (x)p(x) (x)q(x) Rule T Demorgan,s
Law
3 xp(x) Rule T P Q = P
4 (x)q(x) Rule T P Q = Q
5 p( y) Rule T E.S
6 q( y) Rule T U S
7 p( y) q( y) Rule T P,Q = P Q
Page No: 12
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
8 ( p( y) q( y)) Rule T Demorgan,s
Law
9 (x) ( p(x) q(x) ) Rule P G P
10 ( p( y) q( y)) Rule T U S
11 ( p( y) q( y)) ( p( y) q( y)) Rule T P,Q = P Q
18 Using indirect method of Proof to show the z Q z is not valid conclusion
from the premises x P x Q x and y Q y .
Solution:
we use the indirect method, by assuming that the conclusionz Q z is false.
Step Derivation Rule
1 zQ z P (assumed)
2 z Q z T, (1)
3 y P y P
4 P a ES, (3)
5 Q a US, (2)
6 P a Q a T, (4), (5)
7 P a Q a T, (6)
8 x P x Q x P
9 P a Q a US, (8)
10 P a Q a P a Q a T,(7),(9), contradiction
19 Show the premises “One student in this class knows how to write programs
in JAVA” and “Everyone who knows how to write programs in JAVA can
get a high paying job” imply the conclusion “someone in this class can get a
high paying job”.
Solution:
C x : x is in this class
J x : x knows JAVA programming
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 13
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
H x : x can get a high paying job
The premises are x C x J x and x J x H x .
The conclusion is x C x H x
Step Derivation Rule
1 x C x J x P
2 C a J a ES and (1)
3 C a From 2
4 J a From 2
5 x J x H x P
6 J a H a US and (5)
7 H a From (4) and (6)
8 C a H a From (3) and (7)
9 x C x H x EG and (8)
20. Prove that 2 is irrational by giving a proof using contradiction.
[May/June-2016]
Solution:
Let P: 2 is irrational.
Assume ~P is true, then 2 is rational,
which leads to a contradiction.
a
By our assumption is 2 ,
b
where a2 and b have no common factors --------------- (1)
a 2 2 2
2 2b a a is even.
b2
a = 2c
2b2 4c2 b2 2c2 b2 is even b is even as well.
Page No: 14
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
a and b have common factor 2 (since a and b are even)
But it contradicts (1)
This is a contradiction.
Hence ~P is false.
Thus P: 2 is irrational is true.
Page No: 15
MA8351 – Discrete Mathematics
UNIT II – COMBINATORICS
Class Notes
Principle of Mathematical Induction:
Let P(n) denote a mathematical statement that involves one or more occurrences
of the positive integer n then we complete two steps:
1. Base step: P(1) is true
2. Inductive step: In this step we prove that P(k + 1) is true on the
assumption that P(k) is true.
Principle of Strong Induction:
Given a mathematical statement P(n) that involves one or more occurrences of
the positive integer n and if
1. P(1) is true
2. Whenever P(1), P(2) … P(k) are true, P(k + 1) is also true, then P(n) is
true for all n Z+.
1 Use mathematical induction to show that n3 – n is divisible by 3 for n
Z+.
Solution: Let P(n) : n3 – n is divisible by 3.
Step 1: P(1) : 13 – 1 = 0 is divisible by 3. P(1) is true.
Step 2: Assume P(k) = k3 – k is divisible by 3. That is P(k) is true.
Claim: To prove P(k + 1) is true.
Consider P(k + 1) = (k + 1)3 – (k + 1)
= k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 – k –1
1
= (k3– k ) + 3(k2 + k)
Since P(k) = k3 – k is divisible by 3 and 3(k2 + k) is divisible by 3.
P(k+1) is divisible by 3.
P(k + 1) is true.
Hence by Principle of mathematical induction n3 – n is divisible by 3.
2 Use mathematical induction to show that
𝒏
𝟑𝒏+𝟏 − 𝟏
∑ 𝟑𝒓 =
𝟐
𝒓=𝟎
Solution:
3 𝑛+1 −1
Let 𝑃(𝑛): 30 + 31 + 32 + ⋯ + 3𝑛 =
2
3 0+1 −1 2
Step 1: 𝑃(0): 30 = = =1 P(0) is true.
2 2
Step 2:
Assume that P(k) is true.
3 𝑘+1 −1
𝑃(𝑘): 30 + 31 + 32 + ⋯ + 3𝑘 = is true.
2
Claim: To prove P(k + 1) is true.
Consider
𝑃(𝑘 + 1) = (30 + 31 + 32 + ⋯ + 3𝑘) + 3𝑘+1
3𝑘+1 − 1
= + 3𝑘+1
2
3𝑘+1 − 1 + 2(3𝑘+1)
=
2
2
3(3𝑘+1) − 1
=
2
3𝑘+2 − 1
=
2
(𝑘+1)+1
3 −1
= 2
3 𝑛+1 −1
P(k + 1) is true. By the principle of mathematical induction ∑𝑛 3𝑟 = is
𝑟=0 2
true. `
3 Using mathematical induction prove that if n is a positive integer, then
133 divides 11n1 122n1 .
Solution:
Let P(n) : 11n + 1 + 122n – 1 is divisible by 133.
Base Step:
To prove P(1) is true,
P(1): 112 + 121 = 121 + 12 = 133, which is divisible by 133.
P(1) is true.
Inductive Step:
Assume that P(k) is true. That 11k + 1 + 122k – 1 is divisible by 133.
i.e., 11k + 1 + 122k – 1 = 133m for some integer.
To prove P(k + 1) is true.
i.e 11(k+1) + 1 + 122(k+1) – 1 = 11k+1 . 11 + 122k –1 . 122
= 11k+1. (144 – 133) + 122k –1. (144)
= 11k+1. (144) + 122k –1. (144) – 11k+1. (133)
= 144. [11k+1+ 122k –1]– 11k+1. (133)
3
= 144. (133m) – 11k+1. (133)
= 133. [144m – 11k+1]
which is divisible by 133.
Hence P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
By the principle of mathematical induction P(n) is true for all positive integer n.
𝒏
4 If Hn denote harmonic numbers then prove that 𝑯 𝒏 ≥ 𝟏 + using
𝟐 𝟐
mathematical induction.
𝑛 1 1
Let 𝑃(𝑛): 𝐻 ≥ 1 + where 𝐻 ≥ 1 + + + ⋯
2𝑛 2 𝑗 2 3
1 1
Step 1: 𝑃(1): 𝐻 1 ≥ 1 + where 𝐻 = 1 +
2 2 2 2
1 1
𝑃(1): 𝐻 = 1 + ≥ 1 + is true.
2 2 2
Step 2: Assume P(k) is true.
1 1 𝑘
𝑃(𝑘): 𝐻 ≥ 1 + + ⋯ + ≥ 1 + is true.
2𝑘 2 2𝑘 2
Claim: To prove P(k + 1) is true.
Consider
1 1 1
𝑃(𝑘 + 1): 𝐻2𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + + ⋯ + 𝑘 + 𝑘+1
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + +⋯+ +( + +⋯+ )
2 2𝑘 2𝑘 + 1 2𝑘 + 2 2𝑘 + 2𝑘
𝑘 1 1 1
≥ (1 + )+( + +⋯+ )
2 2𝑘 + 1 2𝑘 + 2 2𝑘 + 2𝑘
𝑘 1
≥ (1 + ) + (2𝑘 )
2 2𝑘+1
4
𝑘 1
≥ (1 + ) + (2𝑘 )
2 2 𝑘2
𝑘 1
≥ (1 + )+
2 2
𝑘+1
≥1+( )
2
P(k + 1) is true.
𝑛
By the principle of mathematical induction 𝐻 ≥ 1+
2𝑛 2
5 Use mathematical induction to prove the inequality n < 2n for all
positive integers.
Solution: Let P(n) : n < 2n , n = 1, 2, 3 …
Step 1: P(1) : 1 < 21, which is true.
Step 2: Assume P(k) is true. i.e k < 2k.
Claim: To prove P(k + 1) is true.
k + 1 < 2k + 1 < 2k+1.
P(k + 1) is true.
P(n) is true for all positive integers.
6
n
n(n 1)(2n 1)
Using Mathematical induction prove that i2
i 0 6
Solution:
n n(n 1)(2n 1)
Let P(n) i2
i0 6
To Prove P(1) is true
1(1 1)(2(1) 1) 6
P(1) 1
6 6
5
Let us assume that P(k ) is true
k (k 1)(2k 1)
P(k )
6
Now to prove P(k +1) is true.
(k 1)(k 2)(2k 3)
i.e P(k 1)
6
P(k 1) 12 22 ... k 2 (k 1)2
k (k 1)(2k 1)
(k 1)
2
6
(k 1)(k 2)(2k 3)
P(k +1) =
6
Hence P(k +1) is true.
7 If n is a positive integer, then show that
1 1 1 1 n
... n 1 .
1.3 3.5 5.7 (2n 1)(2n 1) 2n 1
Solution:
11 1 1 n
Let P(n) ...
1.3 3.5 5.7 (2n 1)(2n 1) 2n 1
Wehave toprove that P(n) is truen 1.
BaseStep : Put n 1.
L.H.S
1 1 1
P(1)
(2(1) 1)(2(1) 1) 1.3 3
R.H.S
1 1
2(1) 1 3
6
LHS=RHS
P(1) is true.
Inductive Step: Assume P(k) is true, k > 1.
1 1 1 1 k
... is true.
1.3 3.5 5.7 (2k 1)(2k 1) 2k 1
To prove P(k+1) is true.
1 1 1 1 1 k1
i.e ... is true.
1.3 3.5 5.7 (2k 1)(2k 1) (2(k 1) 1)(2(k 1) 1) 2k 3
1 1 1 1 1
L.H.S = ...
1.3 3.5 5.7 (2k 1)(2k 1) (2(k 1) 1)(2(k 1) 1)
k 1
2k 1 (2(k 1) 1)(2(k 1) 1)
k 1
2k 1 (2k 1)(2k 3)
k (2k 3) 1
(2k 1)(2k 3)
2k 2 3k 1 (2k 1)(k 1) k1
(2k 1)(2k 3) (2k 1)(2k 3) 2k 3
P(k 1) is true.
Thus P(k ) is ture P(k 1) is true.
8 Prove by mathematical induction that 6n 2 72 n 1 is divisible by 43 for
each positive integer n.
Solution:
Let P(1): Inductive step: for 𝑛 = 1,
61 2 72 1 =559, which is divisible by 43
So P(1) is true.
7
Assume P(k) is true.
7
k2 2 k 1
6 is divisible by 43.
7 43m for some integer m.
k2 2 k 1
i.e 6
To prove P(k + 1) is true.
7
( k 1) 2 2 ( k 1)1
That is to prove 6 is divisible by 43.
Now
6k 3 72 k 3 6k 3 72 k 1.72
6(6k 2 72 k 1 ) 43.72 k 1
6.43m 43.72 k 1
43(6m 72 k 1 )
This is divisible by 43.
So P(k + 1) is true. By Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all integer n.
9 Using mathematical induction, show that for all positive integers n,
32 n 1 2n 2 is divisible by 7.
Solution:
Let P(n) : 32n + 1 + 2n + 2 is divisible by 7.
Base Step:
To prove P(1) is true,
32 + 1 + 21 + 2 = 33 + 23 = 27 + 8 = 35 = (5) (7), which is divisible by 7.
P(1) is true.
Inductive Step:
8
Assume that P(k) is true. That is 32k + 1 + 2k + 2 is divisible by 7.
i.e., 32k + 1 + 2k + 2 = 7m for some integer.
To prove P(k + 1) is true.
i.e., 32(k+1)+1 + 2(k+1)+2 = 32k + 3 + 2k + 3
= 32k + 1 (32) + 2k + 2 (2)
= 32k + 1(9) + 2k + 2 (2)
= 2[32k + 1 + 2k + 2] + (7) 32k + 1
= 2(7)(m) + (7) 32k + 1
which is divisible by 7.
Hence P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
By the principle of mathematical induction P(n) is true for all positive integer n.
10 Prove that Prove that 2 n! , n 4
n
Solution:
Let P(n) be the proposition ( or inequality)
2n < n! n 4
We have to prove P(n) is true n 4
Basis Step: Here n0 = 4
P(4) is 22 < 41 4 < 24, which is true.
P(4) is true.
Inductive Step: Assume P(k) is true, k > 1.
2k < k! is true.
9
To prove P(k + 1) is true.
i.e. To prove 2k+1 < (k + 1) ! is true.
Now 2k+1= 2 k . 2 < k! 2
Since k > 1, k + 1 > 2.
2k+1 < k!. (k + 1)
=>2k+1 < (k + 1)!
P(k + 1) is true.
Thus P(k) is true = P(k + 1) is true.
Hence by first principle of induction P(n) is true for n 4.
2n < n! n 4.
11 Prove by induction “every positive integer n ≥ 2 is either a prime or can
be written as a product of prime”.
Solution: Let P(n) denote the proposition “every integer n ≥ 2 is either a prime
or a product of primes”. We have to prove P(n) is true n ≥ 2.
Base Step: Put n = 2. P(2) is 2, which is a prime.
Thus P(2) is true.
Inductive Step: Assume the proposition is true for all integers up to k > 2. i.e
P(3), P(4) … P(k) are true.
To prove P(k+1) is true.
i. e to prove (k+1) is either a prime or product of primes.
If (k+1) is a prime, then we are through.
If (k+1) is not a prime, it is a composite number and so it is a product of two
positive integers x and y, where 1 < x, y < k+1.
10
Since x, y ≤ k, by induction hypothesis x and y are primes or product of primes.
k + 1 = x . y is a product of two or more primes.
P(k +1) is true.
Thus P(3), P(4) … P(k) are true P(k+1) is true.
Hence P(n) is true for all n ≥ 2.
Pigeonhole Principle:
If n pigeons are assigned to m pigeon holes and m < n, then at least one
pigeonhole contains two or more pigeons.
The Extended Pigeonhole Principle:
If n pigeons are assigned to m pigeon holes then one of the pigeonholes must
𝑛−1
contain at least ⌊ ⌋+ 1 pigeons.
𝑚
Note: ⌊5.3⌋ = 5, ⌊−1.7⌋ = −2
12 Prove that in any group of six people there must be at least three
mutual friends or three mutual enemies.
Proof:
Let the six people be A, B, C, D, E and F. Fix A. The remaining five people can
accommodate into two groups namely (1) Friends of A and (2) Enemies of A
Now by generalized Pigeonhole principle, at least one of the group must contain
51
1 3 people.
2
Let the friend of A contain 3 people. Let it be B, C, D.
Case (1): If any two of these three people (B, C, D) are friends, then these two
11
together with A form three mutual friends.
Case (2): If no two of these three people are friends, then these three people (B,
C, D) are mutual enemies.
In either case, we get the required conclusion.
If the group of enemies of A contains three people, by the above similar
argument, we get the required conclusion.
13 What is the maximum number of students required in a discrete
mathematics class to be sure that at least six will receive the same
grade of there are five possible grade A, B, C, D and F?
Solution:
Number of grads = Number of Pigeonholes = 5 = n
Let k be the number of students (Pigeon) in discrete mathematics class.
k+1=6k=5
Total number of students = kn + 1 = (5 5) + 1 = 26 students.
Permutations and Combinations:
The process of selecting things is called combination.
𝑛!
𝑛𝐶 = (selecting r things out of n possible cases)
𝑟 (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!
The process of arranging things is called permutation.
𝑛!
𝑛𝐶𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
14 Find the number of distinct permutation that can be formed from all
the letters of the word (i) RADAR (ii) UNUSUAL
Solution:
12
(i) The word RADAR contains 5 letters of which 2 A’s and 2 R’s are there.
The number of distinct permutations that can be formed from all letters of
120
each word RADAR is 5! = = 30
2!2! 4
(ii) The word UNUSUAL contains 7 letters of which 3 U’s are there.
76543
Required number of distinct permutations = 7! = = 840
3! 3
15 There are six men and five women in a room. Find the number of ways
four persons can be drawn from the room.
(1) They can be male or female
(2) Two must be men and two women
(3) They must all be of same sex
Solution :
(i) Four persons can be drawn from 11 (6+5) persons is 11C 4 330 ways
(ii) Two men can be selected in 6C 2ways and two women can be selected in 5C .2
Hence no. of ways of selecting 2 men and 2 women are 6C 2+ 5C 2= 25 ways .
(iii) Number of ways of selecting four people and all of same sex is 6C 4+ 5C 4= 20
ways .
16 A Survey of 100 students with respect to their choice of the ice cream
flavours Vanilla, Chocolate and strawberry shows that 50 students like
Vanilla, 43 like chocolate , 28 like strawberry , 13 like Vanilla and
chocolate, 11 like chocolate and strawberry , 12 like strawberry and
Vanilla, and 5 like all of them. Find the number of students who like
(i) Vanilla only
(ii) Chocolate only
13
(iii) Strawberry only
(iv) Chocolate but not Strawberry
(v) Chocolate and Strawberry but not Vanilla
(vi) Vanilla or Chocolate, but not Strawberry.
Also find the number students who do not like any of these
flavors.
Solution:
Given | S V C | = 5, |S V | = 12, |C V | =13 ,|C S | =11
The Venn diagram shows the details
(i) Number of students who like Vanilla only = 30
(ii) Number of students who like Chocolate only = 24
(iii) Number of students who like Strawberry only = 10
(iv) Number of students who like Chocolate but not Strawberry = 24+8 =
32
(v) Number of students who like Chocolate and Strawberry but not
Vanilla = 6
(vi) Number of students who like Vanilla or Chocolate but not Strawberry
= 24 +8 + 30 = 62.
Number of students who do not like any of these flavors
= 100 – (50 + 16 + 24)
= 100 – 90 = 10
17 (a) In how many ways can the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI be
arranged? (b) In how many of these arrangements, the P’s are
separated? (c) In how many arrangements, the I’s are separated? (d) In
how many arrangements, the P’s are together?
Solution: (a) The word MISSISSIPPI contains 11 letters consisting of 4-I’s, 4-
S’s, 2-P’s, M.
14
the number of arrangements 11! 3991680
34650
4! 4! 2! 1152
(b) Since the P’s are to be separated, first arrange the order 9 letters consisting
9!
of 4-I’s, 4-S’s and M. This can be done in ways.
4! 4!
In each of these arrangements of 9 letters, there are 10 gaps in which the 2-P’s
P(10, 2) 10 9
can be arranged in ways. 45ways .
2! 2!
the total number of ways of arranging all the 11 letters which the P’s are
9! 16329600
separated is 45 28, 350 .
4! 4! 24 24
(c) Since the I’s are to be separated from one another, first arrange the other 7
7!
letters consisting of 4-I’s, 2-P’s and M. This can be done in ways.
4! 2!
In each of these arrangements of 7 letters, there are 8 gaps in which the 4-I’s can
P (8, 4) 8765
be arranged in ways. 70ways .
4! 4!
the total number of ways of arranging all the 11 letters which the I’s are
7!
separated is 70 7350 ways.
4! 2!
(d) Since the P’s are to be together, treat them as one unit. The remaining 9
letters consisting of 4-I’s, 4-S’s and M as 9 units. Thus we have 10units, which
10!
can be arranged in ways.
4! 4!
Since the P’s are identical, by interchanging them we don’t get any new
arrangement.
15
Hence total number of arrangements in which the P’s are together
10!
6300 ways.
4! 4!
18 The password for a computer system consists of eight distinct
alphabetic characters. Find the number of passwords possible that
(a) end in the string MATH
(b) begin with the string CREAM
(c) contain the word COMPUTER as a substring
Solution: There are 26 English alphabets. Password consists of 8 different
alphabets.
(a) The password should end with MATH.
The other four places must be filled with the remaining 22 alphabets
choosing 4 at a time. This can be done in P(22, 4) ways.
the total number of passwords = P(22, 4) = 22 × 21 × 20 × 19 = 175560.
(b) The password should begin with the string CREAM.
So, the 3places must be filled up with 3 letters from the remaining 21
letters in P(21, 3) ways. number of passwords = P(21, 3) = 21 × 20 × 19
= 7980
(c) The word COMPUTER contains 8 letters and so it is itself the password.
the number of ways of forming the password is 1.
19 How many bit strings of length 10 contains
(A) exactly four 1’s
(B) at most four 1’s
(C)at least four 1’s
(D) an equal number of 0’s and 1’s
16
Solution:
A bit string of length 10 can be considered to have 10 positions. These 10
positions should be filled with four 1’s and six 0’s.
10!
No. of required bit strings = 210
4!6!
2.The 10 positions should be filled with (i) no 1’s and ten 0’s (ii) one 1’s and nine
0’s (iii) two 1’s and eight 0’s (iv) three 1’s and seven 0’s (v) four 1’s and six
10!10! 10! 10! 10!
0’s.Therefore Required no. of bit strings = 386ways
0!10! 1!9! 2!8! 3!7! 4!6!
3 The ten position are to be filled up with (i) four 1’s and six 0’s (or) (ii) five 1’and
five 0’s (or) six 1’s and four 0’s etc……ten 1’s and zero 0’s. Therefore no. of bit
10! 10! 10! 10! 10! 10! 10!
strings = 848 ways
4!6! 5!5! 6!4! 3!7! 8!2! 9!11! 10!0!
4. The ten positions are to be filled up with five 1’s and five 0’s . Therefore no. of
10!
bit strings 252 ways
5!5!
20 From a committee consisting of 6 men and 7 women, in how many ways
can we select a committee of (i) 3 men and 4 women. (ii) 4 members
which has atleast one women. (iii) 4 persons that has atmost one man.
(iv) 4 persons of both sexes.
Solution:
(i) Three men can be selected from 6 men in 6C3 ways, 4 women can be selected
from 7 women in 7C4 ways.
By product rule the committee of 3 men and 4 women can be selected in
6C3 7C4 700
(ii) For the committee of atleast one women we have the following possibilities
17
(a) 1 women and 3 men
(b) 2 women and 2 men
(c) 3 women and 1 men
(d) 4 women and 0 men
Therefore, the selection can be done in
7C1 6C3 7C2 6C2 7C3 6C1 7C4 6C0 ways
7 20 21 15 35 6 35 1
140 315 210 35 700 ways
(iii) For the committee of almost one men we have the following possibilities
(a) 1 men and 3 women
(b) 0 men and 4 women
Therefore, the selection can be done in
6C1 7C3 6C0 7C4 ways
6 35 1 35
245 ways
(iv) For the committee of both sexes, we have the following possibilities
(a) 1 men and 3 women
(b) 2 men and 2 women
(b) 3 men and 1 women
Therefore, the selection can be done in
18
6C1 7C3 6C2 7C2 6C3 7C1 ways
6 35 15 21 20 7
210 315 140 ways
665 ways
21 How many permutations can be made out of the letters of the word
“Basic”? How many of these (1) Begin with B? (2) End with C? (3) B and
C occupy the end places?
Solution:
There are 5 letters in the word “Basic” and all are distinct. Therefore, the
number of permutations of these letters is = 5! = 120.
(i) Permutations which begin with B.
The first position can be filled in only one way i.e B and the remaining
4 letters can be arranged in 4! Ways. Therefore, total number of
permutations starting with B is = 1 4! = 24.
(ii) Permutation which end with C.
The first position can be filled in only one way i.e., C and the
remaining 4 letters can be arranged in 4! Ways. Therefore, total
number of permutations ending with C is = 4! 1 = 24.
Permutations in which B and C occupy end places B and C occupy end positions
in 2! Ways i.e., B, C and C, B and the remaining 3 letters can be arranged in 3!
Ways. Therefore, total number of permutations in which B and C occupy end
places in = 2! 3! = 12.
Principle of Inclusion – Exclusion
(i) 𝑛(𝑇1 ∪ 𝑇2) = 𝑛(𝑇1) + 𝑛(𝑇2) − 𝑛(𝑇1 ∩ 𝑇2)
(ii) |𝐴 ∪ 𝐵| = |𝐴| + |𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵|
(iii) |𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶| = |𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| − |𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| − |𝐶 ∩ 𝐴| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|
(iv) |𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ∪ 𝐷| = |𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| + |𝐷| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| − |𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| − |𝐶 ∩ 𝐷| − |𝐷 ∩ 𝐴| −
|𝐴 ∩ 𝐶| − |𝐵 ∩ 𝐷| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷| + |𝐶 ∩ 𝐷 ∩ 𝐴| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐷| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷|.
19
22 Find the number of integers between 1 and 250 that are not divisible by
any of the integers 2, 3, 5 or 7.
Solution: Let A, B, C, D be the sets of integers that lie between 1 and 250 both
inclusive and that are divisible by 2, 3, 5 and 7 respectively.
250 250
| A | 125, | B | 83
2 3
250 250
| C | 50, | D | 35
5 7
250 250
| A B | 41
LCM (2,3) 2 3
250 250
| A C | 25
LCM (2,5)
2 5
250 250
| A D | 17
LCM (2, 7) 2 7
250 250
| B C | 16
LCM (3,5) 3 5
250 250
| B D | 11
LCM (3, 7) 3 7
250 250
| C D | 7
LCM (5, 7) 5 7
250 250
| A B C | 8
LCM (2,3,5) 2 3 5
250 250
| A B D | 5
LCM (2,3, 7) 2 3 7
20
250 250
| A C D | 3
LCM (2,5, 7) 2 5 7
250 250
| B C D | 2
LCM (3,5, 7) 3 5 7
250 250
| A B C D | 1
LCM (2,3,5, 7) 2 3 5 7
| A B C D | | A | | B | | C | | D | | A B | | A C | | A D | | B C |
|BD||CD||ABC||ABD||ACD|
|BCD||ABCD|
193
Therefore, not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 7 = 250 – 193 = 57.
23 Find the number of integers between 1 and 100 that are not divisible by
any of the integers 2, 3, 5 or 7.
Solution: Let A, B, C, D be the sets of integers that lie between 1 and 100 both
inclusive and that are divisible by 2, 3, 5 or 7 respectively.
100 100
| A | 50, | B | 33
2 3
100 100
| C | 20, | D | 14
5 7
100 100
| A B | 16
LCM (2,3) 2 3
100 100
| A C | 10
LCM (2,5) 2 5
21
| A D | 100 100 7
LCM (2, 7) 2 7
| B C | 100 100
6
LCM (3,5) 3 5
| B D | 100 100
4
LCM (3, 7) 3 7
| C D | 100 100 2
LCM (5, 7) 5 7
| A B C | 100 100 3
LCM (2,3,5) 2 3 5
| A B D | 100 100 2
LCM (2,3, 7) 2 3 7
| A C D | 100 100 1
LCM (2,5, 7) 2 5 7
| B C D | 100 100 0
LCM (3,5, 7) 3 5 7
| A B C D | 100 100 0
LCM (2,3,5, 7) 2 3 5 7
| A B C D | | A | | B | | C | | D | | A B | | A C | | A D | | B C |
|BD||CD||ABC||ABD||ACD|
|BCD||ABCD|
78
Therefore, not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 7=100 – 78 = 22.
22
24 Determine the number of positive integers n, 1≤ 𝒏 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎, that are not
divisible by 2, 3 or 5 but are divisible by 7.
Solution:
Let A, B, C and D denote respectively the number of integers between1-1000,
that are not divisible by 2,3 5 and 7 respectively. Now
1000
| D | [142.8] 142
7
1000
| A B C D | 7
2 3 5 7
The number between 1-1000 that are divisible by 7 but not divisible by 2,3,5 and
7
=| D | - | A B C D | = 138
25 Determine the number of positive integers n, 1 n 2000 that are not
divisible by 2, 3 or 5, but are divisible by 7.
Solution:
Let A, B, C and D denote respectively the number of integers between 1 to 2000
that are divisible by 2, 3, 5 and 7 respectively.
2000
Now D 285.71 285
7
2000
ABC D 9.5 9
2 3 5 7
The number between 1 to 2000 that are divisible by 7 but not divisible by 2, 3 or
5 is
D A B C D 285 9 276 .
26 How many positive integers not exceeding 1000 are divisible by none of
3, 7 and 11?
Solution:
23
Let A, B and C denote respectively the number of integers between 1 to 1000
that are divisible by 3, 7 and 11 respectively.
1000 1000 1000
| A | 333, | B | 142, | C | 90,
3 7 11
1000 1000 1000
| A B | 47, | A C | 30, | B C | 12
3 7 3 11 7 11
1000
| A B C | 4
3 7 11
By inclusion and exclusion principle,
|𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶| = |𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| − |𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| − |𝐶 ∩ 𝐴| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|
= 333 + 142 + 90 – 47 – 30 – 12 + 4
= 480
The number of integers not divisible by none of 3, 7 and 11 1000 480 520 .
27 How many positive integers not exceeding 1000 are divisible by 7 or 11?
Solution:
Let A and B denote the sets of positive integers not exceeding 1000 that are
divisible by 7 or 11.
1000 1000 1000
Then |𝐴| = ⌊ ⌋ = 142, |𝐵| = ⌊ ⌋ = 90, |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| = ⌊ ⌋ = 12
7 11 7×11
The number of positive integers not exceeding 1000 that are divisible by either 7
or 11 is |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵|. By principle of inclusion and exclusion
|𝐴 ∪ 𝐵| = |𝐴| + |𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| = 142 + 90 − 12 = 220
There are 220 positive integers not exceeding 1000 divisible by 7 or 11.
28 A total of 1232 students have taken a course in Spanish, 879 have taken
a course in French, and 114 have taken a course in Russian. Further,
103 have taken courses in both Spanish and French, 23 have taken
courses in both Spanish and Russian and 14 have taken courses in both
24
French and Russian. If 2092 students have taken at least one of Spanish,
French and Russian, how many students have taken a course in all
three languages?
Solution: Let S-Spanish, F-French, R-Russian.
|S| = 1232, |F| = 879, |R| = 114, |S∩F| = 103, |S∩R| = 23,
|F∩R| = 14, |S∪F∪R| = 2092.
|S∪F∪R| = |S| + |F| + |R| - |S∩F| - |S∩R| - |F∩R| + |S∩F∩R|
= 1232 + 879 + 114 – 103 – 23 – 14 + 2092
|S∩F∩R| =7
29 There are 2500 students in a college of these 1700 have taken a course in
C, 1000 have taken a course in Pascal and 550 have taken a course in
networking. Further 750 have taken course in both C and Pascal, 400
have taken course in both C and Networking and 275 have taken
courses in both Pascal and networking. If 200 of these students have
taken courses in C, Pascal and networking,
(i) How many of these 2500 students have taken a course in any of these
courses C, Pascal and networking?
(ii) How many of these 2500 students have not taken any of these three
courses C, Pascal and networking?
Solution:
Let A, B, C denote student have taken a course in C, Pascal and networking
respectively.
Given |𝐴| = 1700, |𝐵| = 1000, |𝐶| = 550, |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| = 750, |𝐴 ∩ 𝐶| = 400, |𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| =
275, |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| = 200
(i) Number of students who have taken any one of these course
25
|𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶| = |𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| − |𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| − |𝐶 ∩ 𝐴| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|
=(1700 + 1000 + 550) – (750 + 400 + 275) + 200 = 2025.
(ii) Number of students who have not taken any of these 3 courses = Total −
|𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶| =2500 – 2025 = 475.
Solving Recurrence Relations
Recurrence relation: An equation that expresses an, the general term of the
sequence { an } in terms of one or more of the previous terms of the sequence
namely a0, a1, … an-1 for all n with n n0, where n0 is a non-negative integer is
called a recurrence relation for { an } or a difference equation.
Example: Consider the Fibonacci sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 … which can be
represented by the recurrence relation 𝐹𝑛+2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 + 𝐹𝑛 where n 0 and F0 = 0
and F1 = 1.
Solving Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relation with Constant
Coefficients:
Step 1: Write down the characteristic equation of the given recurrence relation
Step 2: Find all the roots of the characteristic equation.
Step 3:
(i) Let the roots be real and distinct. Then 𝑎𝑛 = 𝛼1𝑟𝑛 + 𝛼2𝑟𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝛼 𝑟𝑛where
1 2 𝑛𝑛
𝛼1, 𝛼2, . . 𝛼𝑛 are arbitrary constants.
(ii) Let the roots be real and equal say 𝑟 = 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = ⋯ = 𝑟𝑛. Then
𝑎𝑛 = (𝛼1 + 𝑛𝛼2 + 𝑛2𝛼3 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑛−1𝛼𝑛)𝑟𝑛
2
(iii) When the roots are complex conjugate
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛(𝛼1 cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝛼2 sin 𝑛𝜃)
Step 4: Apply initial conditions to find out the arbitrary constants.
26
Solving Non-Linear Homogeneous Finite Order Liner Relation:
To solve the recurrence relation 𝑓(𝑘) = 𝑆(𝑘) + 𝑐1𝑆(𝑘 − 1) + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛𝑆(𝑘 − 𝑛)
Step 1: Write the associated homogeneous relation (i.e f(k) = 0) and find its
general solution call this the homogeneous solution.
Step 2: Particular solution depending on the R.H.S of the given recurrence
relation.
Particular solutions for given R.H.S
R.H.S Form of Particular Solution
(i) a constant q a constant d
(ii) a linear function q0 + q1k a linear function d0 + d1k
(iii) an mth degree polynomial q0 + q1k an mth degree polynomial d0 + d1k +
+ … + qmkm … + dmkm
(iv) an exponential function qak an exponential function dak
Note: The general solution of the recurrence relation is the sum of the
homogeneous and particular solutions.
30 Solve the recurrence relation na 6an 1 9a n 2 , n 2, a 0 2, a
1
3.
Solution: Given an = 6an – 1 – 9an – 2, a0 = 2, a1 = 3.
an – 6an-1 + 9an – 2 = 0
Since n – (n – 2) = 2, it is of order 2.
The characteristic equation is
r2 – 6r + 9 = 0 (r – 3)2 = 0 r = 3, 3
27
The roots are real and equal.
The general solution is an = (A + Bn) 3n.
We shall now find the values of A, B using a0 = 2, a1 =3.
Put n = 0, a0 = A A=2
Put n = 1, a0 = (A + B) 3 3(2 + B) = 3
B = –1
The general solution is an = (2 – n) 3n, n ≥ 0.
31 Solve the recurrence relation an 2(an1 an2 ) where n ≥ 2, a0 1, a1 2 .
Solution: Given
an 2(an 1 an 2 )
an 2an 1 2an 2 0
The characteristic equation is given by
2 2 2 0
2 4 4(2) 2 i2
1 i
2 2
1 i ,1 i
Solution is an A(1 i) nB(1 i) n
Where A and B are arbitrary constants
Now, we have
z x iy
r[cos i sin ]
y
tan 1
x
By Demoivre’s theorem we have,
28
(1 i) n [ 2 cos i sin ]n
4 4
n n
[ 2 ]n cos i sin
4 4
n n n
and (1 i) [ 2 ] cos
n
i sin
4 4
Now,
n n n n
a A[[ 2 ]n cos i sin ] B[[ 2 ]n cos i sin ]
n
4 4 4 4
n n
[ 2 ]n ( A B) cos i( A B) sin
4 4
n n
a [ 2 ]n C cos C sin ] (1)
n 1 2
4 4
Is the required solution. Let C1 =𝐴 + 𝐵, C 2 = 𝑖(𝐴 − 𝐵)
Since 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎1 = 2
(1) a0 ( 2 )[C1 cos 0 C2 sin 0] 0
1 C1
a [ 2 ]1 C cos C sin
1 1 2
4
4
1 1
2 2 C C sin
1 2
2 2
2 C1 C2
C2 1
n n
a [ 2 ]n cos sin
n
4 4
32 Find the general solution of the recurrence relation
an 5an1 6an 2 4n , n 2.
29
Given an 5an1 6an2 4n , n 2 (1)
The corresponding homogeneous recurrence relation is
an 5an1 6an2 0
Since n (n 2) 2, it is of order 2.
the characteristic equation is r 2 5r 6 0
(r 2)(r 3) 0 r 2, 3
a(h) A.2n B.3n
n
Given f (n) 4n , 4 is not a root of thecharacteristicequation
the particular solution is a( p) C.4n
n
Substituting in the given equation (1), we get
C.4n 5C.4n1 6C.4n2 4n
4 n2 C 16 20 6 4n
Dividing by 4 n2
2C 16
C8
an( p) 8 4n
Hence the generalsolution is a a(h) a( p)
n n n
A.2n B.3n 8 4n
33 Solve the recurrence an 3an1 2n, a1 3
Solution:
an 3an1 2n, a1 3
the homogenous recurrence relation is an 3an1 0
30
Since n (n 1) 1, the order is 1
The characteristic equation is r 3 0 r 3
Hence an(h) C.3 n
Given f (n) 2n, which is a polynomial of degree 1.
Hence Particular s olution is an A0 A1 n
A0 A1n 3 A0 A1 (n 1) 2n
2nA1 2 A1 1
3A1 2 A0 0
2 A0 3A1
2 A0 3 1
3
A0
2
3 1
a( p) n (3 2n)
n
2 2
the generalsolution of the given recurrence relation is
an a( hn) a( pn)
1
an C.3 (3 2n) (1)
n
Given: a1 3
Putting n 1in (1)
1
a C.3 (3 2)
1
2
31
5 11
3 3C C
2 6
the generalsolution of the given recurrence relation is
11 1
a .3n (3 2n)
n
6 2
34 Solve the recurrence relation for the Fibonacci sequence.
Solution:
The sequence of Fibonacci numbers satisfies the recurrence relation
f n f n1 f n2 ..... (1) and satisfies the initial conditions f 1 1, f 2 1 .
(1) f n f n1 f n2 0 ...(2)
Let 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛 be a solution of the given equation.
The characteristic equation is 𝑟2 − 𝑟 − 1 = 0
114
r
2
1 5 1 5
Let r ,r
1 2
2 2
By theorem
n n
1 5 1 5
f n 1 2 (3)
2 2
1 5 1 5
f 1 1 f1 1 2 1
2 2
(1 5 ) 1 (1 5 ) 2 2 ...( 4)
32
2 2
1 5 1 5
f 2 1 f 2 1 2 1
2 2
(1 5 ) 2
(1 5 ) 2
1 2 1
4 4
(1 5 ) 2 (1 5 ) 2 4 ...(5)
1 2
(4) (1 5 )
(1 5 ) (1 5 )1 (1 5 )2 2 (1 5 ) ...(6)
2
(6) (5) 1 (1 5 )[1 5 1 5 ] 2 2 5 4
1 (1 5 )[2 5 ] 2 2 5
1 (1 5 )[2 5 ] 2(1 5 )
1
1
5
1
4) (1 5 ) (1 5 )2 2
5
1
1 (1 5 )2 2
5
1
(1 5 )2 2 1
5
1
1
5
5 1
(1 5 )
2
5
1
2
5
n n
1 1 5 1 1 5
(3) f n
5 2 5 2
Generating Function:
The generating function of a sequence a0, a1, a2, … is the expression
33
∞
𝐺(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎 2 𝑥2 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛
𝑛=0
Example: The generating function for the sequence 1, 1, 1, 1 is
∞
1
𝐺(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ = (1 − 𝑥) −1 = = ∑ 𝑥𝑛
(1 − 𝑥)
𝑛=0
Solution of Recurrence Relation Using Generating Functions
Procedure:
Step 1: Rewrite the recurrence relation as an equation with 0 on R.H.S
Step 2: Multiply on both sides by xn and summing it from 0 to .
Step 3: Put 𝐺(𝑥) = ∑∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑛 and write G(x) as function of x.
𝑛=0
Step 4: Decompose G(x) into partial fraction.
Step 5: Express G(x) as a sum of familiar series.
Step 6: Express 𝑎𝑛 as the coefficient of 𝑥𝑛in G(x).
Note:
(i) 𝐺(𝑥) = ∑∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑛 generates (𝑎0, 𝑎1, 𝑎2, … )
𝑛=0
(ii) 𝐺(𝑥) − 𝑎0 = ∑∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑛 generates (0, 𝑎1, 𝑎2, … )
𝑛=1
(iii) 𝐺(𝑥) − 𝑎0 − 𝑎1𝑥 = ∑∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑛 generates (0,0, 𝑎2, 𝑎3, … )
𝑛=2
35 Use generating function to solve the recurrence relation 𝑺(𝒏 + 𝟏) −
𝟐𝑺(𝒏) = 𝟒𝒏, with 𝑺(𝟎) = 𝟏 and 𝒏 ≥ 𝟎.
Solution: Given 𝑺(𝒏 + 𝟏) − 𝟐𝑺(𝒏) = 𝟒𝒏, The recurrence relation can be written
as
34
a n1 2a n 4n 0, n 0 (1)
Multiply (1) by x n and summing from n = 1 to
a n 1
x n 2 an x n 4 n x n 0
n 0 n 0 n 0
1 n 1
n nn
x
a n 1 x 2 an x 4 x 0
n 0 n 0 n 0
1 1
G ( x) a(0) 2G ( x) 0
x 1 4x
1 1
(G ( x) 1) 2G ( x)
x 1 4x
1 1 1 x14x 1 3x
G ( x) x 2 1 4 x x x(1 4 x) x(1 4 x)
1 3x 1 1 3x
G ( x)
(1 4 x) 1 2 x (1 2 x)((1 4 x)
1 3x A B
(1 2 x)((1 4 x) 1 2 x 1 4 x
By solving we get A=1/2 and B=1/2
1 1
G ( x) 2 2
1 2x 1 4x
1 1
1 2 x 1 4 x
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 2 x (2 x) 2 ... 1 4 x (4 x) 2 ...
2 2
1 1
n n n n
2
2x2 4x
n 0 n 0
an coefficient of x inn G ( x)
2n 4n
an 2 n 1 2(4) n 1
2 2
36 Using generating function solve a 3a 2, n 1, a 2.
n n1 0
35
Let G( x) a nxn be the generating function of the sequence a . n
n0
Given an 3an1 2
Multiplying by xn , an xn 3an1 xn 2x n
an xn 3xan1 xn1 2x n
an x 3x an1 x
n n1
2 x n
n1 n1 n1
a0 an x n 3x an1 x n1 a 0 2(x x2 x3 ...)
n1 n1
an xn 3xG( x) 2 2x(1 x x2 ...)
n0
G(x) 3xG(x) 2 2x(1 x) 1
2x 2
G( x) 1 3x 2
1 x 1 x
2
G( x)
1 x 1 3x
2
Split by partial fraction
1 x 1 3x
Let 2 A B
1 x 1 3x 1 x 1 3x
2 A 1 3x B 1 x
When x 1, 2 A(1 3) A 1
1 1
When x 3 , 2 B 1 3 B 3
36
2 1 3
G( x)
1 x 1 3x 1 x 1 3x
(1 x)1 3(1 3x)1
a a x a x2 ... a xn ... (1 x x2 ... xn ...)
0 1 2 n
3(1 3x 32 x2 ... 3n xn ...)
a 1 3.3n , n 0
n
n1
an 1 3 , n 0
37 Use the method of generating function to solve
an1 8an 16an1 4n , n 1, a0 1, a1 8
Let G( x) n
a x be the generating function of the sequence a .
n0
n n
Given a 8a 16a 4n
n1 n n1
Multiplying by x n , x n 8a x n 16a
a x n 4n xn
n 1 n n 1
a x n 8 a x n 16 a xn 4n xn
n1 n n 1
n 1 n 1 n 1 n1
1
xn 1 8 xn 1 4x
n
a a xn 16x a (1)
x n 1 n 1 n1
n
n1
n 1
n1
But a x n 1 a x 2 a x 3 a x 4 ...
n 1 2 3 4
n1
a a x a x2 a x3 ... a a x
0 1 2 3 0 1
G ( x) 1 8x
37
n 2 3
a x a x a x a x ...
n 1 2 3
n1
a a x a x2 a x3 ... a
0 1 2 3 0
G ( x) 1
1
(1) G( x) 1 8x 8G( x) 1 16 xG( x) 1 4 x 4 x 2 ... 1
x
1 1 1
G( x) 8 16 x 8 8 1
x
x 1 4x
1 8 x 16 x 2 1 1 (1 4 x)
G ( x)
14x
x x
(1 4 x) 2 4x 1
G ( x)
1 4x x
x
(1 4 x)2 2
G ( x) 4 x 1 4 x
x(1 4 x)
x
1 4 x 4 x2
G( x)
(1 4 x)3
n0
n
a x n 1 4 x 4x 2 1 4x
3
1 4 x 4 x 2 1.2
1 1.2 2.3(4 x) 3.4(4 x)2 ... (n 1)n(4 x) n2 nn(n 1)(4 x)n1
(n 1)(n 2)(4 x) ...
a coefficient of x n
n
1
a (n 1)(n 2)4 n 4n(n 1)4 n 1 4(n 1)n4 n 2
n 2
38
1
4 n (n 1)(n 2 n) n(n 1)4 n 1
2
1
4 n (n 1)(2) (n 2 n)4 n 1
2
4n 1
8(n 1) (n 2 n)
2
4n 1
a n 2 7n 8
n 2
38 Solve the recurrence relations S (n) S (n 1) 2(n 2) with S(0) = 3, S(1) = 1,
n 2 using generating function.
Solution:
S (n) S (n 1) 2S (n 2), S (0) 3, S (1) 1, n 2.
S (n) S (n 1) 2S (n 2) 0 (1)
Let S (n) an
(1) an an 1 2a n 2 0, a0 3, a1 1
Multiplying by x n and then summing from 2 to , we get
an x an 1x
n n
2 an 2 x n 0
n2 n2 n2
an x n
x an 1x n 1
2x
2
an 2 xn 2 0 (2)
n2 n2 n2
a x 2 a x 3 ... x a x1 a x 2 ... 2 x 2 a a x1 ... 0
1 0
2 3 2 1
a a x1 a x 2 ... a a x1 x a a x1 a x 2 ... a 2 x 2 a a x1 ... 0
0 1 2 0 1
0 1 2 0
0 1
G ( x) a a x x G ( x) a 2 x G ( x) 0
1 2
0 1 0
G ( x) 3 x x G ( x) 3 2 x2 G ( x) 0
G ( x) 1 x 2 x2 3 2 x 0
3 2x 3 2x A B
G( x)
1 x 2 x2 (1 x)(1 2 x) (1 x) (1 2 x)
39
3 2 x A(1 2 x) B(1 x)
5
A
3
4
B
3
5 4
G ( x)
3(1 x) 3(1 2x)
5 1 4 1
(1 x) (1 2 x)
3 3
5 n 4 n
an (1) (2)
3 3
5 n 4
S (n) (1) (2)n
3 3
39 Using generating function method solve the recurrence relation,
a n 2 2an 1 an 2 n where n 0, a0 2 and a1 1 .
Solution:
an 2 2an 1 an 2n , a0 2, a1 1
G ( x) an x n
n0
an 2 x n2
2 an 1x n 1
an x 2n xn
n
n0 n0 n0 n0
1 2 2
G ( x) a0 a1 x G ( x) a0 G ( x) 1 (2 x) (2 x) ...
x2 x
G ( x) 2 x G ( x) 2 G ( x) (1 2 x)1
1 2
x2 x
G ( x) 2 x 2 x G ( x) 2 x 2 G ( x) 1
(1 2 x)
x2
x2
G ( x) 2 x 2 xG ( x) 4 x 2 x G ( x)
(1 2 x)
2 x2
G ( x) x 2 x 1 3x 2
(1 2 x)
x2
2 3x
(1 2 x)
40
x2 (2 3x)(1 2 x)
G ( x)
(1 2 x)(1 x)2
7 x2 7 x 2
G ( x)
(1 2 x)(1 x)2
7 x2 7 x 2 A B C
G ( x)
(1 2 x)(1 x)2 1 2 x 1 x 1 x 2
7 x 2 7 x 2 A(1 x) 2 B(1 x) 1 2 x C 1 2 x
Put x 1 C 2
1
Put x A1
2
Put x 0 B 3
7 x2 7 x 2 1 3 2
G ( x)
(1 2 x)(1 x)2 1 2 x 1 x 1 x 2
1 1 2
1 2 x 31 x 2 1 x
1 2 x 2 x ... 3 1 x x 2 ... 2 1 2 x 3x 2 ... (n 1) x n
2
an 2n 3 2(n 1) 2n 2n 1
Solve an 8an 1 10 n1 with a 1 and a 9 using generating function.
40 0 1
Solution:
an 8an 1 10n 1, a0 1, a1 9
an 8an 1 10n 1
G ( x) an x n
n0
an x n
8 an 1x 10n 1 x n
n
n 1 n 1 n 1
a0
an x n a0 8 x
an 1x n 1 x 10 x 2 102 x3 ...
n 1 n 1
41
1
G( x) a0 8 xG ( x) x 1 10 x
1
G ( x) 1 8 xG ( x) x 1 10 x
x
G ( x) 1 8 x 1
1 10 x
x 1 10 x
1 10 x
G ( x) 1 9x A B
1 10 x 1 8 x 1 8 x 1 10 x
1 9 x A(1 10 x) B(1 8 x)
1 1
Put x A
8 2
1 1
Put x B
10 2
1 1
19x 2 2
G ( x)
1 10 x 1 8 x 1 8 x 1 10 x
1 8 x 1 1 10 x 1
1 1
2 2
1 n 1 n 1 n n
a 8 10 8 10
n
2 2 2
42
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
MA8351 – Discrete Mathematics
UNIT III – GRAPHS
Class Notes
Define Graph.
A graph G = (V,E) consists of a finite non empty set V, the element of which are the
vertices of G, and a finite set E of unordered pairs of distinct elements of V called
the edges of G.
Defn: Self Loop:
If there is an edge from Vi to Vj then that edge is called Self Loop
Defn: Parallel Edges:
If two edges have same end points then the edges are called Parellel edges.
V1 e1 e6
V2
e2
e2
e3
V4 V3
e4
Edge e6 is called self loop.The edge e3 and e4 are called parallel edges
Page No: 1
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
Defn:Incident:
If the vertex Vi is an end vertex of some edge ek then ek is said to be incident
with Vi
Define simple graph
A graph which has neither self loops nor parallel edges is called a simple graph.
Defn : Isolated Vertex
A Graph having no edge incident on it is called an isolated vertex
V4 e3 V3
e4
e2
V5
V1 V2
e1
V5 is isolated vertex
Define Pseudo-graph.
A graph is called a pseudo-graph if it has both parallel edges and self loops.
Defn :Digraph:
A Graph in which every edge is directed edge is called a Digraph
Defn Undigraph:
A Graph in which every edge is undirected edge is called a Undirected graph
Page No: 2
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
Types of Graphs
(i) Complete graph.
A graph of n vertices having each pair of distinct vertices joined by an edge is called
a Complete graph and is denoted by Kn.
(ii) Bipartite Graph
Let G = (V,E) be a graph. G is bipartite graph if its vertex set V can be partitioned
into two nonempty disjoint subsets V1 and V2 , called a bipartition, such that each
edge has one end in V1 and in V2 . For eg C6
V2 V3
V1 V4
V6 V5
(iii) Complete bipartite graph with example
A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph with bipartition V 1 and V2 in which
each vertex of V1 is joined by an edge to each vertex of V2. For eg.
A1 A2
K2,3
B1 B2 B3
Define Degree of a vertex
The number of edges incident at the vertex vi is called the degree of the
vertex with self loops counted twice and it is denoted by d(vi)
Page No: 3
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
Example:
d(v1)=5, d(v2)=2, d(v3)=5, d(v4)=3, d(v5)=1, d(v6)=0
Degree of Vertex in Directed Graph:
In a directed graph the in-degree of a vertex V is denoted by degdeg v and defined
by the number of edges with V as their terminal vertex. The outer-degree of V is
denoted bydeg v ,is the number of edges with V as their initial vertex.
How many edges are there in a graph with ten vertices each of degree six.
Let e be the number of edges of the graph
2e = sum of all degrees
= 10× 6
= 60
e=30
Therefore there are 30 edges.
Define regular graph.
A graph in which each vertex has the same degree is called a regular graph. A
regular graph has k – regular if each vertex has degree k.
Page No: 4
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
Define Subgraph.
A graph H = (V1,E1) is a subgraph of G = (V,E) provided that V1 ,E1 and for each e
E1 , both ends of e are in V1.
1.Find the subgraph of the following graph by deleting an edge.
Solution:
The subgraph by deleting the edge is shown below
Define adjacency matrix.
G = (V,E) be a graph with n vertices . An “n x n” matrix A is an adjacency matrix
1 for(i, j) in E
for G if and only if for 𝑖 𝐼 , 𝑗 𝑛, A(i, j)
0 for(i, j) isnot in E
Note :
The adjancy matrix of a simple graph is symmetric (i.e) aij aji
2.Find the adjacency matrix of the graphs given below
Page No: 5
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
(a)
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣4
𝑣1 0 1 1 0
𝑣 1 0 0 1
A=(𝑎𝑖𝑗)=𝑣 2 [ ]
3 1 0 0 1
𝑣4 0 1 1 0
(b)
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣4
𝑣1 0 1 0 0
𝑣 0 0 1 0]
A=(𝑎𝑖𝑗)=𝑣 2 [
3 1 1 0 0
𝑣4 0 1 1 0
3. Find the adjacency matrix of the given directed graph.
(i) (ii)
Answer:
Page No: 6
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
0 2 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 0
(i) 0 0 0 0 (ii) 0 1 1 2 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 1 3 0
Defi: Incident Matrices
Let G=(V,E)be an undirected graph with ‘n’ vertices V1 , V2 ,...Vn
and m edges e , e ,...e then n mmatrix B b where
1 2 m ij
1 when edge e j incidentwith v j
B
0 otherwise
For Direct Graph
1 e j directed fromv i
B 1 e directed fromv
0
ij j i
otherwise
4.Find the incidence matrix of
The incidence matrix
Page No: 7
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
Define Graph Isomorphism:
Two graphs G1 and G2 are said to be Isomorphic to each other if there exists a ono to
one ,onto correspondence between the vertex sets which preserves adjacency of the
vertices and non adjacency of the vertices
Define Path:
A Path in a Graph is a Sequence v1 , v2 ,.....vk of vertices each adjacent to the next.
Length of the Path:
The number of edges appearing in the sequences of a path is called
length of a Path.
Defn:Cycle or Circuit:
A Path which originates and ends in the same node is called a Cycle or Circuit
Define Connected graph.
A graph for which each pair of vertices is joined by a trail is connected.
Define strongly connected graph.
A digraph G is said to be strongly connected if for every pair of vertices, both
vertices of the pair are reachable from one another.
Define Eulerian Path and Eulerian Circuit.
A Path of a Graph G is called an Eulerian Path, if it contains each edge of the group
exactly once
Page No: 8
Discrete Mathematics dept of mathematics
A circuit in a graph that includes each edge exactly once, the circuit is called an
Eulerian circuit.
State the condition for Eulerian cycle.
Ans: (i) Starting and ending pts are same.
(ii) Cycle should contain all edges of graph but exactly once
Define Hamiltonian Path:
A path between two vertices in a Group is Hamiltonian it is passes through each
vertex exactly once
Define : Hamiltonian Cycle:
A Circuit of a graph G is called Hamiltonian circuit if it includes each vertex of g
exactly once, except the starting and ending vertices.
PART-B
5.State and prove Handshaking Theorem.
If G = (V, E) is an undirected graph with e edges, then i deg(vi ) 2e
Proof:
Since every edge is incident with exactly two vertices, every edge contributes 2 to
the sum of the degree of the vertices.
Therefore, all the e edges contribute (2e) to the sum of the degrees of the vertices.
Hence deg(vi ) 2e .
i
6.In any graph show that the number of odd vertices is even.
Proof:
Let G = (V, E) be the undirected graph. Let 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 be the set of vertices of G of
even and odd degrees respectively. Then by hand shaking theorem,
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2e = deg(v ) deg(v ) .
vi v1
i
v j v2
j Since each deg(vi) is even, deg(v ) is even.
vi v1
i Since LHS
is even, we get deg(vj ) is even. Since each deg(vj) is odd, the number of terms
v j v2
contain in deg(v )j
v j v2
or v2 is even, that is, the number of vertices of odd degree is even.
|𝑽(𝑮)|
7.If G is a simple graph with 𝜹(𝑮) ≥ then show that G is connected
𝟐
Solution: let u and v be any 2 distinct vertices
To prove that: u-v path in G
If uv is a edge then u-v is a path in G
Suppose uv is not a path in G
X={edges adjacent to u}
Y = set of all edge adjacent to v
u,v∉ 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌
|𝑋 ∪ 𝑌| ≤ 𝑛 − 2
𝑛 𝑛
|𝑋 ∪ 𝑌| ≥ + ≥ 𝑛 − 1
2 2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 |𝑋 ∪ 𝑌| = |𝑋| + |𝑌| − 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌
⇒ |𝑋 ∪ 𝑌| ≥ 1 ⇒ 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 ≠ 𝜑
Therefore ∋ a w∈ 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 ⇒ 𝑢𝑣𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐺
G is connected
8.Prove that the maximum number of edges in a simple graph with n vertices is
n(n 1)
nc2
2
Proof:
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We prove this theorem, by the method of mathematical induction. For 𝑛 = 1, a
graph with 1 vertex has no edges. Therefore the result is true for n = 1.
For n = 2, a graph with two vertices may have atmost one edge. Therefore 2 (2 –1) /
2 = 1.
Hence for n = 2, the result is true.
Assume that the result is true for n = k, i.e, a graph with k vertices has atmost
k(k 1)
edges.
2
Then for n = k + 1, let G be a graph having n vertices and G be the graph obtained
from G, by deleting one vertex say, ‘v’ V(G).
k(k 1)
Since G has k vertices then by the hypothesis, G has atmost edges. Now add
2
the vertex v to G. ‘v’ may be adjacent to all the k vertices of G.
k(k 1) k (k 1)
Therefore the total number of edges in G are +k= .
2 2
Therefore the result is true for n = k+1.
n(n 1)
Hence, the maximum number of edges in a simple graph with ‘n’ vertices is .
2
9.Prove that a simple graph with at least two vertices has at least two vertices of
same degree.
Proof:
Let G be a simple graph with n 2 vertices.
The graph G has no loop and parallel edges. Hence the degree of each vertex
is n-1.
Suppose that all the vertices of G are of different degrees.
Following degrees 0, 1, 2, …, n-1 are possible for n vertices of G.
Let u be the vertex with degree 0. Then u is an isolated vertex.
Let v be the vertex with degree n-1 then v has n-1 adjacent vertices.
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Because v is not an adjacent vertex of itself, therefore every vertex of G other than u
is an adjacent vertex of G.
Hence u cannot be an isolated vertex, this contradiction proves that simple graph
contains two vertices of same degree.
10.If G is a self-complementary graph, then prove that G has n 0 (or) 1(mod 4)
vertices
Proof:
Suppose G is a graph on n-Vertices, then 𝐸(𝐺) ∪ 𝐸(̅𝐺̅) = { The set of all pairs of
vertices in V(G)}
Let |𝐸(𝐺)| = |𝐸(𝐺̅)| = m
So,
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝑚+𝑚=
2
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
2𝑚 =
2
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 4𝑚
Ie., 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) is a multiple of 4.
=> either n or n-1 is divisible by 4.
i.e., G is a self-complementary simple graph with n vertices, then 𝑛 ≡
0 𝑜𝑟 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 4).
11.Prove that a graph G is connected if and only if for any partition of v into
subsets V1 and V2 there exists an edge joining a vertex of V 1 to a vertex of V2
Proof:
Let G be connected graph and V=V1 ∪ V2 be a partition of V into two subsets.
Let u ∈ V1 and v ∈ V2 .
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Since the graph G is connected there exists a u-v path in G say u=v0,v1,v2,…..vn=v
Let I be the least positive integer such that vi ∈ V2
Conversely ,suppose for any partition of V into subsets V 1 and V2 there is an
edge joining a vertex of V1 to a vertex of V 2
Assume that G is disconnected .Then there exists at least two components in
G.Let V1 be the set of all vertices of a component of G and V 2 =V(G)-V1.Then any
edge joining one vertex in V1 and one vertex in V2.A contradiction to the hypothesis
Hence G is connected
12.If a graph G has exactly two vertices of odd degree, then prove that there is
a path joining these two vertices.
Proof:
Case (i): Let G be connected.
Let v1 and v2 be the only vertices of G with are of odd degree. But we know that
number of odd vertices is even. So clearly there is a path connecting v1 and v2,
because G is connected.
Case (ii): Let G be disconnected
Then the components of G are connected. Hence v1 and v2 should belong to the
same component of G. Hence, there is a path between v1 and v2.
13.If all the vertices of an undirected graph are each of degree k, show that the
number of edges of the graph is a multiple of k.
proof : Let 2n be the number of vertices of the given graph….(1)
Let ne be the number of edges of the given graph.
By Handshaking theorem, we have
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2n
deg v 2n
i 1
i e
2nk 2ne (1)
ne nk
Number of edges =multiple of 𝑘.
Hence the number of edges of the graph is a multiple of k
14.Show that a simple graph G with n vertices is connected if it has more than
(n 1)(n 2)
edges
2
Proof:
Suppose G is not connected. Then it has a component of k vertices for some k,
The most edges G could have is
k(k 1) (n k)(n k 1)
C(k, 2) C(n k, 2)
2
nn
2
k 2 nk
2
This quadratic function of f is minimized at k = n/2 and maximized at
k = 1 or k = n – 1
Hence, if G is not connected, then the number of edges does not exceed the value of
this function at 1 and at n-1, namely (n 1)(n 2) .
2
15.Prove that a simple graph with n vertices and k components can have at
( n k )( n k 1)
most edges.
2
Proof:
Let the number of vertices of the ith component of G be 𝑛𝑖, 𝑛𝑖 ≥ 1..
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k k
n n (n 1) (n k)
i1
i
i1
i
k 2
Then
(ni 1) n 2 2nk k 2
i1
k
that is (ni 1) 2 n 2 2nk k 2 n
k
i2 n 2 2nk k 2 2n k
i1 i1
Now the maximum number of edges in the ith component of G =
ni (ni 1) 1 k 2 n
ni
2 2 i1 2
2 2
(n 2nk k 2n k ) n (n k )(n k 1)
2 2 2
16.Determine whether the graphs below are Isomorphic or not
Solution:
The graphs G and G’ both have eight vertices and ten edges
In G ,degree (a)=2.
Since each of the vertices v2,v3,v6 and v7 is of deg 2 in G’
Therefore,a in G must correspond to either v2,v3,v6 and v7 of G’
Each of the vertices v2,v3,v6 and v7 in G’ are adjacent to another vertex of degree
2 in G’ ,which is not true for a in G
Therefore G and G’ are not isomorphic
17.Define isomorphism between two graphs. Are the simple graphs with the
following adjacency matrices isomorphic?
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0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Answer:
Two graphs G1 = (V1,E1) and G2 = (V2,E2) are the same or isomorphic, if
there is a bijection
F: V1 V2 such that (u, v) E1 if and only if (F(u), F(v)) E2..
The given two graphs have
i) Same number of vertices – 6
ii) Same number of edges – 8
Moreover, in the given diagram u2 ,u3 ,u5 ,u6 are of degree 3 each, u1 ,u4 are degree 2.
Similarly v2 , v3 , v5 , v6 are of degree 3 each, v1 , v4 are of degree 2.
Therefore the given two graphs are isomorphic.
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18.Establish the isomorphic for the following graphs
Solution:
U1 V1
V1
U5 U2 V5 V4 V3
V2
U4 U3 V4 V3 V2 V5
G1 G2
V(G1)={U1,U2,U3,U4,U5} V(G2)={V1,V2,V3,V4,V5}
Deg(U1) = 2 Deg(V1) = 2
Deg(U2) = 2 Deg(V2) = 2
Deg(U3) = 2 Deg(V3) = 2
Deg(U4) = 2 Deg(V4) = 2
Deg(U5) = 2 Deg(V5) = 2
The Mapping is : G1 G2
U1 V1 , U 2 V3 , U 3 V5 , U 4 V2 , U 5 V4
The Mapping G1 and G2 are isomorphic.
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19. Determine whether the following pairs of graph G and H are isomorphic
Solution:
Both the graph G and H have
(1) Same number of vertices (6)
(2) Same number of edges (7)
If f:u→v is defined as
u1→v2
u2→v3
u3→v4
u4→v1
u5→v5
u6→v6
Then the adjacency is preserved
∴ Given 2 graphs G and H are isomorphic.
20.Prove that a given connected graph G is Euler graph if and only if all
vertices of G are of even degree.
Answer:
Suppose G is an Euler graph.
G contains an Euler line
G contains a closed walk covering all edges.
To prove:
All vertices of G is of even degree.
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In training the closed walk, every time the walk meets a vertex v, it goes through
two new edges incident on V with one we ‘entered ‘ and other ‘exited’. This is true,
for all vertices, because it is a closed walk. Thus the degree of every vertex is even.
Conversely, suppose that all vertices of G are of even degree.
To prove:
G is an Euler graph.
(i.e) to prove : G contains an Euler line.
Construct a closed walk starting at an arbitrary vertex v and going through the edge
of G such that no edge is repeated. Because, each vertex is of even degree, we can
exit from each end, every vertex where we enter, the tracing can stop only at the
vertex v. Name the closed walk as h
Case (i) If h covers all edges of G, then h becomes an Euler line, and hence, G is an
Euler graph.
Case (ii) If h does not cover all edges of G then remove all edges of h from g and
obtain the remaining graph G ’. Because both G and G ‘ have all their vertex of even
degree.
Every vertex in G ‘ is also of even degree.
Since G is connected, h will touch G ‘ atleast one vertex v ‘. Starting from v ‘, we
can again construct a new walk h ‘ in G ‘. This will terminate only at v ‘, because,
every vertex in G ‘ is also of even degree.
Now, this walk h’ combined with h forms a closed walk starts and ends at v and has
more edges than h. This process is repeated until we obtain a closed walk covering all
edges of G. Thus G is an Euler graph.
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21. If G is a connected simple graph with n vertices with n 3 ,such that the
degree of every vertex in G is at least n 2 , then prove that G has Hamilton
cycle
Answer:
We prove this theorem by contradiction. Suppose that the theorem is false and
let G be a non-Hamiltonian simple graph with 𝑛 ≥ 3, G cannot be complete. Let u
and v be non-adjacent vertices in G. By choice of G, G+uv is Hamiltonian simple
𝑛
graph with 𝑛 ≥ 3 and 𝛿 ≥ .
2
Moreover, since G is non-Hamiltonian, each Hamiltonian cycle of G+uv must
contain the edges uv. Thus there is a Hamilton path 𝑣1, 𝑣2, ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑣𝑛 in G with origin
𝑣 = 𝑣1 and 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑛 .
Let,
S vi / uvi1 E
T vi / viv E
Since
vn S T , wehave
S T n and S T 0
Since if S T contained some vertex vi , then G would have the Hamiltonian cycle
v1 , v2 , vi vnvn1 , vi v1 which is a contradiction.
Also, d (u) d (v) S T ST STn
𝒏
But this contradicts the hypothesis 𝜹 ≥ . Hence the theorem.
𝟐
22. Show that the complete bipartite graph Km,n with m,n ≥ 𝟐 is Hamiltonian if
and only if m=n .Also prove that the complete graph Kn is hamiltonian for all
n≥ 𝟑
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Proof:
Assume m≠ 𝑛
Let H be a Hamiltonian cycle that goes through every vertex in Km,n
H = v0e0v1e1
Since Km,n is bipartite the cycle must alternate between the vertex on each side.
Since m≠ 𝑛 thereexist a va =vb a<b inside cycle H
Which is a contradiction
Hence complete bipartite graph Km,n has a hamiltonian cycle iff m = n
To prove that kn is Hamiltonian
Let u be any vertex of kn
Since kn is a complete graph, any 2 vertex can be joined
So we start from u and visit vertices in any order exactly once and come back to u
Hence there is a Hamiltonian cycle in kn
23.Let G be a simple indirected graph with n vertices. Let u and v be two non
adjacent vertices in G such that deg(u) + deg(v) ≥ n in G. Show that G is
Hamiltonian if and only if G + uv is Hamiltonian.
Solution:
If G is Hamiltonian, then obviously G + uv is also Hamiltonian.
Conversely, suppose that G + uv is Hamiltonian, but G is not. Then by Dirac
theorem, we have
deg(u) + deg(v) < n
which is a contradiction to our assumption.
Thus G + uv is Hamiltonian implies G is Hamiltonian.
24.If G is a connected simple graph with n vertices (n ≥ 3) and if the degree of
each vertex is atleast 𝒏,then show that G is Hamiltonian
𝟐
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Solution:
Suppose that the theorem is false,and let G be a maximal non Hamiltonian
simple graph with n ≥ 3 and the degree of each vertex is atleast 𝒏.Since n ≥ 3 ,G
𝟐
cannot be complete.
Let u and v be non adjacent vertices in G,Since G is the maximal Non-
Hamiltonian,G + uv is Hamiltonion ,each Hamilton cycle of G+uv must contain the
edge uv.
Thus there is a Hamilton path v1 v2….. vn in G with origin u=vi and terminus v=
vn
Let S={𝑣𝑖 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺)/ 〈𝑢, 𝑣 𝑖 + 1〉 ∈ 𝐸(𝐺)
And T={𝑣𝑖 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺)/ 〈𝑣𝑖, 𝑣〉 ∈ 𝐸(𝐺) where i=1 to n
Since vn ∉ S ∪ T we have |S ∪ T| < 𝑛 and |S ∪ T| = 0
Since if S∩T contains some vertex vi ,then G would have the Hamilton cycle v1
v2….., vn vn-1 vi+1 v1,
which is a contradiction to the assumption(fig)
Since |S ∪ T | < 𝑛 and |S ∩ T| = 0
we get d(u) + d(v) =|𝑆|+|𝑇|=|S ∪ T | + |S ∩ T| < 𝑛
This also contradicts the hypothesis that the degree of the vertex is atleast 𝒏
𝟐
25.Show that Kn has a Hamiltonion cycle , for n>3,what is the maximum number
of edge disjoint Hamilton cycles possible in Kn. Obtain all the edge disjoint
.Hamilton cycles in K7.
Solution:
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Each Hamilton cycle in Kn consists of n edges. As Kn has 𝑛(𝑛−1) edges,Kn
2
can have atmost 𝑛−1 edge-disjoint Hamilton cycles.
2
So it is enough to exhibit 𝑛−1 edge disjoint Hamilton cycles in Kn
2
W.K.T If n ≥ 3 is odd integer ,then the complete graph Kn contains 𝑛−1 edge disjoint
2
Hamilton cycles
26.If G is a connected simple graph with n vertices with n 3 ,such that the
degree of every vertex in G is at least n2, then prove that G has Hamilton
cycle
Solution :
We prove this theorem by contradiction. Suppose that the theorem is false and let
G be a non-Hamiltonian simple graph with 𝑛 ≥ 3, G cannot be complete. Let u and
v be non-adjacent vertices in G. By choice of G, G+uv is Hamiltonian simple graph
𝑛
with 𝑛 ≥ 3 and ≥ .
2
Moreover, since G is non-Hamiltonian, each Hamiltonian cycle of G+uv must
contain the edges uv. Thus there is a Hamilton path 𝑣1, 𝑣2, ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑣𝑛 in G with origin
𝑣 = 𝑣1 and 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑛 .
Let,
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S vi / uvi1 E
T vi / viv E
Since
vn S T , wehave
S T n and S T 0
Since if S T contained some vertex vi , then G would have the Hamiltonian cycle
v1 , v2 , vi vnvn1 , vi v1 which is a contradiction.
Also, d (u) d (v) S T ST STn
𝒏
But this contradicts the hypothesis 𝜹 ≥ .
𝟐
Hence the theorem.
Page No: 24
UNIT IV – ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
CLASS NOTES
Definition: Algebraic Structure (or) Algebraic system:
A non-empty set G together with one or more n-aryoperations say * (binary) is called an
algebraic system or algebraic structure.
Example: Some binary operations are , ,*, / , , .
Properties of Binary operations:
(i) Closure : a b x G, for all a, b G
(ii) Commutative: a b b a for all a,b G
(iii) Associative: a b c a *b c for all a,b G
(iv) Identity: ae ea a for all a, e G , e is called identity element.
(v) Inverse: a b b a e (identity) b is called inverse of 'a 'and is denoted by b a1.
(vi) Distributive property: a (b c) (a b) (a c) left distributive
(b c) a (b a) (c a) right distributive for all a,b, c G
(vii) Cancellation property: a b a c b c (left cancellation)
b a c a b c (right cancellation) for all a,b, c G.
Example: (Z, +) is an algebraic system.
Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, and lattices.
Note:
Z – the set of all integers
Q – the set of all rational numbers
R - the set of all real numbers
C – the set of all complex numbers
R+ – the set of all positive real numbers
Q+ – the set of all positive rational numbers.
Definition: Semi Group
Let S be non empty set, * be a binary operation on S. The algebraic system (S, *) is called a semi
group, if the operation is associative.
In other words (S,*) is a semi group if for any x, y, z S,
x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z.
Examples : (Set of integers, +), and (Matrix ,*) are examples of semigroup.
Definition: Monoid
A semi group (M, *) with identity element with respect to the operation * is called a Monoid.
In other words (M,*) is a Monoid if for any x, y, z M, x * (y * z) = (x * y ) * z and there exists an
element e M such that for any x M then e * x = x * e = x.
Examples :
(Set of integers,*) is Monoid as 1 is an integer which is also identity element .
(Set of natural numbers, +) is not Monoid as there doesn’t exist any identity
element. But this is Semigroup.
(Set of whole numbers, +) is Monoid with 0 as identity element.
Definition: Group
An algebraic system (G,*) is called a group if it satisfies the following properties:
(i) * is associative.
(ii) Identity element exists.
(iii) Inverse element exists.
Note: 1. A group is always a monoid, semigroup, and algebraic structure.
2. (Z,+) and Matrix multiplication are examples of groups.
Definition: Abelian Group
In a group ( G, *), if a * b = b * a, for all a, b in G then the group is called an abelian group.
Examples: (Z,+) is a example of Abelian Group but Matrix multiplication is not abelian group as it
is not commutative.
Problems
1. Show that the set N of natural numbers is a semigroup under the operation x * y = max {x, y}. Is it a
Monoid?
Proof:
Closure: Let x, y N then
x * y = max{x,y} = x , if x > y
& max{x,y} = y , if x < y
In both cases, x or y N.
Hence x * y N
Hence closure is true.
Associative: Let x, y, z N
Now (x*y)*z = max {x,y}*, z
= max {max {x,y},z}
= max{x,y,z}…(1)
Now x*(y*z) = x*max{y,z)
= max(x,max{y,z}}
= max{x,y,z}. ..(2)
From (1) and (2), (x*y)*z = x*(y*z)
Hence N is associative.
Identity: e = 1 is the element in N such that
x*e = e*x = x.
Hence (N, *, 1) is Monoid.
2. Give an example of a semigroup that is not a monoid. Further prove that for any commutative
monoid (M , *), the set of idempotent elements of M form a submonoid.
Solution:
Example of a semigroup that is not a monoid:
(Set of natural numbers, +) is not Monoid as there doesn’t exist any identity
element. But this is Semigroup.
Let (M , *) be a commutative monoid.
Let S a M / a * a a, the set of idempotent elements of M.
Clearly e S, as e * e e
Let a, b S with a * a a and b * b b
Now,(a * b) * (a * b) (a * (b * b) * a a * b * a a * a * b a * b
Hence a * b S
(S ,*) is a submonoid of (M ,*).
3. Let (S , *) be a semigroup such that for x, y S, x * x y, where s {x, y}.
Pr ove that (1) x * y y * x (2) y * y y
Proof:
Since (S , *) is a semi group, closure property and associative property are true under *
Given x * x = y … (1)
Now x * x * x x * x * x Associative property
x *y = y *x From1
We have S = x, y.
Since closure property is true under * and S = {x,y} ,
x * y = x or x * y = y
Assume x * y = x … (2)
From (i), x * y = y * x … (3)
y * y y * x * x From (1)
= y * x * x (By Associative Property)
= x * y * x [ From (3)]
= x *x From(2)
=y [ From (1)]
Assume x * y = y … (4)
y * y x * x * y [ From (1)]
= x * (x * y) (By Associative Property)
= x*y (From 4)
=y
y*yy
ab
4. Show that (Q+, *) is an abelian group where * is defined as a *b for all a, b Q+
2
Proof:
Q+ is the set of all positive rational numbers.
To prove: (Q+, *) is an abelian
i.e, to prove: (i) Closure
(ii) Associative
(iii) Identity
(iv) Inverse
(v) Commutativity
(i) Closure : Let a, b Q+
ab
Now a *b Q
2
(ii) Associative: : Let a, b, c Q+ then
ab ab
2
a *b * c *c c abc
2 2 4
bc
a
a * b * c a *
bc 2 abc
2 2 4
a *b * c a * b * c
ae
(iii) Identity: a * e a a e 2 Q
2
Therefore e = 2 is the identity element.
(iv) Inverse: Let ‘a-1’ be the inverse element of ‘a’.
1 aa1 1 4
a*a e 2 a Q
2 a
ab ba
(v) Commutativity: a *b b*a
2 2
Hence (Q+, *) is an abelian group
1 0 1 0 1 0 , 1 0
Prove that G , , 1 0 forms an abelian group under matrix
1
5.
0 1 0 1 0
multiplication. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Proof:
Let I 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
, B 0 1 and C 0 1
0 1 , A
0 1
The matrix multiplication table is,
I A B C
I I A B C
A A I C B
B B C I A
C C B A I
Claim 1: Closure property
Since all the elements inside the table are the elements of G.
Hence G is closed under multiplication.
Claim 2: Associative property
We know that matrix multiplication is always associative
Claim 3: Identity property
From the above table we observe that the matrix I G is the Identity matrix.
Claim 4: Inverse property
From the above table we observe that all the matrices are inverse to each other.
Hence Inverse element exists.
Claim 5: Commutative property
From the table we have
A B C B A,
A C B C A,
B C AC B
Therefore commutative property exists.
Hence G forms an abelian group under matrix multiplication.
6. Prove that G 1, 2, 3, 4 is an abelian group under multiplication modulo 5.
Proof: For finite set, weuse Cayley table.
5
[1] [2] [3]
[4]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[2] [2] [4] [1] [3]
[3] [3] [1] [4] [2]
[4] [4] [3] [2] [1]
(i) Closure property
a , bG a 5 b G
Clearly from the Cayley table,G is closed under 5 .
(ii) Associative property: a5 b c a b c,
5 5 5 a, b, cG
In multiplication , associayive property is true.
Hence the binary operation 5 is associative.
(iii) Existence of Identity: From the table, we get the identity element e 1 G
(iv) Existence of Inverse:
From the table, we get
Inverse of [1]= [1]
Inverse of [2]= [3]
Inverse of [3]= [2]
Inverse of [4]= [4]
Hence (G , 5 ) is a group.
Also it is clear that a 5 b b 5 a , a , b G
Therefore commutative law is true under 5
Hence the binary operation 5 is commutative.
Therefore (G , 5 ) is an abelian group.
7. Prove that every finite group of order n is isomorphic to a permutation group of degree n.
Proof:
Let G be a finite group of order n.
Let aG
Define f a : G G by f a (x) f a ( y)
Since f a (x) f a ( y) x y
f a is 1 1.
Since, if y G, then f a (ay) y
f a is 1 1.
fa is a bijection.
Since G has n elements, f a is just permutation on n symbols.
Let G fa / a G
To Prove: G is a group.
Let f a , f b G
f a f b (x) f a f b (x) f a (bx) abx f ab (x)
G is closed .
Associative condition holds obviously.
fa in G is the identity element.
1
The inverse of f a in G is fa
Hence G is a group.
To Prove: G and G are isomorphic.
Define : G Gby (a) f a
(a) (b) f a fb f a (x) fb (x) ax bx a b
Hence is 1 1.
Since f a is onto, is onto.
Also (ab) fab (a) (b)
: G G is an isomorphism.
G G
8. Let G be a group. Prove that (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 for all a, b in G.
(or) In a group, prove that the inverse of the product of two elements is equal to the product of their
inverses in reverse order.
Proof:
Let a, b G and a-1, b-1 be their inverses respectively.
a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e ;
b * b-1 = b-1 * b = e (identity property).
Now (a * b) * (b-1 * a-1 ) = a * (b * (b-1 * a-1 )) (* is associative)
= a * ( b * b-1 )* a-1
= a * ( e * a-1 )
= a * a-1 = e ….(1)
Similarly we can prove that (b-1 * a-1 ) * (a * b) = e ….(2)
From (1) and (2) we have (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
9. Prove that (G, *) is an abelian group if and only if (a * b)2 = a2 * b2
Proof:
Let G be an abelian group.
Now (a * b)2 = (a * b) * (a * b)
= a * (b * a) * b (Associative law)
= a * (a * b) * b (G is abelian i.e a*b=b*a)
= (a * a) *( b * b) (Associative law)
= a2 * b2.
Conversely, let (a * b)2 = a2 * b2
(a* b) * (a*b) = (a * a) * (b * b)
a* (b * a)*b = a *( a * b) * b (Associative law)
By applying left and right cancellation law we get b * a = a * b.
Hence G is abelian.
10. Prove that in any group, identity element is the only idempotent element.
Proof:
Let a be an idempotent element of G, then a * a a ........ (1)
1
Now a G a G
pre multiply a1 on both sides of (1)
a 1*(a * a) a 1 * a (2)
a 1 * a* a a 1 * a e
e *a e
a e
11. Prove that identity element of a group is unique
Proof: Let (G,*) be a group.
Let ‘e1’ and ‘e2’ be the identity elements in G
Suppose e1 is the identity, then
e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e2
Suppose e2 is the identity, then
e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e1
Therefore e1= e2.
Hence identity element is unique.
Sub group:
Let G be a group under the operation *. Then (H , *) is said to be a subgroup of (G , *) if
H G and (H , *) itself is a group under the operation *.
(i.e.) (H, *) is said to be a subgroup of (G , *) if
e H where e is the identity element in G
for a H, a -1H
For a,bH a * b H.
12. Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset H of a group (G, *) to be a
subgroup is a, b H a *b1 H . (Nov/Dec 2012)
Proof:
Necessary Condition:
Let us assume that H is a subgroup of G. Since H itself a group, we have if a ,bH implies
a*bH
1
Since bH then b H which implies a*b1H
Sufficient Condition:
1
Let a*b H , for a*bH
Claim 1: Identity property
1
If a H , which implies a*a e H
Hence the identity element eH .
Claim 2: Inverse property
1 1
Let a , e H , then e*a a H
Hence a1 is the inverse of a .
Claim 3: Closure property
1
Let a ,b H , then
1
a* b 1 a*bH
Therefore H is closed.
Claim 4: Associative property
Clearly * is associative.
Hence H is a subgroup of G.
13. Prove that intersection of two subgroups of a group G is again a subgroup of G, but their union need
not be a subgroup of G. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Proof:
Claim 1: Intersection of two subgroups is again a subgroup.
Let A and B be two subgroups of a group G. we need to prove that A B is a subgroup.
(i.e.) It is enough to prove that A B and a,b A B a* b1 A B.
Since A and B are subgroups of G, the identity element e A and B .
A B
Let a,b A B a,b A and a,b B
a* b1 A and a* b1 B
a* b1 A B
Hence A B is a subgroup of G.
Claim 2: Union of two subgroups need not be a subgroup
Consider the following example,
Consider the group Z, ,where Z is the set of all integers and the operation + represents usual addition.
Let A 2Z 0, 2, 4, 6, ...and B 3Z 0, 3, 6, 9, ....
Here 2Z, and 3Z, are both subgroups of Z,
Let H 2Z 3Z 0, 2, 3, 4, 6,...
Note that 2, 3 H , but 2 3 5 H 5 2Z 3Z
(i.e.) 2Z 3Z is not closed under addition.
Therefore 2Z 3Z is not a group
Therefore (H, +) is not a subgroup of (Z, +).
14. Show that the union of two subgroups of a group is a subgroup if and only if one is contained in the
other.
(or)
Let H & K be two subgroups of a group G. Then H K is a subgroup if and only if
H K (or) K H.
Proof:
Assume that H & K are two subgroups of G and H K (or) K H.
H K K (or) H K H
H K is a subgroup.
Conversely, suppose H K is a subgroup of G. we claim that H K (or) K H.
Suppose H
K and K H. ….(1)
a H and a K , b K and b H …..(2)
Clearly a, b H K
Since H K is a subgroup of G, ab H K
Case i Let ab H sin ce a H , a1 H (H is a subgroup)
a1 (ab) b H which is contradiction to (2)
Case ii Let ab K sin ce b K , b1 K (H is a subgroup)
b1(ab) b K which is contradiction to (2)
our assumption H K and K H is wrong. H K (or) K H.
15. Find all the non-trivial subgroups of (Z12 , 12)
Solution: Z12 0, 1, 2, 3, 411
Let H be a subgroup of Z 12 .
Then by Lagrange’s theorem O(H) divides O(G).
i.e.,O(H) divides 12. (Here O(G) = 12)
Hence O(H) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 12
O(H) = 1 H 0
O(H) = 12 H Z 12 .
O(H) = 2 H 0,x
Since inverse of [0] is [0], inverse of [x] is [x].
x x 0 12
2x 12
x6
H= 0,6
O(H)=3 H 0,x,2x
Since inverse of [0] is [0], inverse of [x] is [2x].
[x] + [2x] =[0] = [12]
[3x]=12
x=4
Hence H= 0, 4, 8
Also H= 0,x,3x
Since inverse of [0] is [0],inverse of [x] is [3x]
x 3x 0 12
4x 12
x = 3
Hence H= 0,3,9
O(H) = 4 H=0,x,2x,3x
Inverse of [x] must be [3x]
x 3x 0 12
4x 12
x=3
Hence H= 0,3, 6, 9
O(H) = 6 H= 0,x,2x,3x 4x,5x
Inverse of [x] must be [5x]
x 5x 0 12
6x 12
x=2
Hence H = 0,2,4,6,8,10 are the non-trivial subgroups of (Z12 , 12)
Normal Subgroup:
Let H be a subgroup of G under *. Then H is said to be a normal subgroup of G, for every
xG and for every hH, if x * h * x-1H
i.e, x * H * x-1H
16. Prove that intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group (G, *) is a normal subgroup of a
group (G, *). (Nov/Dec 2016)
Proof:
Let G be the group and H and K are the normal subgroups of G.
Since H and K are normal subgroups of
H and K are subgroups of G
H K is a subgroup of G.
Now we have to prove H K is normal
Since e H and e K e H K.
Thus H K is nonempty.
Let x G and h H K
x G and h H , h K
x G , h H and x G , h K
1
So, x h x H and x h x1 K
x h x1 H K
Thus H K is a Normal subgroup of G.
17. Prove that a sub group H of a group is normal if and only if x * H * x1 H , x G
Proof:
Letus assume that x * h * x1 H
To Prove that H is a normal group
x * h * x1 H x * H* x1 H , x G
H is a normal subgroup of G.
Conversely, let us assume that H is normal subgroup of G.
x * H* x1 H , x G (1)
Now x G x1 G
1
i.e. x 1 * H* x 1 H , x G
x1 * H* x H
x *( x1 * H* x)* x1 x * H * x1
e * H* e x * H * x1 H x * H * x1 (2)
from1 & 2 we get
x * H* x 1 H
Cosets:
(i) Left Cosets of H of G: Let (H, *) be a subgroup of (G, *). For any a G, the left coset of H
denoted by a * H and the set is a * H a *h:h H a G
(ii) Right Cosets of H of G : The right coset of H denoted by H * a and the set is
H *a h*a:h H a G
18. Find the left cosets of [0],[3]in the group Z6 , 6 (April/May – 2015)
Answer:
Let Z6 0,1, 2,3, 4,5
H 0,3
0+ H 0,3 H
1+ H 1, 4
2+ H 2,5
3+ H 0,3 H
4 H 0,31 H
5 H 0,3 2 H
0+H, 1+H and 2+H are three distinct left cosets of H.
19. State and Prove Lagrange’s theorem on finite groups (or) Prove that in a finite group, order of any
subgroup divides the order of the group. (May/June 2013)& (May/June 2016)
Proof:
Statement:
The order of each subgroup of a finite group is divides the order of the group.
Proof:
Let G be a finite group and O G n
Let H be a subgroup of G and OH m
Let h1 ,h2 ,h3 , ...,hm are the m distinct elements of H
For x G, the right coset of H is defined by H x {h1 x, h2 x, h3 x,. ...... hm x}.
Since there is a one to one correspondence between H and Hx , the members of Hx are distinct.
Hence, each right coset of H in G has m distinct members.
We know that any two right cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint.
The number of distinct right cosets of H in G is finite (say k)
The union of these k distinct cosets of H in G is equal to G.
(i.e.) G H x1 H x2 H x3 ................ Hxk
O(G) O H x1 O H x2 O H x3 O H xk
n = m + m + m + … + m (k times)
O G
k
O H
Hence O H divides O G
Group homomorphism:
Let (G,*) and (H, ) be two groups. A mapping f: G H is said to be a group
homomorphism if for any a, b G, f(a * b) = f(a) f(b).
Example:
Consider multiplicative group of positive real numbers R ,. for any complex number u, the
u
function fu : R C defined by fu (a) a is a group homomorphism.
Kernel of a Homomorphism:
Let f :G G be a group homomorphism. The set of elements of G, which are mapped into
e’ (identity element of G’) is called kernel of f and is denoted by ker f. ker f x G / f (x) e
Isomorphism:
A mapping f from a group (G , *) to a group (G’ , *) is said to be an isomorphism if
(i) f is a homomorphism. (i.e., f (a*b) f (a) f (b)
(ii) f is one-one (Injective)
(iii) f is on-to (Surjective)
20. Prove that the group homomorphism preserves identity and inverse element. (Nov/Dec 2016)
Answer:
Identity
Let a G
Let f :(G,*) (H , ) be a group homomorphism.
Clearly f a H
Now
f a eH f a
f a eH f a*eG
f a eH f a f eG
eH f eG
Hence eH is the identity element.
Inverse
Let a G
Since G is a group, a1 G
1
Since G is a group, a * a eG
By homomorphism
eH f eG
eH f a*a 1
a1
eH f a f
Hence f a is the inverse of f a .
1
Natural Homomorphism:
Let H be a normal homomorphism of a group G. The map f : G G / H such that
f (x) H * x , x G is called a natural homomorphism of the group G.
21. State and prove fundamental theorem on homomorphism of groups. (or)
Prove that every homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some quotient group of G. (or)
Let f :G G be a onto homomorphism of groups ith kernel K. Then G K G
Proof:
Let f be a homomorphism. f :G G
Let G be homomorphic image of a group G. Let K be kernel of this omomorphism. Clearly Kis normal
subgroup of G. We claim G K G .
Define : G K G by (k * a) f (a) a G
(i) To prove is well defined.
We have k * a = k * b
a * b-1 k
f(a * b-1) = e’
f(a) * f(b-1) = e’
f is homomorphism, f(a) * (f(b))-1= e’
f(a) * (f(b))-1f(b) = e’ * f(b)
Multipky f(b) on both sides f(a) = f(b)
(k * a) = (k * b)
is well defined.
(ii) To prove is one-one:
It is enough to prove that (k * a) = (k * b) k * a = k * b
(k * a) = (k * b)
f(a) = f(b)
f(a) * (f(b))-1 = f(a) * (f(b-1)
f(a) * (f(b-1) = f(b * b-1)
f(a * b-1) = f(e) = e’
f(a * b-1) = e’ a * b-1 K
k * a = k * b is one-one.
(iii) To prove is onto:
Let y G, since f is one-one, there exists aG such that f(a) = y
Hence (k * a) = f(a) = y
f is onto.
(iv) To prove is homomorphism:
Now (k * a * k * b) = (k * a * b) = f(a * b) = f(a) * f(b) = (k * a) * (k * b)
is homomorphism.
Since is one-one, onto and homomorphism, is an isomorphism between G &G
K
G K G
22. Let g : G H be a homomorphism from the group G,* to the group H , . Prove that the kernel
of g is a normal subgroup of G. (May/June 2016)
Proof:
Let K be the Kernel of the homomorphism g. That is K {x G g(x) e}where e the identity element
of H. is
Let x, y K. Now
1
g(x* y1) g(x) g( y1) g(x) g( y) ee1 e e e
x* y1K
Therefore K is a subgroup of G. Let
x K , f G
1 1
g( f * x * f 1) g( f )* g(x)* g( f 1) g( f ) e g( f ) g( f ) g( f ) e
f * x * f 1K
Thus K is a normal subgroup of G.
23. Let (G , *) be a group and let H be normal subgroup of G. If G/H be the set aH | a G then show
that G / H, is a group, where aH bH (a *b)H , for all aH ,bH G | H .Further show
that there exists a natural homomorphism f : G G |H
Proof:
Given: G/H= a*h / a G
We know that e * H H
eH G / H
G/H is non empty
If aH ,bHG / H , then aH bH a *bH G / H
G/H is closed
Let aH, bH, cH G / H
Now
aH bH cH aH b * cH
a * b * c H
(a * b)H cH
(aH bH ) cH
is associative
Now aH eH a *eH aH
Also aH eH aH
eH is the identity element for G/H
Now, aH a1H
a * a1 H eH
a1H is the inverse element of a * H
Hence G / H, is a group.
Define f : G G | H by f (a) aH
To Prove f is homomorphism:
f (a * b) (a * b*)H
aH bH
f (a) f (b)
Hence the proof.
Cyclic group:
Let G be a group. Let aG. Then H a / n Z is a subgroup of G. H is called the cyclic
n
subgroup of G generated by ‘a’ and is denoted by < a >.
A group G is cyclic if there exixts an element a G such that < a > = G.
24. State and prove Cayley’s theorem.
Statement: Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to permutation group of degree n.
Proof: Finding a set G of permutation.
Let G be a finite group of order n. Let a G.
Define fa :G G by fa (x) ax
To prove f is bijection
(i) fa (x) fa ( y)
ax ay
xy
fa is one-one.
(ii) if y G, then fa (a1y) a a1y y
fa is onto.
Since fa has n-elements, fa is just permutation of n-symbols.
Let G fa / a G
Step 2: Claim: G is a group.
Let fa , fb G
fa fb ( x) fa fb ( x) fa bx abx fab
fa fb fab G is closed .
25. Every cyclic group is an abelian group. (Nov/Dec 2013)
Proof:
Let (G, * ) be cyclic group with generator a G.
For x, y G
x = ak, y = at for integers k, t.
x * y = ak * at = ak + t = a t + k = at * ak = y * x
Hence (G, * ) is an abelian group.
26. Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. (May/June 2016)
Proof:
Let (G,*) be the cyclic group generated by an element a G.
Let H be the subgroup of G.
Case (i): If H contains identity element alone, then trivially H is cyclic.
Case (ii): Suppose if H contains the element other than the identity element.
Since H G, any element of H is of the form a k for some integer k.
Let “m” be the smallest positive integer such that a mH.
Now by division algorithm theorem, we have k = qm + r where 0 r < m.
Now ak = aqm + r
= (am)q. ar
and from this we have ar = (am)- q. ar.
Since am, akH, we have arH.
Which is a contradiction that amH such that “m” is small.
Therefore r = 0 and ak = (am)q.
Thus every element of H is a power of am
Hence H is cyclic.
27. Discuss Ring and Fields with suitable examples. (Nov/Dec 2014)
Answer:
Ring:
An algebraic system R, , is called a ring if the binary operations + and satisfies the
following.
(i) R, is an abelian group
(ii) R, is a semi group and
(iii) The operation is distributive over +.
Example:
The set of all integers under usual addition and multiplication is a Ring.
Field:
A commutative ring F,, which has more than one element such that every nonzero element of
F has a multiplicative inverse in F is called a field.
Example:
(1) R, , is a field
Q, , is a field
28. Prove that every field is an integral domain, but the converse need not be true.
Proof:
Let (F , , . ) be a field. That is F is a commutative ring with unity. Now to prove F is an integral domain
it is enough to prove it has non-zero divisor.
1
Let a, b F such that a . b = 0 and let a 0 then a F
Now
a 1.(a.b) (a 1.a).b
a 1.0 1.b
0b
Similarly if b 0, b 1 exists.
(a.b).b 1 0.b 1 0
a.(b.b 1 ) 0
a.1 0
a0
Therefore F has non-zero divisor. Hence F is an integral domain.
The converse of the above property need not be true because every integral domain is not a
field.
For exmaple (Z,+,.) is an integral domain but not a field, since only the element 1, -1
have inverses but all the other elements in Z do not have multiplicative inverses.
29. Prove that the set Z4 0,1, 2, 3 is a commutative ring with respect to the binary operation
4 and x4 . (Nov/Dec 2015)
Proof:
Composition table for additive modulo 4.
+4 [0] [1] [2] [3]
[0] 0 1 2 3
[1] 1 2 3 0
[2] 2 3 0 1
[3] 3 0 1 2
Composition table for multiplicative modulo 4.
x4 [0] [1] [2] [3]
[0] 0 0 0 0
[1] 0 1 2 3
[2] 0 2 0 2
[3] 0 3 2 1
From tables, we get
(i) all the entries in both tables belongs to Z4
Therefore Z4 is closed under the both operations addition and multiplication.
(ii) From the both tables, entries in the first, second, third and fourth row is equal to entries in the first,
second, third and fourth columns respectively.
Hence the operations are commutative.
(iii) Modular addition and Modular multiplications are always associative.
(iv) 0 is the additive identity and 1 is the multiplicative identity.
(v) Additive inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3 are respectively 0, 3, 2, 1. Multiplicative inverses of the non-zero
elements 1, 2 and 3 are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
(vi) If a,b, c Z4 then
a b c a b a c
a b c a c b c
The operation multiplication is distributive over addition
Hence Z4, 4,4 is a commutative ring with unity.
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Department of Mathematics
MA8351 – DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
CLASS NOTES
UNIT V – LATTICES & BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Relation:
A relation R on a set A is well defined rule which tells whether the given two
elements x & y of A are related or not.
If x is related to y then we write xRy. Otherwise xRy
Note:
If A is a finite set with ‘n’ elements then A x A has n2 elements. Therefore
n2
A x A has 2 relations on a set.
Reflexive:
Let X be a set, R be the relation defined on X. Then R is said to be reflexive if it
satisfies the following condition x R x..(ie) xRx x / (x, x) R x X
Symmetric:
Let X be a set, R be the relation defined on X. Then R is said to be symmetric if
it satisfies the following condition x R y => y R x (ie)
( y, x) / (x, y) R ( y, x) R x, y X
Transitive:
Let X be a set, R be the relation defined on X. Then R is said to be transitive if
it satisfies the following condition x R y & y R z=> x R z (ie)
(x, z) / (x, y) R & ( y, z) R (x, z) Rx, y, z X
Anti Symmetric:
Let X be a set, R be the relation defined on X. Then R is said to be
antisymmetric if it satisfies the following condition x R y & y R x => x=y
x, y X
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 1
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Equivalence Relation:
Let X be a set, R be the relation defined on X. If R satisfies Reflexive,
Symmetric and Transitive then the relation R said to be an equivalence relation
.
Partial Order Relation:
Let X be a set, R be the relation defined on X. Then R is said to be partial order
relation if it satisfies Reflexive, Anti-Symmetric and Transitive.
Example: ' ' & Divides (/) are partial order relation.
Example:1
Subset relation ' ' is a partial order relation.
A A Reflexive
A B & B A A B Anti Symmetric
A B & B C A C Transitive
It is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. ’ ’ is a partial order relation.
Example 2:
Divides relation '/ ' is a partial order relation.
Partially Ordered Set (or) Poset:
A set together with partial order relation defined on it is called partially ordered
set. Usually a partial order relation is denoted by the symbol ' '
Hasse Diagram:
Pictorial representation of a Poset is called Hasse diagram.
1. Draw the Hasse diagram for
(a) P1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 12} and ≤ is a relation such that x ≤ y if x divides y
(b) Let S = {a, b, c} and à = P(S) = {ϕ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b,
c}}
Consider the partial order of set inclusion (⊆).
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 2
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Answer:
(a)
b)
2. Draw the Hasse diagram for D24 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24},
D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}, D36 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36} considering
the partial order divisibility.
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 3
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Answer:
Upper Bound and Lower Bound:
Let (P, ) be a Poset and A be any non-empty subset of P. An element a P
is an upper bound of A, if a x x A . An element b P is an lower bound
of A, if b x x A
Least Upper Bound:
Let (P, ) be a Poset and A be any non-empty subset of P. An element a P
is Least upper bound(LUB) (or) Supremum (Sup) of A if
(i) a is upper bound of A
(ii) a c where c is another upper bound of A.
Greatest Lower Bound:
Let (P, ) be a Poset and A be any non-empty subset of P. An element b P
is greatest lower bound(GLB) (or) Infimum (Inf) of A if
(i) b is lower bound of A
(ii) b c where c is another lower bound of A.
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 4
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
3. Let D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} and let the relation R be divisor on D30
Find
(a) all the lower bound of 10 and 15
(b)the greatest lower bound of 10 and 15
(c) all upper bound of 10 and 15
(d)the least upper bound of 10 and 15
(e) Draw the Hasse diagram (Nov/Dec – 2015)
Answer:
(a) The lower bounds of 10 and 15 are 1 and 5.
(b) The greatest lower bound of 10 and 15 is 5.
(c) The upper bound of 10 and 15 is 30.
(d) The least upper bound of 10 and 15 is also 30.
(e) Hasse diagram
Lattice:
A lattice is a partially ordered set (Poset) (L, ) in which for every pair of
elements a,b L both greatest lower bound and least upper bound exists.
Note:
GLBa,b a *b (or) a b
LUBa,b a b (or) a b
Is (S24, D) a lattice?
Solution:
S24 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}
D = {<a,b>/a|b}
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 5
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
In (S24, D), every pair of elements a,b in S24 has both lower bound and least
upper bound.
Hence It is a Lattice.
Distributive Lattice:
A lattice (L, , ) is said to be distributive lattice if and satisfy the following
conditions
a (b c) (a b) (a c)
a (b c) (a b) (a c)
4. Check the given lattice is distributive or not
Solution:
It is enough to prove that D1 (or) D2 satisfied.
Consider
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 6
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
a (b c) a 0 a
(b c) GLBb,c 0
a 0 LUB0, a a
Now
(a b) (a c) 1 1 1
(a b) LUBa,b 1
(a c) LUBa,b 1
a (b c) (a b) (a c)
D1is not satisfied
Therefore the given lattice is not distributive
Modular Lattice:
A lattice (L, , ) is said to be modular lattice if satisfies the following
condition if
a c then a (b c) (a b) c a,b,c L
5. State and prove Isotonicity property in lattice.
Statement:
Let (L, , ) be given Lattice. For any a, b, c L , we have,
b c
1) a b a c
2) a b a c
Proof:
Given b c Therefore GLB{b, c}b c b and LUB{b, c}b c c
Claim 1: a b a c
To prove the above, it’s enough to prove GLB{a b , a c} a b
Claim 2: a b a c
To prove the above it’s enough to prove LUB{a b , a c} a c
6. In a lattice L, , , prove that (a b) (b c) (c a) (a b) (b c) (c a)
Solution:
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 7
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
(a b) (b c) (c a) (a b) [(b c) c] [(b c) a]
(a b) [c [(b c) a]
[(a b) c] [(a b) [(b c) a]
[(a b) c] [(b c) a]
[c (a b)] [a (b c}]
[(c a) (c b)] [(a b) (a c)]
[(c a) (b c)] [(a b) (c a)]
(c a) (b c) (a b)
(a b) (b c) (c a)
7. Prove that every finite lattice is bounded.
Proof:
Let (L, , ) be given Lattice.
Since L is a lattice both GLB and LUB exist.
Let “a” be GLB of L and “b” be LUB of L.
For any x L , we have
axb
GLB{a, x} a x a
LUB{a, x} a x x
and
GLB{x,b} x b x
LUB{x, b} x b b
Therefore any finite lattice is bounded.
8. In a distributive lattice prove that a * b a * c and a b a c imply b c
(May/June – 2014)
Answer:
Consider,
b b b * a (Absorption Law)
b a * b (Commutative Law)
b a *c (Given)
b a b c (Distributive Law)
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 8
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
a b b c (Commutative Law)
a c b c (Given)
c a c b (Commutative Law)
c a b (Distributive Law)
c a c (Given)
c c a (Commutative Law)
c (Absorption Law)
bc
9. In a lattice if a b c, show that (Nov/Dec – 2013)
(1) a b b * c
(2)(a* b) (b * c) (a b)*(a c) b
Answer:
(1) Given
abc
Since
a ba b b, ab a ... (1)
b cb c c, bc b ...(2)
a c a c c, ac a ... (3)
From (1) and (2), we have a b b b *c
(2) LHS
(a b) (b c) a b b
RHS
(a b)(a c) bc b
Therefore (a b) (b c) (a b) (a c) b
10. Show that direct product of any two distributive lattices is a distributive
lattice.
Proof:
Let L1 and L2 be two distributive lattices. Let x, y, z L1 L2 be the direct product
of L1 and L2. Then x = (a1, a2), y = (b1, b2) and z = (c1, c2)
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 9
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Now
x ( y z) (a1, a2) (b1,b2) (c1,c2)
(a1, a2) (b1,b2) (a1, a2) (c1,c2)
x y x z
Thus direct product of any two distributive lattice is again a distributive lattice
11. State and prove the necessary and sufficient condition for a lattice to be
modular.
Statement:
A lattice L is modular if and only if none of its sub lattices is isomorphic to the
pentagon lattice N5
Proof:
Since the pentagon lattice N5 is not a modular lattice. Hence any lattice having
pentagon as a sub lattice cannot be modular.
Conversely, let (L, ) be any non modular lattice and we shall prove there is a
sub lattice which is isomorphic to N5.
12. Prove that every distributive lattice is modular. Is the converse true?
Justify your claim.
Proof:
Let (L, ) be a distributive lattice, for all a, b, c L , we have
a (b * c) (a b)*(a c)
Thus if a c, then acc
a (b * c) (a b)*c
So if a c, the modular equation is satisfied and L is modular.
However, the converse is not true, because diamond lattice is modular but not
distributive.
Boolean Algebra
A complemented distributive lattice is called Boolean algebra.
13. In any Boolean algebra, show that ab ab 0 if and only if a = b
Proof:
Let (B, .,+,0,1) be any boolean algebra
Let a, bB & a = b
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 10
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Now ab ab a.b a.b a.a a.a 0 00
Conversely let ab ab 0
Now
ab ab 0
a ab ab a
a ab a
a a.a b a
1.a b a a b a ............(1)
ab ab 0
ab ab b b
ab b b
a b.b b b
a b.1 b a b b ............(2)
From(1) & (2)
ab
14. Show that a complemented distributive lattice is a Boolean algebra.
(Nov/Dec – 2014)
Answer:
A Boolean algebra will generally be denoted by B,, ,, 0,1 in which
B,, a lattice with two binary operations is and called the meet and join
respectively.
The corresponding partially ordered set will be denoted by B, . The
bounds of the lattice are denoted by 0 and 1, where 0 is the least element and 1
is the greatest element of B, .
Since B,, is complemented and because of the fact that it is a
distributive lattice, each element of B has a unique complement. We shall
denote the unary operation of complementation by ‘, so that for any a B, the
complement of a B is denoted by a B.
15. Prove that in a Boolean algebra a b ' a' b' and a b ' a' b'
(Nov/Dec – 2015) (April/May - 2015) & (Nov/Dec – 2014)
(or)
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 11
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Prove that De Morgon’s laws hold good for a complemented distributive
lattice (L, , )
Proof:
The De Morgon’s Laws are
(1) a b ' a ' b' (2) a b ' a ' b' , for all a, b B
Let L, , be a complemented distributive lattice.
Let a, bL
Since L is a complemented lattice, the complements of a and b exists.
Let the complement a be a ' and the complement of b be b'
Now
(a b) (a b) {(a b) a} {(a b) b}
{a (b a)} {a (b b)}
{(a a) b} (a 1)
(1 b) (a 1)
11
1
(a b) (a b) {a (a b)} {b (a b)}
{(a a) b} {(b a ') b}
{(a a) b} {a ' (b b)}
{0 b '} (a ' 0)
00
0
hence a b' a' b'
By the principle of duality, we have a b' a' b'
16. Show that in a distributive lattice and complemented lattice
a b a *b 0 a b 1 b a (May/June – 2013)
Answer:
a b a*b0 ab 1b a
Claim 1: a b a*b 0
Since a b a b b, a*b a
Now a*b((a *b)*b) (a *(b *b)) a*0 0
Claim 2: a*b 0a b 1
We have a*b 0
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 12
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
Taking complement on both sides, we have
a*b 0 ab 1
Claim 3: ab 1b a
ab 1
ab * b1*b
a*b b *b b
a*b 0b
a*bb
b a
Claim 4: b a a b
We have b a
Taking complement we get
b' a' ab
17. Show that in any Boolean algebra,
a b b c c a a b b c c a
(May/June – 2014) & (Nov/Dec – 2013)
Answer:
ab bcca ab0bc0ca0
abccbcaacabb
abc.abc.bca.bca.cab.cab
abccbcaacabb
ab0bc0ca0
abbcca
18. If P(S) is the power set of a non-empty S, prove that P( S ), , , \, , S isa
Boolean algebra. (Nov/Dec – 2015)
Answer:
Let S be the nonempty set and P(S) be its power set.
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 13
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
The set algebra P(S ), , , \, , S is a Boolean algebra in which the
complement of any subset A S is \ A S A, the relative complement of the set
A.
If S has n elements, then P(S) has 2n elements and the diagram of the
Boolean algebra is a n cube.
The partial ordering relation on P(S) corresponding to the operations
and is the subset relation .
If S is an empty set, then P(S) has only one element. That is , so that
0 1, and the corresponding Boolean algebra is a degenerate Boolean algebra.
19. In a Distributive lattice L, , if an element aL is a complement then
it is unique.
Proof:
Let a be an element with two distinct complement b and c. Then a*b = 0 and a*c
=0
Hence a*b = a*c
Also
a b 1 and a c 1
abac
Hence b = c.
20. In a Boolean algebra prove that a b ' a ' b '
Proof:
(a b) (a b) {(a b) a} {(a b) b}
{(a a) (b a)} {(a b) (b b)}
{1 (b a)} {(a b) 1}
b b
1
(a b) (a b) {(a b) a} {(a b) b}
{a a b} {a b b}
{0 b} {a 0}
0
Hence proved.
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 14
Sub. Name & Code : Discrete Mathematics, MA8351 Dept. of Mathematics
21. Show that in any Boolean algebra, ab bc c a ab bc c a .
Solution:
Let (B, +, 0, 1) be any Boolean algebra and a, b, c B.
ab b c c a ab .1 b c .1 c a .1
ab (c c)b c (a a) c a (b b )
ab c ab c ab c ab c a bc a bc
( ab c a bc ) ( ab c ab c) ( ab c a bc)
(a a )b c (b b )ac (c c ) a b
1. b c 1. ac 1. a b
abbcca
ab b c c a a b b c c a
St. Joseph’s Institute of Technology Page No: 15
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