SOS HERMANN GMEINER SCHOOL, MEKELLE

History Grade 12
Unit -3
Social, Economic and Political Developments in Ethiopia, Mid 19 th c. to 1941
3.1. Long Distance Trade and Peoples’ Interaction in Ethiopia in the 19th Century
Factors for the Revival of the Long-Distance Trade
 The establishment of a monarchical system among the southwestern Oromo regions, particularly the
rise of the five Oromo kingdoms in the Gibe region, was one of the factors that contributed to the
revival of the long-distance period and the reappearance of the northern Ethiopian merchants in the
Gibe region. At the beginning of the 19th c, there were intense regional feudal wars that could be an
obstacle to the smooth conduct of trade. Although the period was apparently unstable and unsafe for
the smooth conduct of commercial activities, trade improved from time to time. This was probably
because of the relative improvement of the political conditions along the Red Sea coast after the
Egyptian conquest of South Arabia at the beginning of the 19th c. New political development along
the Red Sea coasts and Arabia by the turn of the 19th c strengthened peace and order and increased
the importance of the Red Sea as a very important channel of trade.
 One of the main caravan trade routes started from the Gibe region and led to Assendabo in Guduru
(Eastern Wollega). The Assendabo market was an important place which served as a point of contact
for people b/n the Abay and the Gibe River valleys. From Assendabo, the products of southwestern
Ethiopia found their way to Basso in Gojjam. The Basso market, which is located immediately north
of the Abay River, was a very important meeting place for merchants who came from different parts
of Ethiopia. Muslim and Christian merchants from Tigray, Gondar, Wollo, Shewa and different
parts of the present-day Oromia region south of the Abay River used to meet at the Basso
marketplace.
 From Basso, one group of merchants proceeded to Derita in Begemder and then to Gondar. At
Gondar, the route was divided into two: one of the routes led to the Sudan through Metemma; while
the other went to Massawa via Adwa. From Basso, the merchants of Shewa also proceeded to
Ankober, while the Wollo merchants went to Aussa and then to the ports of Tajura and Obock.
 Bati and Ancharo were very important market centres in Wollo. Another major caravan route that
originated from the Gibe region followed a north-eastern direction to the Soddo market in the
Gurage land. The Soddo market was linked with the Ankober market in Shewa. With the emergence
and consolidation of the Shewan Kingdom in the 19th c, the caravan route that linked the Shewan
Plateau with Harar also revived. Thus, Harari merchants began to visit Ankober frequently in the
19th c. The trade route from Harar went either to Zeila or Berbera on the coast of the Gulf of Aden.
The principal long-distance caravan routes were:
1. Bonga (Kafa) –Jimma-Saka-Assendabo-Basso-Gondar
 Gondar-Metemma-Sudan
 Gondar-Adwa-Massawa
2. Bonga-Jimma-Saka-Assendabo-Aussa-Tajura/Obock
3. Bonga-Jimma-Soddo-Ankober-Harar-Zeila/ Berbera.
Trade Items and Slave Trade
 Throughout the 19thc, the major trading items included ivory, civet, gold, wax, and animal skins and
slaves. By the last quarter of the 19th c, coffee also became one of the important commodities for

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 export. Ethiopian goods were natural products which were obtained mainly from southwestern
Ethiopia. Even today, most of the Ethiopian commodities for export are natural agricultural
products. Slaves became the major Ethiopian export item since the ancient times. Slaves from
Ethiopia were exported both to the Sudan and Arabia. The well-known slave auction markets were
Yejjube in Gojjam, and Abdul Rasul, near Aleyu Amba. In addition, coffee gradually came to assume
considerable importance, particularly after rail transport in the 20th c made it possible to transport
the item in relatively large quantities.
 As far as the merchants were concerned, although there were also some Christian merchants, the
majority were Muslim traders from northern Ethiopia, known as Jabarti. These merchants traveled
in large caravans, selecting one of them as their head, Negade Ras, a term which was later
transformed into Negadras. Eventually, the Afkala who were the dominant Muslim merchants in
southwestern Ethiopia came to dominate the local trade of the Gibe region. The Jabarti had a
dominant role in the long-distance trade of the 19thc until they began to face competition from the
Afkala. The Afkala had many connections along all the caravan routes from which they collected the
important trade commodities. They had also better protection from the local people and could easily
and safely travel b/n the market places in the north and the Gibe region. Although the Jabarti still
maintained their monopoly, by the middle of the 19th c, most of the caravan trade b\n the south and
northern Ethiopia was conducted by the Afkala.
Trade as a Factor for People’s Interaction
 The revival of long-distance trade in the 19th c had a significant effect on the political developments
in the Gibe region. It was through the agency of Muslim merchants that Islam was introduced to the
Gibe region in the first half of the 19th c. The introduction and spread of Islam helped the Oromo
chiefs to establish monarchies and legitimize their power by neglecting the Gada system and other
Oromo practices which were against hereditary rule or monarchy. Islam helped the rulers in
southwestern Ethiopia to strengthen their state apparatus, reinforce their authority, and facilitate
the growth of trade. The long-distance trade created strong links between the people of northern
Ethiopia and south-western Ethiopia. Merchants from the north began to intermingle with people
from south-western Ethiopia. There was also an exchange of ideas and cultures.
3.2. Power Rivalry and Consolidating Central Government, 1855-1913
 Beginning from 1769 and lasting through the middle of the 19th c, Ethiopia experienced a period of
intense regionalism. By then, the country was divided into several almost independent regional
polities, which were themselves further divided into smaller units. By then, the power of the so-called
Solomonic kings had been thoroughly weakened. The Yejju Rases had dominated Ethiopian politics
from 1769 to 1855. The Yejju rulers, who were also known as Worashe, were Amharized Oromos
with a Muslim background. They took the title Ras Bitwoded, and most of them used Debre Tabor as
their capital. Nevertheless, the Yejju Rases could not bring lasting peace and unity within Ethiopia.
The period from 1769 to 1855, which is commonly known as the Zemene Mesafint or the Era of
Princes, was a time when not only the power of the Solomonic kings was thoroughly weakened, but it
was also a period when the Ethiopian Orthodox Church was torn by religious doctrinalcontroversies.
Religious Doctrinal Controversies
 Christianity was introduced in Ethiopia in the 4th c AD. The first and dominant Christian sect in
Ethiopia was the Orthodox sect of Christianity. Nevertheless, there were doctrinal controversies
within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the medieval period. eg, there was a dispute within the
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 church b\n the House of Abba Ewostatewos and the House of Teklehaimanot. The disagreement was
regarding the observance of Saturday as a Sabbath which was resolved by Emperor Zerayacob in
1450 at the Council of Debre Metmaq which accepted both Saturday and Sunday as holyday.
 During the Zemene Mesafint there were controversies within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church on the
birth of Christ. One group claimed that Jesus Christ had three births (Soset Ledet) while the other
sect argued that Jesus Christ had only two births (Hulet Ledet). The second group was also known
as Karra (knife, perhaps because its adherents are criticized for cutting the births of Jesus Christ
down to two). Emperor Yohannis IV gave state support for the Hulet Ledet (Karra) group. The
Qebat (‘Unction’) doctrine had a strong support in Gojjam. The other doctrine, Ye Tsega Lej
(‘Grace’) was dominant first in Gondar and then in Shewa. The Tewahedo (Union) doctrine, which
was supported by the Egyptian Patriarch of Ethiopia, was dominant in much of Tigray and Lasta.
As a result, such doctrinal divisions within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church had a regional character.
Thus, the doctrinal division prevented the Ethiopian Orthodox Church from playing its traditional
role as a cohesive institution among the Orthodox Christian masses.
The End of the Era of Princes (Zemene Mesafint)
 The Zemene Mesafint was characterized by frequent civil wars among regional lords. The Ethiopian
peasants were the principal victims of civil war. The peasants were forced to attend battles against
their will. They were forced to hand over their produce to the lords in their vicinity. Peasants had to
pay numerous taxes to numerous lords. They were also obliged to feed and take care of some soldiers
that were assigned to them through the billeting system, as the soldiers were not salaried. Because of
the frequent wars, they could not conduct their agricultural activities peacefully. In general, the
impoverished peasants were almost completely exhausted by the perpetual feudal warfare that
characterized the period of the Zemene Mesafint.
 Nevertheless, the period of the Zemene Mesafint was not simply a time of the complete anarchy and
collapse of the state power. It did see some periods of relative peace. During the long rule of Ras
Gugsa, the Worashe hegemony gained a solid basis. In fact, during that period Shewa and Tigray
were not fully under the Worashe hegemony even during the tenure of Ras Gugsa. Moreover, the Yejju
lords contributed to the survival of the institution of the weakened monarchy. The works of travelers
of the period are not only stories of decline and destruction. Their accounts also show some positive
developments. Therefore, the period needs additional research.
 As we have seen already during the Zemene Mesafint, the central government was greatly weakened.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church also faced serious doctrinal divisions. The country lacked peace
and stability. The peasantry suffered more than any other section of Ethiopian society. In order to
solve these problems and reunite the country, a young man named Kassa Hailu rose against the
Worashe dynasty. In four major battles, the young Kassa defeated powerful regional lords of
northern Ethiopia. In Nov 1852 Kassa defeated Dejach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at the battle of
Guramba. In April 1853, Dejach Kassa routed the vassals of Ras Ali Alula, including Dejach Birru
Goshu and Dejach Birru Aligaz, at the battle of Gorgora Bichen. Then Kassa launched an attack
against Ras Ali Alula, and defeated Ali at the battle of Ayshal on 29 June 1853. The battle of Ayshal
was very significant as it put an end to the Worashe rule. The battle of Ayshal did not mark the end
of the period of the Zemene Mesafint because there was still another powerful lord in northern
Ethiopia particularly in Simen i.e., Dejach Wube Haile Mariam. Kassa Hailu had to remove the last
obstacle to assuming power. Therefore, the forces of Kassa Hailu and Dejach Wube met at a place

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 called Deresge in Feb 1855. Dejazmach Kassa Hailu defeated Dejach Wube and ascended to the
throne as Tewodros II, King of Kings of Ethiopia. The battle of Deresge brought an end to the period
of the Zemene Mesafint.
 Emperor Tewodros II attempted to introduce several important reforms. In this regard, we can
mention attempts to unify the country, the introduction of a centralized administration, and the
creation of a national army to prepare the country for possible foreign and particularly Egyptian
aggression. Tewodros II was aware of the value of military training, military discipline, and proper
firearms. He got this lesson while he was a rebel, from the battle of Deberki in 1848 where his lost
many fighters while fighting against Egyptians. Tewodros realized that he was routed by the
Egyptian soldiers who had marked superiority over the forces of Kassa Hailu in military training
and in the quality of weapons.
 Therefore, Tewodros introduced a military reform which included modern military training with
military drills and introduced military titles like AserAleqa (corporal), Hamsa Aleqa (sergeant),
Meto Aleqa (lieutenant) and Shaleqa (Major). He also wanted his soldiers to be armed with modern
and very efficient firearms.
 Emperor Tewodros II launched campaigns against Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa to unite Ethiopia. He
punished those who tried to resist him. His punitive measures were not limited to his adversaries.
Tewodros also punished his own soldiers to enforce strict military discipline. But these measures
had some undesired effects and many of his own soldiers eventually deserted him.
 The relationship b/n Emperor Tewodros II and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church was generally
unhealthy. Tewodros quarrelled with the clergy and the patriarch, Abune Selema not because of
religious reasons. What brought Emperor Tewodros and the Church into conflict was Tewodros’
attempt to confiscate the extra land holdings of the church to redistribute it among landless
peasants. He also declared that each church should retain land that could maintain no more than two
priests and three deacons. That brought him into conflict with the Orthodox clergy. As a result, Abune
Selama excommunicated Tewoodros. In response, Tewodros’ imprisoned Abune Selama in 1864
and the Abune died in prison in 1867.
 The other reason that brought the downfall of Emperor Tewodros was the serious opposition he faced
from the regional lords of the various regions in Ethiopia who lost their regional power because of
Tewodros’s centralization. He appointed his own men in the regions he incorporated. Just a decade
after Tewodros had assumed the imperial throne; most of the Ethiopian territories that were
incorporated by him by force of arms had fallen under big regional lords including Tisso Gobeze of
Wolkait, Dajach Kassa Mercha of Tigrai, Tedla Gualu of Gojjam, Wagshum Gobeze Gebremedhin
of Lasta and Negus Menelik of Shewa.
 Emperor Tewodros was aware of Ethiopia’s backwardness and made serious attempts to modernize
Ethiopia, particularly because he wanted to build well trained, disciplined and well-armed national
army. Tewodros was not solely interested in importing European manufactured goods. He rather
sought firearms to be manufactured in Ethiopia by the Ethiopians. For this he wanted European
assistance and wrote letters to Queen Victoria of England to send him skilled personnel.
Unfortunately, Tewdros could not get a quick positive response from the British government for his
request for British technical assistance. Disappointed by lack of response from the British
government, Emperor Tewodros II took Captain Cameron, the British consul and European
missionaries in Ethiopia as hostages and forced them to manufacture mortars in his gun-foundry

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 established at Gafat near his capital, Debre Tabor. Although the European missionaries had no
experience in arms production, Tewodros forced them to manufacture mortars including the largest
one which he named Sevastopal.
 The British government tried to convince Tewodros to release European captives by sending
Hormuzd Rassam promising that the British were ready to send him the skilled personnel he
requested. Nevertheless, Tewodros was not willing to release the hostages. Therefore, in 1867, the
British government sent a military expedition against Ethiopia led by General Robert Napier with
a limited objective of releasing European captives. By 1867, the army of Emperor Tewodros had
declined to 5,000-10,000 while the British force was composed of 32,000-40,000 men. In addition, the
British had a marked superiority over the Ethiopian forces, both in military training and the quality
of firearms. On the April 10, 1868 the British forces routed the Ethiopian forces led by Fit Gebreye
at the battle of Arogee. In this battle, the righthand man of Emperor Tewodros, Fitawrari Gebreye
lost his life. The death of Fitawrari Gebreye was a big blow to Tewodros. The British eventually
stormed Meqdela. General Napier demanded the unconditional surrender of Tewodros. But
Tewodros was not willing to do so. Emperor Tewodros II first released all the European hostages
and then committed suicide on April 13, 1868 at Meqdela rather than surrender to the British. The
British soldiers looted Ethiopian treasury at Meqdela. The forces under General Robert Napier also
took Prince Alemayehu Tewodros and his mother and wife of the late Emperor Tewodros i.e., Etege
Tiruwork as captives and left Ethiopia.
 The death of Emperor Tewodros again led to the usual power struggle among the leading regional
lords. Nevertheless, the objective reality of the period was quite different from that of the Zemene
Mesafint. Tewodros has already made himself as a good model for his successors to keep the
unification of Ethiopia. As a result, the powerful lords were determined to become emperor. Thus all
the three powerful rivals, namely: Dejzmach Kassa Mircha of Tigray, Wagshum Gobezie Gebre
Medhin of Lasta and Menilek Haile Melekot of Shewa, wanted to become king of kings of Ethiopia
like Tewodros.
 Of the three contenders to assume the Imperial throne, the first to succeed the late Tewodros was
Wagshum Gobezie Gebre Medhin of Lasta, who took the throne name Emperor Tekle Giorgis. The
reign of Emperor Tekle Giorgis was not more than three years long. His authority was seriously
challenged by other feudal princes of Gojjam, Shewa and Tigray. Although he tried to consolidate
his authority, the other contenders for power were not willing to obey and recognize him. Kassa
Mircha of Tigray, for instance, was not willing to pay tribute to the new Emperor. Finally, in July
1871, at the battle of Asem Dejzmach Kassa Mircha of Tigray defeated and captured Emperor Tekle
Giorgis and brought an end to Emperor Tekle Giorgis’ short reign. That was because of the modern
weapons Kassa Mircha received from General Napier for helping the British forces on their march
to Meqdela to fidght against Tewodros. In 1872, Dejzmach Kassa Mircha declared himself Emperor
Yohannis IV of Ethiopia and ruled from 1872 to 1889.
 Although Emperor Tewodros’ plan to create a united Ethiopia did not materialize, there was no
return to the Zemene Mesafint. The idea of Ethiopian unity was adopted and implemented by the
successors of Tewodros, including Yohannis IV, though with differing styles. Emperor Yohannis IV
was politically liberal and followed an administration that resembled federalism. Yohannis was
willing and ready to share power with his vassals. He granted a great deal of autonomy to regional
and dynastic rulers. In this regard, in 1878, he forced Menilek of Shewa to drop his title of king of

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 kings and confirmed his title of king of Shewa. Emperor Yohannis IV also designated Ras Adal
Tesema of Gojjam as Negus of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881. Yohannis IV did not interfere in the
internal affairs of his vassals as long as they recognized his over-lordship and paid tribute.
 Emperor Yohannis IV devoted most of his time and energy to defending his country from external
invaders. He fought successful wars against Egyptian invaders. He also worked hard to stop the
territorial expansion of the Italians from Massawa to the hinterland of Ethiopia. He also fought
against the Mahadist forces in Sudan and lost his life in the battle of Metemma in 1889. Although the
Ethiopian forces were about to celebrate victory over the Mahadists, Yohannis was seriously
wounded, and victory turned into defeat.
The Shift of the Political Centre from the North to Shewa
 Although Emperor Yohannis IV had designated Ras Mengesha as his heir and successor, it was
Negus Menilek of Shewa who formally inherited the throne from Emperor Yohannis IV. As
mentioned already, the pioneer of the modern Ethiopian state formation was Emperor Tewodros II.
But Tewodros could not achieve his goals of national unification. Emperor Yohannis IV was
somewhat successful in building an empire where regional hereditary rulers enjoyed the right of
internal autonomy. Nevertheless, the process of the Ethiopian empire’s formation was not completed.
Negus Menilek of Shewa, who crowned himself king of the kings of Ethiopia in 1889, learnt from the
experiences and failures of his predecessors and made a great effort to complete the national
unification process. During the reign of Emperor Menilek II, the size of the old Christian kingdom
grew by more than double and, thanks to the remarkable victory the Ethiopians scored over the
Italian forces at Adwa in 1896, Ethiopia got her first internationally recognized modern boundaries.
The main features of the reign of Emperor Menilek II included:
1. Large scale territorial expansion. He extended the territory of the Shewan Kingdom to the south,
southwest, and southeastern Ethiopia.
2. Defending the country against colonial aggression by mobilizing the entire Ethiopian population
3. The process of modernization in Ethiopia that was begun by Emperor Tewodros
3.3. Territorial Expansion and the Incorporation of Kingdoms
People’s Reaction to the Policy of Centralization
 Territorial expansions by the kings of the central highland kingdom were common even in the
medieval period. Eg. King Amde Tsion had embarked on a major territorial expansion.
 As we have seen, one of the main features of Negus and later Neguse Negest Menelik was the forcible
incorporation of vast territories in to the southern, southwestern, and southeastern territories of
present-day Ethiopia. When Menilek was king of Shewa, he began to expand his territory. Ethiopian
export commodities such as ivory, gold, civet, coffee, and even slaves were mostly obtained in these
areas, notably in southern Ethiopia. Nigus Menelik, more than any other monarch before him, appears
to have attempted to gain from the natural wealth of southwestern Ethiopia. Menelik desired to
govern lands in Southern Ethiopia and to realize his aim of extending into this fertile region, he
worked hard to improve the quantity and quality of his weaponry. Menilek also wanted to control
the long-distance trade in southern and southwestern Ethiopia.
 Menilek’s territorial expansion had three phases. The first covered the period from 1870 to 1889.,
The second stage was conducted b/n 1889 and 1896. The last stage of the expansion was carried out
b/n 1896 and 1900. Negus Menilek of Shewa began his territorial expansion while he was the king of
Shewa in the 1870s. The first to be incorporated by Negus Menilek of Shewa in the early 1870s were

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 the Oromo clans of Shewa. Then the forces of Shewa got the peaceful submission of the Kistane
Gurage people, who were predominantly Christians. The people of Southern Gurage gave the forces
of King Menilek stiff resistance organized under their leader Hassan Enjamo who was from the
people of Qebena. This area was subdued by the forces of Ras Gobena Dache only in 1888, after ten
years of resistance.
 Southwestern Ethiopia, which is very rich in natural resources, was a bone of contention b/n Negus
Menilek of Shewa and Negus Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam. In fact, Emperor Yohannis IV had allowed
Negus Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam to expand in that direction and stopped Menilek’s expansion in
southwestern Ethiopia. Nevertheless, the two kings went to war, and in the subsequent battle fought
at Embabo on 6 June 1882, the forces of Menilek defeated Haimanot’s forces. The Shewan victory
over the forces of Gojjam at the battle of Embabo gave Negus Menilek the opportunity to expand
towards southwestern Ethiopia. After the battle of Embabo, the local rulers of the kingdoms of
southwestern Ethiopia, the five Oromo Kingdoms in the Gibe region and the Leqa states in Wollega
were persuaded to accept peaceful submission to the forces of Negus Menilek and incorporation into
the Shewan kingdom. In return for their peaceful submission, Negus Menilek recognized the internal
administrative autonomy of these kingdoms. King Aba Jifar of Jimma, Jote Tulu of Leqa Qellem
and Kumsa Moreda of Leqa Neqamte belong to the list of local rulers who submitted peacefully to
Menilek in the years b/n 1882 and 1884.
 The campaigns of expansion of the forces of Negus Menilek in the southern and southeastern regions
were not as strong as the resistance in Arsi, Wolaita and Kafa. In these areas, the people put up a stiff
resistance to the Shewan forces. The Arsi Oromo gave the Shewan forces a very stiff resistance. The
Shewan forces had to make 6 unsuccessful military campaigns to incorporate Arsi. In some of these
campaigns launched to incorporate Arsi, Negus Menilek himself personally took part. Finally, after
four years of brave fighting, the Arsi Oromo were defeated in 1886 at the battle of Azule. The well-
armed and militarily better experienced Shewan forces that finally defeated the forces of the Arsi
Oromo were led by Ras Darge, the uncle of Menilek. In the Arsi campaign, the Oromo general Ras
Gobena Dache who had a significant role in the early campaigns of Negus Menelik’s territorial
expansion had taken part as a military commander of the forces of Negus Menelik. The Arsi
campaign was one of the bloody campaigns that claimed the lives of many people. Unlike the rulers
of southwestern Ethiopia, who peacefully submitted to the forces of Menilek, the rulers of the Arsi
Oromo were not granted internal administration. They were removed from their positions and
replaced by governors appointed by the Shewans.
 Arsi served as a stepping stone for Menilek’s expansion into the Emirate of Harar. The Emirate of
Harar was subdued by the forces of Shewa under Menilek after a bloody battle fought b/n the armies
of Menilek and Emir Abdulahi at a place called Chelenqo on 6 Jan 1887. His success at the Chelenqo
battle enabled Negus Menelik of Shewa to control the eastern commercial town of Harar and gave
him full control of the long-distance trade route. In the Chellenqo battle, not only the Harari forces
but also the Oromo people fought against the forces of Shewa under Negus Menelik. Chelenqo, the
main battleground of the war, is about 90 kms from Harar’s historic walled city. This victory brought
an end to the independent existence of the Emirate of Harar. After the incorporation of Harar in
1887, Menilek did not launch campaigns of territorial expansion in any direction until the Wolaita
campaign of 1894, mainly because of the Great Famine in Ethiopia which lasted from 1888 to 1892

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 and was known as Kefu Qen. The Kefu Qen had severely affected the country, particularly the northern
and central regions of Ethiopia.
 The independent kingdom of Wolaita was one of the areas in southern Ethiopia whose rich resources
had attracted the army of Emperor Menilek. The campaign for the incorporation of Wolaita was
probably the bloodiest of all the campaigns. In this campaign, Emperor Menelik personally
participated. Many notable war leaders of Emperor Menelik such as Ras Michael, Fitawrari
Gebeyehu, Liqe Meqwas Abate, Dejach Balcha, Ras Wolde Giorgis and Aba Jifar II had taken part
in the Wolaita campaign. The Wolaita people gave the forces of Emperor Menelik stiff resistance.
The Wolaia fought against the forces of Emperor Menelik II for a long time employing their own
indigenous techniques of warfare.
 The people of Wolaita, organized under their king KawoTona, put up a determined fight to repulse
the forces of Emperor Menilek II. Finally, KawoTona, the last king of Wolaita, was wounded and
captured, and he became a prisoner for the rest of his life. The 1894 campaign of Emperor Menelik
II brought an end to the independence of the kingdom of Wolaita and the kingdom became part and
parcel of the emerging modern Ethiopian Imperial State.
 The other independent kingdom to be incorporated by the forces of Emperor Menilek was the
kingdom of Kafa. The campaign to incorporate Kafa was carried out after Ethiopia’s spectacular
victory over the Italians. Kafa was an independent state with its own dynasty. The people of Kafa
stood firm against Emperor Menilek’s forces, led by their monarch, Tato Gaki Sherecho. Ras Wolde
Giorgis commanded Emperor Menilek’s army.
 Like to that of Wolaita Kingdom, the military confrontation b/n the forces of Emperor Menelik and
the kingdom of Kafa was concluded with immense loss of human life and material damage. Tato
Gaki Sherecho, the last king of Kafa, was wounded and captured, and he became a prisoner for the
rest of his life until his exile and death.
 The post-Adwa campaigns of territorial expansion of Emperor Menelik were intended to check the
advance of the European colonial powers who sought to pre-empt Menilk’s further expansion. It
was in the post-Adwa period that Emperor Menelik managed to incorporate Beni Shangul,
Gambella, Borena and much of the Ogaden.
 The rulers of the newly incorporated regions of the Ethiopian Empire were also actively involved in
the last campaigns of subduing new territories. eg, in the incorporation of the Sheikhdoms of Assosa,
Beni Shangul, and Khomosha, the role of the rulers of the newly incorporated regions i.e., Dejach
Jote Tulu of Qellem and Dejach Kumsa Moreda of Neqamte was very significant. They gave military
support to Ras Mekonnen, who was sent there to incorporate these Sheikhdoms. The defection of
Sheikh Abdurrahman Hojele to the side of Ras Mekonnen aborted the united resistance of the local
people against the strong army of Emperor Menilek II. Following the incorporation, Menilek
reinstated the loyal rulers to power as vassals. Those local rulers who submitted peacefully were
allowed to stay as local rulers under Menilek. But those who resisted were dismissed from power and
there was much land alienation.
The Nature of the North and South’s Land Tenure Systems
 Northern and southern Ethiopia had different land tenure systems, especially after the 19th c. The
traditional community system of land ownership has continued in the north. Many provinces in
Ethiopia’s northern regions, including Tigray, Begemder, Gojjam, Wollo, and Northern Shewa, had
communal land ownership. Anyone who could prove a blood connection to the landowner or the

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 original possessor of the land, as well as the creator of the first settlement, had the right to claim the
land. As a result, most of the land in northern Ethiopia was based on the rist system. Rist is the
hereditary right to hold and use land. The land tenure also included the gult system, which is a right
to collect tax. At the beginning, gult rights were not hereditary.
Gabbar -Melkegna System
 The gebbar system was the basic means of surplus appropriation of the feudal class. A gebbar was
a land holding peasant who had to pay giber, or tribute, to the state. In many cases, tributes were paid
in kind or by providing unpaid forced labor. Free labor service was given by the peasant and members
of his family to the bale gult or Melkegna in times of grain production, construction, transportation,
guarding prisoners, and domestic services like grinding grain and fetching water and firewood for
local chiefs. The gult owners not only kept a portion of the tax collected from their gult areas, but also
got gifts and services, including unpaid labor. Gradually, gult rights became hereditary and the riste-
gult system emerged. Gult land was given by the state to government officials. Gult owners could be
either individuals or institutions, such as churches and monasteries. The gult owners were known as
Melkegnas, and they represented the government in their gult areas. Therefore, they were influential
and powerful in their localities.
Changing Dynamics of Land Tenure in the South
 Menilek’s expansion to the south, west and east brought significant changes. On the one hand, it
eased the congestion in the rist lands of the north by providing new areas of settlement. Second, it
transposed the gebbar- melkegna relations to most of the newly incorporated regions. In fact, the
peacefully submitted areas to the forces of Menilek were free from the burden of the gebbar-
melkegna system and thus managed to retain some degree of autonomy.
 In the newly incorporated southern territories, peasants were gradually alienated from their land.
This began with the introduction of the qelad system of land measurement. The institutionalization
of the qelad system not only culminated in the appropriation of much land by the central
government but also facilitated the privatization of land. It also increased the state revenue since it
classified land tax based on the level of fertility of the land. The qelad system reduced the status of
the peasants of the newly incorporated areas from land-owing farmers to insecure tenants on their
own land. Poor peasants who were unable to purchase land or those who were driven away from
their land were forced to migrate to the urban centers in search of job.
3.4. External Relations, Challenges and Threats
The External Challenge
 In order to materialize his dream of modernization, Tewodros sought the techno logical assistance
of the European nations. Lack of positive reply from the British government prompted Tewodros
to detain the Britsh consul and other Europeans. That led to the British military expedition against
Tewodros which ended with the stroming and plunder of Meqdela by the British army. After getting
the release of European captives, the British forces withdrew from Ethiopia.
The Battles of Gundet and Gura
 In 1875, Egypt’s ruler, Khedieve Ismael Pasha launched a war of aggression on Ethiopia from 3
directions. In Oct 1875, one of these invading forces, led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha, occupied
Harar. Another group led by Werner Muzinger, a Swiss mercenary who was the main architect of
Egyptian aggression in Ethiopia, tried to enter Ethiopia through Tajura. But Muzinger and his army
of about 500 men were ambushed and destroyed by the Afar people. Another well-armed Egyptian

9 We Teach Children Not Subject

 army under the command of a Danish colonel named Arendrup marched into the interior from the
port of Massawa. In Oct 1875, his army had reached the Mereb River. In Oct, Emperor Yohannis
IV issued a mobilization order. In command of an estimated army of between 20,000 and 25,000,
Yohannis crossed the Mereb River and and fought against the Egyptian army at the battle of Gundet
on Nov 16, 1875. After two hours of effective attack on the encircled Egyptian troops, Ethiopians
scored complete victory. At the battle of Gundet, Colonel Arendrup and about 1,320 Egyptian
troops were killed. Although the battle of Gundet was a humiliating defeat for the Egyptians, they
did not withdraw from Ethiopian territory. Despite the defeat at the battle of Gundet, Khedieve
Ismael prepared a second, larger expedition against Ethiopia to avenge his earlier setback. In 1876,
about 15,000 well-armed Egyptian troops under the command of Mohammed Ratib Pasha and an
American officer, General Loring invaded Ethiopian territories in the north. The second battle
was fought b/n March 7 and 9 March 1876 at a place called Gura, in what is now Akale Guzay in
Eritrea. The Ethiopians also captured 2,500 Egyptian soldiers and enormous weapons.
 But Ethiopian victories at the battles of Gundet and Gura were not rewarding for Ethiopians. The
Egyptians remained in control of the Ethiopian territories they occupied. The brilliant military
victories in the two battles were not followed by a lasting peace treaty. Emperor Yohannis IV was
neither able nor prepared to push the Egyptians out of either Massawa or Bogos. Defeat in the two
gave Khedieve Ismail an important lesson that he could not realize his dream of annexing Ethiopian
territories by force of arms. The battles also hastened the downfall of Khedive Ismael. The guns
which Emperor Yohannis IV captured from the Egyptian invading troops helped him to establish
his supremacy over the other Ethiopian regional lords.
The Hewett (Adwa) Treaty of 1884
 Emperor Yohannis IV and the British representative Admiral William Hewett signed a treaty in
1884 signed a treaty at Adwa. The agreement was known as the Hewett Treaty or the Adwa Treaty.
In this treaty Yohannis IV agreed to facilitate the safe evacuation of the Egyptian troops trapped
in eastern Sudan via Ethiopia. In return for this, the British, promised to ensure the return of Bogos
to Ethiopia and make Massaw a free port for Ethiopia. Emperor Yohannis IV honored his words by
allowing the encircled Egyptian troops to be evacuated by sending his general Ras Alula Engeda
(Alula Aba Nega). The British on the contrary failed to keep their promises and rather allowed Italy
to occupy Massawa.
The Dogali Incident
 In 1885 Italy, with the help of the British, occupied Massawa and began to expand to the interior
from the coast. The Italian attempt to control the Mereb Melash (Eritrea) was unacceptable both to
Emperor Yohannis IV and his military commander, and to the governor of the Mereb Melash region,
Ras Alula. Therefore, the Italians came into direct conflict with Emperor Yohannis and Ras Alula.
 On 26 Jan 1887, Ras Alula, intercepted and destroyed an Italian army consisting of about 500 soldiers
at a place called Dogali who were on their way to reinforce the Italian fortress at Saati. The Dogali
incident was the first serious blow to the Italian colonial advance in Ethiopia. In other words, Dogali
was the place where the Italians suffered their first defeat by the Ethiopian forces. The Italians
condemned Alula’s attack on their troops at Dogali as an unjust attack and demanded an official
apology from Emperor Yohannis IV. They also demanded that Italy be allowed to occupy Keren and
the Assaurta and the Habab regions, in addition to reoccupying Saati and Wia, which they had

10 We Teach Children Not Subject

 evacuated following their defeat at Dogali. The Dogali incident created great anxiety and provoked
an Italian desire for revenge. It equally offended the British government.
 However, while Italy wanted military revenge, Britain intervened as a peace broker, obviously in
Italy’s interest. A British envoy, Gerald Portal, met Emperor Yohannis IV in Nov 1887 and proposed
an official Ethiopian apology for Ras Alula’s attack on the Italians. This was totally unacceptable for
Ethiopia. Yohannis declared his choice of war rather than accepting these proposed terms for “peace.”
Therefore, the Portal mission failed, and Ethiopia began preparations for the inevitable war. Shortly
afterwards, Emperor Yohannis called his people to arms. In Mar 1888, Yohannis mobilized a large
army of 80,000 soldiers and marched to Saati, which had been preoccupied by the Italians. However,
Yohannis returned without fighting because the Italians refused to come out of their fort and engage
in an open fight. Yohannis did so partly because he felt insecure about his rear owing to the Mahadist
incursions into Gondar and the collusion of his disobedient vassals, Negus Menilek of Shewa and
Negus Teklehaimanot of Gojjam, who were plotting against him. Returning from Saati, Yohannis
waged a devastating punitive campaign against Gojjam. Then he went to Metemma to deal with the
Mahadist threat.
The Battle of Metemma
 Emperor Yohannis faced a triangular problem in the late 1880s. Mahadist soldiers advanced from
the west, slaughtering people, demolishing churches and monasteries, and setting fire to the city of
Gondar. The Italians had already occupied Massawa, Wia and Seati in the Mereb Melash region.
King Menilek of Shewa and TekleHaymanot of Gojjam, his two vassals in the south, were also
disobeying and bothering him. Yohannis postponed his war with the Italians and returned to Debre
Tabor in July 1888. He then marched to Gojjam, where he conducted a devastating punitive
campaign. Tekle Haimanot submitted to the emperor peacefully. Yohannis then moved to Shewa to
punish Menilek. Menilek was ready to resist, and it seemed as if a major civil war was about to break
out. But Yohannis realized that Menilek was being purposely encouraged and armed by the Italians
to attack him.
 Emperor Yohannis IV rightly realized that war with Menilek, who is a fellow Ethiopian, would mean
an advantage for Ethiopia’s foreign enemies, particularly the Italians and the Mahadists who were
threatening her independence from two directions. Menilek, who was preparing to fight against his
overload Yohannis, asked for reconciliation and promised to submit. Yohannis was patient enough
to postpone his campaign against Negus Menilek and to strike the Mahaddists first. Accordingly,
Emperor Yohannis turned towards the Mahadists and marched to Metemma. On 9 Mar 1889, the
Ethiopian forces under Emperor Yohannis and the Mahadist troops, or the Ansars, fought at the
battle of Metemma. Despite their initial success, the Ethiopian forces lost the battle because Emperor
Yohannis was fatally wounded, and his army retreated. Yohannis died the next day. The corpse of
Yohannis was beheaded by the Ansars. This brought a climax to the Mahadist revenge, and they
seemed to be satisfied.
 The battle of Metemma had far-reaching consequences. Internally, it resulted in a dynastic shift of
power from the Tigrean house to Shewa. Although Emperor Yohannis IV had designated Ras
Mengesha as his heir and successor, Negus Menilek of Shewa was crowned Emperor Menilek II,
King of Kings of Ethiopia. Secondly, the absence of strong defense in the north created a golden
opportunity for the Italians, who managed to easily advance further into the Mereb Melash region,
which they proclaimed the Italian colony of Eritrea on the 1st of Jan 1890.

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 Religious Division and Doctrinal Debates
 Most of the Ethiopian Christian monarchs believed that religious uniformity would bring about
national unity. Emperor Yohannis IV, for instance, made an unsuccessful attempt to bring religious
uniformity. He gave the Muslims two options at the Council of Borumeda in 1878: convert to
Orthodox Christianity or loose their property and land. Some Wollo Muslims were baptized, while
others decided to resist under their leaders like Sheikh Telha. Two of the rival Muslim chiefs of Wollo,
Imam Mohammed Ali and Imam Amede Liben (Abba Watew) were offered the choice b/n
immediate baptism and loss of their position in Wollo. Imam Mohammed Ali was baptized Mikael
and Yohannis allowed him to rule western Wollo with the title of Ras. Imam Amede Liben became
Dejazmach Haile Mariam and was allowed to rule the rest of Wollo from Dessie. Both chiefs, however,
were to rule Wollo under the overall authority of Negus Menilek of Shewa.
 Yohannis’ religious policy was not only directed at the Muslims of Wollo but also influenced the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church as well. Religious doctrinal controversies with regional orientation,
such as Tewahedo (union), Qebat, (unction) and Yetsega Lej (grace), weakened the Orthodox
Church during the Zemene Mesafint. Emperor Yohannis IV used the same council at Boru Meda to
end religious doctrinal controversies within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The emperor himself
ordered all the Orthodox Christians to follow only the Tewahedo doctrine. His decision brought an
end to the doctrinal controversies within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
The Battle of Adwa
 Menilek’s relations with the Italians began in 1876 with the arrival of the Italian Geographical
Society in Shewa, led by Marquis Orazio Antinori. Following his arrival Count Pietro Antonelli,
signed a treaty with Menilek in 1883 providing for consular exchange as well as freedom of trade and
religion. In 1887, the two parties also signed a convention of neutrality in the confrontation b/n
Emperor Yohannis IV and the Italians. Finally, Menilek and the Italians signed the controversial
Treaty of Wuchale on May 2, 1889. Article 3 and Article 17 of the Wuchale Treaty are worthy of
mentioning. While article 3 gave legal basis for the Italian colonization of Eritrea, the Italian version
of Article 17 led to the battle of Adwa.
 Article 17 of the Wuchale Treaty had different meanings in its Italian and Amharic versions.
According to the Amharic version, “Menilek may (if he so desired) use the services of the Italian
government in his dealings with foreign powers.” But the Italian version made it mandatory that
“Menilek had to conduct all his foreign contacts via the Italian government.” The Italian version
reduced Ethiopia to the status of an Italian protectorate. When Menilek wrote letters to England
and Germany, he was told that he should write to them only through his protector, Italy. Now Menilek
has come to realize that he was cheated by the Italians. Therefore, Emperor Menilek wrote his famous
circular in 1891 to the European governments, officially proclaiming Ethiopia’s position. Italy tried
to persuade Menilek to accept the Italian version of Article 17 of the Wuchale Treaty. Moreover, the
Italian governors of Eritrea pursued a policy of subverting his authority in Tigray. The Tigrean
princes under Ras Mengesha Yohannis expressed their solidarity with the Italians by swearing on 6
Dec 1891, an oath of alliance known as the Mereb Convention. In Feb 1893, Menilek unilaterally
abrogated article 17 of the Wuchale Treaty. Empress Taytu had an instrumental role in the
abrogation of this article. Nevertheless, the Italian subversion of policy could not last long. In June
1894, Ras Mengesha and his followers came to Addis Ababa and submitted to Menilek II. To make
matters even worse for the Italians, a serious revolt broke out in Akale Guzay in 1894, led by Dejach
12 We Teach Children Not Subject
 Bahta Hagos. Disappointed by these setbacks, the Italians went ahead to realize their dream of
conquering the whole of Ethiopia.
 Adwa, in fact, is a collective name given to a campaign that began in 1895 and ended with the main
battle of Mar 1, 1896. The Adwa campaign had 3 phases: the battle of Ambalage (7 Dec 1895), the
siege of Mekelle (7–21 January) and the final battle of Adwa (1 Mar 1896).
 At Ambalage, the Ethiopian forces led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu routed the Italian troops. The Italians
then fortified themselves at Mekelle, where Etege Taytu’s forces laid siege. The Italians were
eventually forced to surrender as the Ethiopian forces under Etege Taytu had control of the stream
from which the Italians used to fetch water. Surprisingly enough, Menilek allowed the surrendered
Italian soldiers to go north and rejoin their compatriots. Finally, at Adwa, a fierce battle was fought,
and the Ethiopians scored a major victory over the Italians on Mar 1, 1896. In the Adwa campaign,
Ethiopians from every corner of the country took part and fought the common enemy together,
irrespective of their ethnic, religious, and political differences. Emperor Menelik II and his wife
Etege Tayitu had personally participated in the campaign. Most of the distinguished military
commanders of Ethiopia including those who had close ties and cooperation with the Italians, like
Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula Engda of Tigray and leaders of the newly incorporated
territories had willingly and actively participated in the Adwa campaign. These included king Abba
Jifar II of Jimma, Kawo Tona of Wolaita, Dejach Jote Tulu of Leqqa Qellem and and Dejach Gebre
Egziabher of Leqqa Qellem who had mobilized their forces and accompanied Emperor Menelik as
far as Woreilu. Nevertheless, they were eventually given a royal order from Emperor Menelik to
return and guard the Ethiopian frontiers.
 Among the prominent war leaders who took part in the Adwa campaign we can mention Ras
Mekonnen, Fitawrari Gebeyehu, Ras Mikael, Negus Teklehaimanot, Ras Wolle Bitul, Ras
Mengesha Atikem and Dejach Balcha the like. The defection from the Italian camp of their two
Tigrian collaborators, Ras Sibhat Aregawi and Dajach Hagos Teferi in Feb 1896 enabled the
Ethiopian side to acquire valuable information about the Italians. In contrast, the Italians were given
wrong information about the Ethiopian forces.
 The number of Ethiopian forces who took part in the Adwa campaign was about 100,000 of whom
nearly 3-quarters were armed with modern rifles. At the final battle of Adwa on 1 Mar 1896, the
Ethiopian forces fought bravely and scored a resounding victory over the Italian troops. The Italians
lost about 7,000 of their men; 2,500 were badly wounded, and 3,500 were captured as prisoners of
war.
 After losing the battle, General Baratieri, the Italian governor of Eritrea, ordered a general retreat.
Of the three generals who led the Italian brigades at Adwa two of them i.e., General Arimondi and
General Dabormida lost their lives while General Albertone was captured. The Italian dream of
reducing Ethiopia to a colony ended in failure. Therefore, Italy was left only with control over
Eritrea. Italy was forced to sign a peace treaty with Ethiopia on Oct 26, 1896 in Addis Ababa. The
Addis Ababa Treaty declared the Treaty of Wuchale null and void. In this treaty, Emperor Menilek
II formally recognized the Italian colony of Eritrea. Italy too, became the first European state to
officially recognize the independence of Ethiopia minus Eritrea without any reservation.
3.5. The Victory of Adwa
The Significance of the Victory of Adwa

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 The Ethiopian victory over the Italians at Adwa was a significant landmark in the history of modern
Ethiopia. In Italy, the humiliating defeat at Adwa led to the resignation of the Italian Prime Minister,
Crispi. The Ethiopian victory was crucial not only for Ethiopia, but also for the peoples of Africa and
black peoples of African descent in other countries, such as the United States and South Africa.
 Regarding the external significance of the battle of Adwa, the Ethiopian victory over the white
Italians restored black dignity and pride in places as far away as South Africa and the United States.
Adwa’s victory also taught Africans and people of African descent a vital lesson: black people are
not inferior to white people. Adwa also contributed to the birth and development of black movements
like Pan-Africanism, Ethiopianism, Rastafarianism, etc. Adwa was taken by the entire black race
in Africa and elsewhere as a source of pride and dignity. The Africans and peoples of African origin
learned that the whites were not invincible and that they could defeat the white colonizers and achieve
independence following the Ethiopian model. In general, Adwa gave a powerful impetus to the anti-
colonial and anti-imperialist struggle of peoples who were under the yoke of colonialism.
 Internally, the victory of Adwa guaranteed the political independence of Ethiopia, although Eritrea
remained under Italian control until 1941. Adwa enabled Ethiopia to be the sole independent
African country whose independence was recognized by the colonial powers in the era of
colonialism. Adwa forged Ethiopia’s own destiny, free from the colonial rule. This had a far-reaching
impact on the political economy of Ethiopia and the psychology of the people. The Adwa victory
showed Ethiopians that if they are united, they would be strong and invincible, and nothing would be
impossible if the Ethiopians remained united. The Ethiopian people, even those who had grievances
against Emperor Menilek II, were not reluctant to die for Ethiopia. The Ethiopian victory at Adwa
also enabled Ethiopia to have an internationally recognized boundary. Accordingly, Emperor
Menilek II signed several boundary treaties with the neighboring colonial powers. Ethiopia signed
boundary delimitation agreements in March 1897 with French Somaliland (Djibouti), with the
Italian colony of Eritrea in July 1900, 1902 and 1908, with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in May 1902,
with British East Africa or Kenya in Dece 1907, and with Italian Somaliland in May 1908. In fact,
these treaties were not followed by boundary demarcation, and they are still sources of conflict.
The Birth of Eritrea as an Italian Colony
 It is often claimed that the Treaty of Wuchale, signed b/n Menilek and the Italian envoy, Count Pietro
Antonellion on May 2, 1889, particularly article 3, directly led to the creation of the Italian colony of
Eritrea. But the Wuchale Treaty was preceded by long years of Italo-Shewan friendship.
 As mentioned above, the first official contact b/n Negus of Shewas and Italy goes back to 1876 with
the coming of the Antinori mission. In 1879, an Italian shipping company called Rubatino purchased
Assab from the local Afar Sultan. In 1882, the Rubatino Shipping Company transferred Assab to the
Italian government. While Menilek gave the Italian mission a resting place near Ankober called Let
Marefya, the Italians assigned an agent to buy firearms for Menilek. This alliance was further
strengthened by the Treaty of Commerce and Friendship, which was signed b/n Menilek and the
Italian agent, Antonelli, in 1883. The next treaty b/n Menilek and Italians was signed in 1887. It was
the Convention of Neutrality, in which Menilek agreed to remain neutral in the event of war b/n
Emperor Yohannis IV and the Italians.
 Menilek sought to establish friendly relations with Italy to realize his ambition of assuming the
Ethiopian Imperial throne. The Italians, too, wanted to forge strong ties with Menilek to achieve

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 their ambition of colonizing Ethiopia. Negus Menilek was not in favor of the Italian desire to colonize
Ethiopia. The Treaty of Wuchale was an extension of the friendship b/n Menilek and the Italians.
 Article III of the Wuchale Treaty delimited the boundary b/n Italian-occupied territories in the
Mereb Melash region and the rest of Ethiopia. The villages of Arafaili, Segeneity, Asmara, and Adi
Yohannis served as boundary lines for the Italian possessions. The territorial cessions of Emperor
Menilek to the Italians were not satisfactory for the Italian colonial dream. The Italians began to
push beyond the borders defined in Article III of the Wuchale Treaty. Moreover, the Italians cheated
Ras Mekonnen, the cousin of Emperor Menilek, who went to Rome to get ratification of the whole
treaty. They persuaded Ras Mekonnen to sign an additional convention.
 On 1 October 1889. This was aimed at advancing further towards the Mereb River under the cover of
delimiting the boundary based on effective occupation. Indeed, against the protest of Menilek, the
Italians occupied the whole of the Mereb Melash region as far as the Mereb River, and on Jan 1,
1890 the Italians declared the creation of their colony of Eritrea.
3.6. Power Struggle among Ruling Elites, 1906-1935 Problem of Succession
The Problem of Succession
 The year 1906 was an important landmark in the reign of Emperor Menilek II. In that year, Menilek
suffered the first stroke that eventually claimed his life in 1913. It was also in that same year that the
cousin and most probable successor of Emperor Menilek, Ras Mekonnen, passed away.
Subsequently, the question of succession to the imperial throne became a very important issue. Again,
it was in 1906 that Britain, France and Italy concluded the so-called Tripartite Treaty in an attempt to
safeguard their territorial interests in the Horn of Africa in the case of succession strife in Ethiopia
after the death of Menilek, who had no officially designated heir and successor.
 Although the health condition of Emperor Menilek was deteriorating from time to time, he took some
measures to avert the possible political chaos in Ethiopia following his death. In Oct 1907, Emperor
Menilek II established the first Council of Ministers in the history of Ethiopia. The second very
important measure taken by Emperor Menilek to avert succession problem was to officially designate
his grandson Lej Iyasu in May 1909 as his legal successor to the Imperial throne. As Lej Iyasu was by
then only 12 years old, Ras Tesema Nadew, the governor of Illubabor, was promoted to the rank of
Ras Bitwoded and made the regent of Lej Iyasu.
 The designation of Lej Iyasu as the legal successor of the Emperor was not welcomed by Etege Taytu,
the influential wife of Menilek. Employing a skillful policy of marriage alliances, Taytu managed to
strengthen her power and influence in Ethiopian politics. The most significant political marriage
arranged by Etege Taytu was that of her nephew Ras Gugsa and Emperor Menilek’s daughter,
Zewditu. Although Lej Iyasu was officially designated as the successor of Emperor Menilek in 1909,
Etege Taytu continued to exercise supreme power. Taytu’s action provoked opposition from the
Shewan nobility headed by Ras Bitwoded Tesema Nadew and Fitawrari Habte Giorgis Dinegde. Ras
Mikael of Wollo, the father of Lej Iyasu also strongly protested against the illegitimate acts of Taytu.
The nobility, who were victims of Taytu’s shumsher (appointment and dismissal) also, joined the
opposition against Taytu. Fitawrari Habte Giorgis Dinegde who had a key role in inciting the army
known as Mehal Sefari against Taytu led the coup of 1910, which effectively removed Taytu from the
imperial court. In 1910, Taytu was forced to leave the palace and retire to Entoto, where she died in
1918.

15 We Teach Children Not Subject

 Lej Iyasu
 The removal of Etege Taytu from the palace in 1910 was followed by a reshuffling of political power
in favor of the Shewan nobility. However, the regent of Lej Iyasu, Ras Bitwoded Tesema Nadew,
died in April 1911. Unexpectedly, Lej Iyasu refused to accept a new regent. The sudden death of Ras
Bitwoded Tesema gave the teenager Lej Iyasu the opportunity to exercise political authority on his
own, although he was not officially crowned even after the death of Menelik in 1913. Anyway, Lej
Iyasu exercised full political power from 1911 to 1916. The only serious challenge to Lej Iyasu’s
assumption of power came from Ras Abate Buayalew. Abate seems to have a plan to be the next
regent following the death of Ras Bitwoded Tesema Nadew. Ras Abate reportedly made an
unsuccessful attempt to break into the palace. Finally, the possible bloodshed was avoided by the
intervention of the patriarch, Abune Mathewos.
 Lej Iyasu was too young and without the required experience to rule a big empire like Ethiopia. But
he had introduced significant social and economic reforms. Lej Iyasu tried to give Ethiopian Muslims
equal status by integrating them into his administrative hierarchy. He gave financial support for the
establishment of mosques and, later, established marriage alliances with local Muslim notables.
 Lej Iyasu also introduced a system of auditing government property and formed a municipal police
force known as Terenbule. He established a separate Department of Education. Iyasu also took
measures against the Quragngna system, whereby the accused and the accuser were chained together
until justice was served. He also tried to do away with the unfair traditional practice of thief
detection, called Leba Shay. Iyasu’s period became very controversial because of his religious policy.
His religious policy was eventually used by his internal and foreign adversaries to remove him from
power. What Lej Iyasu tried to do regarding religion could be briefly explained as an attempt to
introduce an equitable system whereby both Christians and Muslims would live as equal citizens.
Iyasu was not providing special attention and favor to Islam over Christianity as his opponents were
blaming him. He continued building churches and giving endowments to churches and monasteries
as his predecessors were doing. Lej Iyasu also felt that similar encouragement should be given to
Islam and Muslim religious institutions.
 In fact, Lej Iyasu had built a polygamous family, continued his adultery, and showed disrespect and
contempt for the old and apparently corrupt nobility. He was often absent from his capital, Addis
Ababa, owing to his frequent wanderings to the provinces. All these were issues taken by his
opponents to charge him with immorality and irresponsible leadership. Iyasu had developed a
particularly close relationship with the Somali people and their leaders, who considered him a great
national hero and rose in anger when he was deposed in 1916.
 In 1914, Iyasu crowned his father, Ras Mikael, Negus of Tigray and Wollo. Lej Iyasu is accused of
promoting his relatives, friends, and those with whom he had matrimonial connections at the expense
of the Shewan nobility. He took the governorship of Sidamo from the Adwa veteran, Dejach Balcha
Safo (Balcha Aba Nefso) and gave it to a new ally, and brother-in-law, Negadras Haile Giorgis. Haile
Giorgis was also given the rank of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, which had been held by
Fitawrari Habte Giorgis Dinegde. Moreover, Lej Iyasu removed Dejach Teferi Mekonnen from his
family fief, Harar and transferred him to Kafa. The combination of all these actions disappointed
the Shewan nobility and encouraged them to unite to remove Lej Iyasu from power.
 Lej Iyasu also antagonized the neighboring colonial powers of Italy, France and Britain by following
a pro-German and pro-Turkish policy. This was viewed with great alarm by them because, at that
16 We Teach Children Not Subject
 time, they were engaged in the First World War, against Germany and Turkey. Iyasu was also
providing material and moral support to the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid Mohammed
Abdullah Hassen who was fighting against British and Italian colonizers in Somalia. As a result, the
three colonial powers allied with the Ethiopian internal forces against Lej Iyasu. Britain, France and
Italy sent a joint note to the Shewan nobility asking for the removal of Lej Iyasu in Sep 1916. The
Mehal Sefari too, stood against Lej Iyasu. While Lej Iyasu was on his usual tour of the Ogden, his
opponents assembled in Addis Ababa and convinced Abune Mathewos, to excommunicate him. The
coup against Iyasu was approved by both the Abun and the Echege. On Sep 27, 1916, Lej Iyasu was
deposed. In his place, Zewditu Menilek was named Empress, and Dejach Teferi Mekonnen was
named Ras and heir to the throne. Negus Mikael, Iyasu’s father, attempted to alter the situation by
leading a large army from Dessie to Shewa. Although the forces of Negus Mikael had scored an initial
victory at the battle of Tora Mesk, the forces of Negus Mikael were completely defeated and Mikael
himself was captured at the last decisive and bloody battle of Segele, near the town of Sheno, fought
on Oct 27, 1916. Iyasu remained a fugitive until he was captured in Tigray in 1921. He was placed
under the custody of Ras Kassa Hailu. In 1932, Iyasu escaped from prison with the help of Ras Hailu
of Gojjam. He was again captured and confined to a prison in Garamuleta, Hararghe. He remained
there until his death in 1936.
The Diarchy (1916-1930)
 The battle of Segele restored the Shewan political supremacy. As mentioned above, the 1916 coup
makers crowned the daughter of Emperor Menilek, Zewditu, as Empress and Ras Teferi Mekonnen
as heir to the Imperial throne. Zewditu’s selection as the Empress was unusual, as it was uncommon
to select a woman as a head of state. From 1916 to 1930, Zewditu and Teferi theoretically ruled
together. Practically, however, Teferi’s power grew from year to year while Zewditu became
increasingly powerless and passive. Teferi was more ambitious, enlightened and determined than
Zewditu. Zewditu had the support of the Shewan nobility as she was the daughter of Menilek. She
was very popular amongst the traditionalists, who were headed by Fitawrari Habte Giorgis
Dinegde. The relations b\n Zewditu and Teferi deteriorated when Teferi’s power started to grow
progressively at the expense of Zewditu and the Council of Ministers. Ras Teferi began to exercise
the role of a “regent”. The political ascendancy of Ras Teferi worried the old traditional nobility and
the members of the Council of Ministers, whose power began to diminish from time to time due to
the maneuvers of Ras Teferi. In 1918, Ras Teferi removed all the old ministers except Fitawrari
Habte Giorgis. The traditionalists had the support of the then patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church. Nature seemed in favour of Teferi. In 1926, the major obstacles to his growing power,
Abune Matewos and Fitawrari Habte Giorgis passed away.
 In 1928, Teferi outmaneuvered Dejach Balcha Safo, who had rebelled against Teferi supporting
Zewditu, and took over Balcha’s rich province of Sidamo. In that same year, Dejach Aba Weqaw
also rebelled against Teferi, but he was imprisoned. Finally, the Mehal Sefari pressed Zewditu to
crown Teferi as king. Accordingly, in October 1928, Zewditu crowned Teferi Negus. Ras Teferi
became king of Ethiopia and heir to the throne.
 The last formidable foe to Negus Teferi was the husband of Zewditu, Ras Gugsa Wole. It is said that
Ras Teferi had a key role in the separation of Zewditu from her husband, Ras Gugsa. The
disagreement b\n Teferi and Gugsa led to the battle of Anchim on 31 March 1930. In this battle,

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 where aircraft was used for the first time in Ethiopia for warfare, Ras Gugsa was defeated and killed.
Two days later, Zewditu died, and Negus Teferi assumed the throne as Emperor Haile Selassie I.
Foreign Influences
 Ras Teferi and his supporters had the appreciation and support of European legations. Europeans
saw in the rise of Teferi a bright prospect for capitalist investment in Ethiopia. Teferi also enjoyed
the support and sympathy of foreign powers, particularly after his European tour of 1924. He also
enjoyed almost the full support of the then Ethiopian intellectuals.
The Emergence of Autocracy (1930–1955)
 On Nov 2, 1930, Negus Teferi was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie in a lavish ceremony attended
by foreign dignitaries. Immediately after his coronation, Haile Selassie began to lay the groundwork
for an absolutist state in Ethiopia. His first step was the promulgation of the 1931 constitution. The
1931 Constitution helped Emperor Haile Selassie to strengthen further his power by removing
hereditary rulers. In 1932, the last hereditary ruler of Gojjam, Ras Hailu, was removed and
imprisoned for helping Lej Iyasu to escape from his prison in Fiche. The following year, the kingdom
of Jimma came under complete central government control.
 In the military sphere too, in 1930, the Imperial Bodyguard was established with the help of Belgian
advisors. In 1934, the Holeta Military Academy was set up. These developments were interrupted
by the Italian Fascist Invasion of 1935.
3.7. Italian Aggression and the Patriotic Resistance: Causes and Courses of the War
Causes and Courses of the war
 To take revenge for her humiliating defeat at Adwa in 1896, Italy, launched a war of aggression and
invaded Ethiopia on Oct 3, 1935. Italian colonial interest in Ethiopia gathered a new momentum
after the coming to power in Italy of Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party in 1922. Above everything,
the Italian Fascists and their supporters wanted to restore the former glory of the Ancient Roman
empire by erasing this shameful scar on their history. On Oct 3, 1935, Italian troops crossed the
Mereb River that separated Ethiopia and the Italian Colony of Eritrea. On 8 Nov, the Italians
entered Mekelle. After an initial tactical retreat, the Ethiopian forces tried to check the Italian
advance in Jan 1936. Ras Kassa Hailu was assigned by Emperor Haile Selassie as the overall
commander of the northern front. Ethiopian forces in the north were commanded by Ras Emeru
Haile Selassie, (Shire front), Ras Mulugeta Yegezu, (Enderta front), Ras Kassa Hailu and Ras
Seyoum Mengesha (Temben front). The major weakness of the Ethiopian side was a lack of
coordination. The forces of Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum fought two major battles in Tembien (the
first in January and the second in February 1936). Although ultimately unable to check the advance
of the Italians, the Ethiopian forces fought with zeal and dedication. The forces of Ras Emeru in the
Shere front in the west had also registered some success, ambushing and destroying a force of Italian
ascari (colonial troops) at a place called Endabaguna. The Ethiopian forces under the War Minister
Ras Mulugeta were, however, routed by the Italian forces at the Battle of Amba Aradom, near
Mekelle.
 The final battle on the northern front was fought at Maychew on 31 Mar 1936. The Ethiopian forces
in this battle were commanded by Emperor Haile Selassie I. The emperor mobilized what was left
of the northern front and the Imperial Bodyguard. The Italians fought from well-fortified positions
and had a marked superiority in the air. Despite some initial success, the Ethiopian forces were
eventually defeated. The defeat was followed by merciless aerial bombardment of the retreating

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 Ethiopian troops. Finally, on May 5, 1936, the Italian troops headed by Marshal Badoglio captured
Addis Ababa.
 Meanwhile, Ethiopian forces on the southern and southeastern fronts fought bravely against the
Italians. Ras Desta Damtew, Dejach Nesibu Zamanuel and Dejach Mekonnen Endalkachew
commanded Ethiopian forces against Italian forces led by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani. The Italians
not only had complete control of the air, but they also had numerical superiority over Ethiopian forces
on all fronts. As a result, a few days after Marshal Badoglio arrived in Addis Ababa, Marshal
Rodolfo Graziani arrived in Harar.
 Ethiopia had joined the League of Nations in 1923. Emperor Haile Selassie believed that the League
of Nations might help Ethiopia to stop the Italian aggression. Therefore, the Emperor went to Jeneva
and called for the support of the League. But the response was not good for Ethiopia. It imposed
sanctions on both the victim Ethiopia and the aggressor, Italy.
The Italian Occupation
 The Italian forces under Marshal Badoglio entered Addis Ababa against a background of total
anarchy following the flight of Emperor Haile Selassie I. Badoglio was assigned as the first Italian
viceroy of Ethiopia. But soon, Marshal Badoglio was replaced by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, who
served as viceroy until an assassination attempt was made by Moges Asgedom and Abraha Deboch
to kill him on 19 February 1937. Tens of thousands of innocent civilians in and around Addis Ababa
were mercilessly massacred by the forces of Graziani. Soon after the Addis Ababa massacre,
Graziani was replaced by the more liberal minded viceroy, the Duke of Aosta, who remained in that
position until the final defeat and expulsion of the Italians in 1941. The Italian fascist occupation
which lasted for 5 years, was largely confined to the major towns because of the nationwide patriotic
resistance. It was only in the towns that the Italians left behind traces of their occupation. These towns
include Addis Ababa, Gondar, Dessie, Harar and Jimma. Addis Ababa, which was also the capital
of Italian East Africa, got a new urban settlement pattern, electricity, piped water and many
factories.
 Ethiopia was ruled by fascists for 5 years. The name Ethiopia was abandoned during this time, and
Ethiopia became part of the Italian East African Empire, which included the Italian colonies of
Eritrea and Somaliland in addition to Ethiopia. The Italian East African was divided into six
administrative regions, each with its own capital, listed below.
o Region Capital
1 Eritrea and Tigray Asmara
2 Amhara (Begemder, Wollo, Gojjam and North Shewa) Gondar
3 Oromo-Sidama Jimma
4 Addis Ababa (later renamed Shewa) Addis Ababa
5 Harar Harar
6 Italian Somaliland (including the Ogaden) Mogadishu

 The 5-year Fascist occupation of Ethiopia was marked by large scale road building and the expansion
of motor transport. Roads were very crucial for the success of the fascist military campaigns. Despite
the fascist principle of racial purity, Italian occupation was marked by inter-racial marriages and
the expansion of prostitution. The Italians also controlled the import-export trade in Ethiopia.
The Patriotic Resistance and the War of Liberation

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 Although the Italians defeated the Ethiopian forces in conventional warfare and occupied Addis
Ababa on 5 May 1936, they faced a nationwide patriotic resistance. The resistance could be divided
into two phases. The first could be described as a continuation of the 1935–36 Italo-Ethiopian War.
This phase was characterized by conventional fighting. The February massacre of 1937 marked the
beginning of the second phase which was characterized by guerilla warfare.
 Among the highlights of the first phase was the resistance waged by 3 commanders of the southern
front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dej. Beyene Merid, and Dej. Gebre Mariam Gari. This phase ended with
the capture and execution of Ras Desta Damtew in Feb 1937. The ill coordinated and unsuccessful
assault on the Italians in Addis Ababa in the summer of 1936 is another example of the first phase of
the patriotic struggle. The attempt to attack the Italains in Addis Ababa from several directions was
made by two sons of Ras Kassa i.e., Asfawosen and Abera, Dej. Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras)
Abebe Aregay and Dej. Fekre Mariam Yennadu. Abune Petros, who was the spirit behind the
offensive, was executed and became a martyr of the resistance. The Italians persuaded Asfawosen
Kassa and Abera Kassa to surrender through Ras Hailu Teklehaimanot, who was an Italian
collaborator. But they were executed by the Italians after their surrender
 The second phase of the patriotic struggle, which was largely guerrilla warfare, began soon after the
Italians entered Addis Ababa, and became very strong after the Graziani massacre of 1937. The
February 1937 massacre was a signal for a reign of terror unleashed by the Fascist Black Shirts.
Special targets of the Fascist terror were educated Ethiopians. The Ethiopian Orthodox clergy also
became one of the major victims of the fascist aggression. Many churches and monasteries were
burned by the Italians. Mussolini had ordered the execution of all monks without distinction.
Numerous monks in the ancient monastery of Debre Libanos were murdered by Fascist forces during
the February massacre.
 Although the patriotic resistance was particularly strong in Gojjam, Begemder and Shewa, there was
no part of Ethiopia where the Italians ruled without problems. The guerilla struggle included almost
all provinces in Ethiopia. Ethiopians, irrespective of ethnic and religious differences, fought the
invading forces until 1941. In fact, there were also Ethiopians who were willing to assisst the Italians
against their motherland, Ethiopia. Those Ethiopians who did the dirty work for the Italians were
known as banda. The bandas created more problems for the patriots than the Italians themselves.
The Italians were able to identify nobles who had discontents against Emperor Haile Selassie I and
attracted them to their side and made them became banda. The main collaborator of the Italians was
Ras Hailu Teklehaimanot of Gojjam. Others who joined the Italian camp, at least for a while,
included Ras Seyoum Mengesha of Tigray, Ras Getachew Abate of Shewa, Dej. Ayalew Birru of
Semen and Aba Jobir of Jimma. Dejach Haile Selassie Gugsa of Tigray had already deserted to the
Italian at the beginning of the Italian invasion and provided them with vital intelligence about
Ethiopian military positions.
 Despite such collaborations, the patriotic resistance gradually weakened the Italian occupation. The
outbreak of the Second World War and Italy’s entry into World War II on the side of Germany in
June 1940 ended Ethiopia’s international isolation. Now the British have decided to provide
military help to Emperor Haile Selassie and the Ethiopian patriots. That was mainly because the
British colonies of Kenya, Sudan and British Somaliland were threatened by the Italain occupation
of Ethiopia. Therefore, the British launched 3 major offensives against the Italians in Ethiopia: two
from Sudan, and one from Kenya, against Mussolini’s East African Empire. Emperor Haile Selassie

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 was brought from England to the Sudan. He was accompanied by Brigadier General Dan Sandford
and Major Orde Wingate who led the Gedeon force. They crossed the Ethiopian boundary at Omedla,
in Gojjam. Another British force led by William Platt defeated the Italian forces in Eritrea and
entered Asmara in April 1941. Finally, the British forces from Kenya, led by General Allen
Cunningham, defeated the Italians, and liberated Adddis Ababa on April 6, 1941. On May 5, 1941,
Emperor Haile Selassie returned to Addis Ababa.
Women Patriots
 Although most of the patriot leaders were men, there were also women who became the rallying point
of the resistance movement. eg. Kebedech Seyoum, daughter of Ras Seyoum and wife of the late
Abera Kassa, Shewanesh Abrha, wife of the beheaded Dejach Hailu Kebede of Wag, Lekyelesh
Beyan, and Senedu Gebru. Women played a key role in the resistance struggle of 1936 - 41. They
collected wood, fetched water, prepared food for the combatants, and took care of the wounded.
They also encouraged the fighters and insulted those who were reluctant to fight. Some women
directly took part in fighting and were engaged in actual combat. Some Ethiopian women also
worked as Inner Patriots (West Arbegnoch). The Inner Patriots were officially within the Italian
camp but helped the patriots secretly by providing them with information, provisions, arms,
ammunition, and medicine. Among the outstanding female Inner Patriots, we can mention Woyzero
Shewareged Gedle of Shewa and Woyzero Shewanesh Abebe of Gondar. Shewareged played an
important role in the patriotic attack on the Italian garrison in Addis Alem, 60 kilometers west of
Addis Ababa. Woyzero Shewanesh Abebe, who had a good command of the Italian language, used
to provide valuable information about the Italians.
Unit Review Exercises
Instruction I- Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if it is incorrect.
1. The 1931 Constitution brought about complete democracy in Ethiopia.
2. Lij Iyasu was overthrown largely because he proved to be a danger to the Shoan nobility.
3. The Battle of Adwa was won by the sacrifices made Ethiopians from all corners.
4. In 1941, Ethiopia was liberated by the struggle of British forces alone.
5. Fascist Italian rule made no positive contributions to Ethiopia.
Instruction II-Fill in the Blank Space.
1. In May 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie left Ethiopia for _______________.
2. __________was the commander of British forces that came from Kenya in 1941.
3. The first Viceroy of the Italian East African Empire was _________________.
4. __________was an Ethiopian who fought against Italian troops in Italy during World War II.
5. In 1937, ____________ and ___________ tried to assassinate Graziani in Addis Ababa.

21 We Teach Children Not Subject