B. Tech.

1st
Semester
Applied Physics-I (BS-105)
Lecture-1 (Unit-4)
Theory of Relativity
By
Dr. Ajay Pal Indolia
 Newtonian (Classical) Relativity

Newton‟s laws of motion must be implemented with respect to (relative

to) some reference frame.
y

x
z

A reference frame is called an inertial frame if Newton‟s laws are valid in that
Frame.
Such a frame is established when a body, not subjected to net external forces, moves
in rectilinear motion at constant velocity.
 Newtonian Principle of Relativity
If Newton‟s laws are valid in one reference frame, then they are also valid in
another reference frame moving at a uniform velocity relative to the first
system.

This is referred to as the Newtonian principle of relativity or

Galilean invariance.

x
z
 Theory of Relativity

General theory of relativity Special theory of relativity

 What is relatvity?
Relativity: Relativity is defined in terms of space and time of the object.
We are familiar with the word 'motion'. In every day life. we see the motion of
several objects around us. If we have been asked to define motion we would say
"change of position with time". In an attempt to define motion we have used two
concepts space (position) and time as defined above.
Even only due to relativity we can define the position, velocity, size and shape of
the object i.e. Position Velocity Size
A
dV=0 (Rest)
dt B
Left Right
dV ≠ 0 (moving)
dt
Small relative to
stick A
Thus the state of rest or motion of a body can only be defined relative to some
other object (or body)
 What is Special theory of relativity ?
when ever body can approach the velocity of light, the existence of special will
take place. Most of our everyday experience and observations have to do with
objects that moves at speeds much less than that of light. Newtonian
mechanics and early ideas on space and time were formulated to describe
the motion of such objects. This formulation is very successful in
describing a wide rage of phenomenon that occur at very low speed.
But this theory was failed when this was tested for the objects, which can move
with a Velocity or approximately with the velocity of light.

0.9C

So special theory of relativity deals with the objects which are moving with (or
Approximately) the velocity of light.
Relativity is concerned with the question:
What is Frame of Reference?
 Frame of References
Newton‟s laws are, of course, the laws which determine how matter moves through
space as a function of time. So, in order to give these laws a precise meaning we have
to specify how we measure the position of some material object, a particle say,
and the time at which it is at that position.We do this by introducing the notion of a
frame of reference.

y
C

B
x
z

Figure 1: Path of a particle as measured in a frame of reference.The clocks indicate the times at
which the particle passed the various points along the way.
• What is frame of reference?
• Any system relative to which the motion of an object can be described is
called as a frame of reference.

Frame of Reference

Inertial frames of reference Non-Inertial frames of reference

e.g. building. e.g. :a car moving with variable
velocity
Inertial Frame of Reference (IFR)
An inertial frame of reference has a constant
velocity, i.e. it is moving at a constant speed in
a straight line, or it is standing.
Y
V
x z

So the Inertial Frame of Reference can be defined as (I.R)

•A frame with constant velocity
•A frame is non- accelerating
•A frame in which the “Law of Inertia” holds good
•A frame of reference in which Newton‟s laws' of
motion holds good
•A frame which has no fictitious force
 Non-Inertial Frame of Reference (NFR)
An accelerating frame of reference is known as
Non-Inertial Frame of Reference.

Non-Inertial Frame can be defined as follows

•A frame which is not moving with constant velocity
• i.e. a accelerating frame
•A frame in which „Law of Inertia” does not hold
if you are in a Ferris wheel you are
•A frame in which “Newton‟s Laws of motions” are always accelerating inwards so non-
not true inertial

•A frame which has fictitious force

Strictly speaking the Earth is a non-inertial frame, but it’s close enough so
we consider it inertial
 • Is Earth non-inertial frame or inertial frame?

• What do you mean by transformation equation?.

Transformation Equation

Galilean transformation Lorentz transformation

equations equations
 Galilean Transformation Equation

S & S´ y y´ S S´ v
yy´
P
P

OO´ O O´
xx´
x
x´

z z´
z z´
Initially After time “t”
Time is absolute
 The Galilean Transformation
For a point P:
In one frame K: P = (x, y, z, t)
In another frame K’: P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)

K y P = (x, y, z, t)
P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)

x
z
 Conditions of the Galilean Transformation
1. Parallel axes
2. K‟ has a constant relative velocity (here in the x-direction) with respect to K.
3.Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental invariant,i.e., it‟s the same for
all inertial observers.

x  x  vt
y  y
z  z
t  t
 The Inverse Relations
Step 1. Replace -v with +v.

Step 2. Replace “primed” quantities with “unprimed” and “unprimed” with “primed.”

x  x  vt 
y  y
z  z
t  t
Galilean Transformations Equations
For position x '  x  vt
y'  y
z'  z
t'  t

Inverse Galilean Transformations Equations

x  x ' vt'
y  y'
z  z'
t  t'
• For velocity,

u uv
'

• For acceleration,
a'  a
• In all inertial frames a body will be observed to have the same
acceleration.
• What do you mean by Galilean Invariance?
 The Need for Ether
The wave nature of light seemed to require a propagation medium. It
was called the luminiferous ether or just ether (or ether).

Ether had to have such a low density that the planets could move
through it without loss of energy.

It had to have an elasticity to support the high velocity of light waves.

And somehow, it could not support longitudinal waves.

And (it goes without saying…) light waves in the ether obeyed the
Galilean transformation for moving frames.
 Maxwell’s Equations & Absolute
Reference Systems
In Maxwell‟s theory, the speed of light, in terms of the permeability and
permittivity of free space, was given by:

Thus the velocity of light is a constant.

Ether was proposed as an absolute reference system in which the speed of light was this
constant and from which other measurements could be made.

The Michelson-Morley experiment was an attempt to show the existence of ether.

What is the Main objective of
Michelson –Morley Experiment?

• The main objective of conducting the Michelson

Morley experiment was to confirm the existence of a
stationary frame of reference i.e. ether frame

• To determine the relative motion between earth and

ether by measuring the speed of light in different
direction on the earth’s surface.
 B. Tech. 1st
Semester
Applied Physics-I (BS-105)
Lecture-2 (Unit-4)
Theory of Relativity
By
Dr. Ajay Pal Indolia
Michelson-Morley experiment: the actual
apparatus
 Michelson’s and Morley’s set up

They folded the path to increase the total path of each arm.
 Experimental arrangement

Mirror M1 A
v

Source of
light S
P
B

Semi Silvered
Mirror
Glass plate
M2
T
Telescope
 A A
M1 M1
vt

P
O P
 v

P
P’ c
B B’

M2 M’2
 Michelson-Morley Experiment: Results

The Michelson interferometer

should‟ve revealed a fringe shift as it
was rotated with respect to the ether
velocity. MM expected 0.4 periods of
shift and could resolve 0.005 periods.
They saw none!

Interference fringes showed no

change as the interferometer was Michelson and Morley's results from A.
rotated. Michelson, Studies in Optics
 Michelson’s Conclusion

 In several repeats and refinements with assistance

from Edward Morley, he always saw a null
result.
 He concluded that the hypothesis of the stationary
ether must be incorrect.
 Thus, ether seems not to exist!
Explanation of Negative Result

• Principle of constancy of speed of light.

• The Ether dreg hypothesis (theory).

• The Lorentz Fitzgerald contraction hypothesis.

 Possible explanations for MM’s null result

Many explanations were proposed, but the most

popular was the ether drag hypothesis.

This hypothesis suggested that the vtovtal vtotal

v light
light
Earth somehow “dragged” t he e ther
along as it rotates on its axis and
revolves about the sun. v aethevr aether

This was contradicted by stellar aberration

wherein telescopes had to be tilted to obser ve
star light due to the Earth‟s motion. If ether
were dragged along, this tilting would not occur.
 Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction

Another idea, proposed independently by

Lorentz and FitzGerald, suggested that the length,
L, in the direction of the motion contracted by a
factor of:

1 v 2 / c 2
velocity of frame velocity of light

So:
2
2L 1 2L 1 v / c2 1 2L 1
t     t
c [1 v 2 / c 2 ] c [1 v 2 / c 2 ] c 1 v 2 / c 2

thus making the path lengths equal and the phase shift always zero.
But there was no insight as to why such a contraction should occur.
Einstein’s Postulates of special theory of relativity
There are two postulates of special theory of relativity
Postulate 1 :
The principle of relativity: The laws of physics are the
same in all inertial frames of reference. i.e. All the laws of
physics (not just the laws of motion) are the same in all
inertial systems. There is no way to detect absolute
motion, and no preferred inertial system exists.
Postulate 2:
The constancy of the speed of light: The velocity of
light in vacuum is independent of the relative motion of
source and the observer. i.e. Observers in all inertial
systems measure the same value for the speed of light in a
vacuum
 Re-evaluation of Time!
In Newtonian physics,
We previously assumed that t  t

With synchronized clocks, events in F and F‟ can be considered simultaneous.

Einstein realized that each system must have its own observers with their
own synchronized clocks and meter sticks.

 Events considered simultaneous in F may not be in F‟.

 Also, time may pass more slowly in some systems than in others.
 B. Tech. 1st
Semester
Applied Physics-I (BS-105)
Lecture-3 (Unit-4)
Theory of Relativity
By
Dr. Ajay Pal Indolia
 The constancy of the speed of light
Consider the fixed system F and the moving system F’.
 At t = 0, the origins and axes of both systems are coincident with system F’
moving to the right along the x axis.
 A flashbulb goes off at both origins when t = 0.

 According to postulate 2, the speed of light will be c in both systems and the
wave fronts observed in both systems must be spherical.
F
 The constancy of the speed of light is not compatible with Galilean
transformations.

Spherical wavefronts in F:

Spherical wavefronts in F‟:

Note that this cannot occur in x  x  vt

Galilean transformations: There are a couple of
y  y extra terms (-2xvt + v2t2)
in the primed frame.
z  z
t  t

x2  y2  z2  (x 2  2xvt  v 2t 2 )  y 2  z 2  c 2t 2

 Lorentz Transformation Equation
y y´ F F´ v
y y´ F & F´

P
P

OO´ O O´
xx´
x´ x

zz´
z z´

Initially After time ‘t’

 The complete Lorentz Transformation

x  vt x  vt 
x  x
1 v 2 / c 2 1 v 2 / c 2
y  y y  y
z  z z  z
t  vx / c 2 t   vx / c 2
t  t
1 v 2 / c 2 1 v 2 / c 2

Lorentz Transformation equation Inverse Transformation equation

 The complete Lorentz Transformation

x  vt x  vt 
x  x
1 v 2 / c 2 Length 1 v 2 / c 2
contraction
y  y y  y
z  z Simultaneity
z  z
t  vx / c 2 problems
t   vx / c 2
t  t
1 v 2 / c 2 Time 1 v 2 / c 2
dilation
 Simultaneity is the relation between two events assumed to be happening at
Simultaneity the same time in a given frame of reference. The word is derived from the
Latin simul, meaning at the same

Timing events occurring in different places can be tricky.

Depending on how they‟re measured, different
events will be perceived in different orders
by different observers

SANDEEP
SUMIT
AMIT

-L 0 L
Due to the finite speed of light, the order in which these two
events will be seen will depend on the observer‟s position.
The time intervals will be:
AMIT: -2L/c; SANDEEP: 0; SUMIT: +2L/c
But this obvious position-related simultaneity problem disappears if AMIT and SUMIT have
synchronized watches.
Synchronized clocks in a frame
•It‟s possible to synchronize clocks
throughout space in each frame.

•This will prevent the

position-dependent simultaneity
problem in the previous slide.

• But there will still be

simultaneity problems
due to velocity.
 Simultaneity
So all stationary observers in the explosions‟ frame
measure these events as simultaneous.

What about moving ones?

Compute the interval as seen by
KAVITA using the Lorentz time
F’ transformation.
KAVITA

-L 0 L

t    [t  vx / c 2 ]   [v(2L) / c 2 ]

  (v / c)(2L / c)  0!

KAVITA experiences the explosion in front of her before the one

behind her. And note that t is independent of Mary‟s position!
 Time Dilation and Length Contraction
Interesting consequences of the Lorentz Transformation:

Time Dilation
L0

v
Lengths in F’ contract
A clock in motion ticks slower than a with respect to
clock at rest the same lengths in stationary F.

Before discussing the Time Dilation and Length contraction, we must take a look,
how to measure space and time
 B. Tech. 1st
Semester
Applied Physics-I (BS-105)
Lecture-4 (Unit-4)
Theory of Relativity
By
Dr. Ajay Pal Indolia
 We must think about how we measure space and time

Space (length)
In order to measure an object’s length in space, we must measure
its leftmost and rightmost points at the same time if it’s at rest.
If it’s not at rest, we must ask someone
else to stop by and be there to help out.

Time
In order to measure an event’s duration in time, the start and stop measurements can
occur at different positions, as long as the clocks are synchronized.
If the positions are different, we must ask someone else to stop by and be there to help out.
 Proper Time
To measure a duration, it’s best to use
what’s called Proper Time.

The Proper Time, t0, is the time between

two events (here two explosions)
occurring at the same position (i.e., at
rest) in a system as measured by a clock
at that position.

Same location

Proper time measurements are in some sense the most fundamental measurements of
a duration. But observers in moving systems, where the explosions’ positions differ, will
also make such measurements.
What will they measure?
 Time Dilation and Proper Time
AMIT’s clock is stationary in F where two explosions occur.
KAVITA, in moving F’, is there for the first, but not the second.
Fortunately, PALLAVI, also in F’, is there for the second.

PALLAVI KAVITA

F’

KAVITA and PALLAVI

are doing the best If KAVITA and PALLAVI are
measurement that can be careful to time and compare
done. Each is at the right F their measurements, what
place at the right time. duration will they observe
AMIT

?
Time Dilation
 Time Dilation
1) t > t0: the time measured between two
events at different positions is greater than the
time between the same events at
one position: this is time dilation.
2) The events do not occur at the same space and time
coordinates in the two systems.

3) System F requires 1 clock and F’ requires 2 clocks for the

measurement.

4) Because the Lorentz transformation is symmetrical, time

dilation is reciprocal: observers in F see time travel faster
than for those in F’. And vice versa!
 Time stops for a light wave
t0
Because: t 
1  v2 / c2

And, when v approaches c:

1

2 2
1 v / c

For anything traveling at the speed of light:

t

In other words, any finite interval at rest appears infinitely long at the speed of light.
Experimental Verification of Time Dilation
Cosmic Ray Muons: Muons are produced in the upper
atmosphere in collisions between ultra-high energy particles and
air-molecule nuclei. But they decay (lifetime = 1.52  s) on their
way to the earth’s surface:

No relativistic correction

With relativistic correction

Top of the atmosphere

Now time dilation says that

muons will live longer in the
earth’s frame, that is,  will
increase if v is large. And
their average velocity is
0.98c!
 Detecting muons to see time dilation
It takes 6.8 ms for the 2000-m path at 0.98c, about 4.5 times the muon lifetime.
So, without time dilation, of 1000 muons, we expect only 1000 x 2-4.5 = 45
muons at sea level.
Since 0.98c yields  = 5, instead of moving 600
m on average, they travel 3000 m in the Earth’s
frame.

In fact, we see 542, in agreement with relativity!

And how does it look to the muon? Lorentz contraction shortens the distance!
 Time Dilation
• Is clock moving with velocity v relative to an observer, appears to him slow?

• A clock in a moving frame of reference (F’) measure a longer time interval

between two events that occur in a stationary frame of reference than the
same time interval measured by the clock in stationary frame(F).
Is time dilation experimentally verified?
Yes
• The μ mesons are produced by fast moving cosmic ray
particles at a height of about 10 km from the surface of earth
and reach in large number on earth’s surface

• The speed of μ mesons is very high about 2.994 ×108 m/sec

i.e. 0.998c

• The average life time of μ mesons is 2 ×10-6 second

• The distance travel by μ mesons is v × t i.e. 600 m

• But μ mesons are found on earth surface which indicate

that they are actually travelling a distance 10 km not 600
m.

• This is only possible if time dilation is considered

t0
t  3.33  10 5 sec
v2
1 2
c
• The distance traveled by μ mesons is v ×t≈10 km
 B. Tech. 1st
Semester
Applied Physics-I (BS-105)
Lecture-5 (Unit-4)
Theory of Relativity
By
Dr. Ajay Pal Indolia
 The Twin Paradox
The Set-up
AMIT and SUMIT are twins.
AMIT, an astronaut, leaves on a
trip many light years (ly) from the
Earth at great speed and returns; t
SUMIT decides to remain safely
on Earth.
x
The Problem
SUMIT knows that AMIT‟s clocks measuring his age must run slow, so he will return
younger than he. However, AMIT (who also knows about time dilation) claims that
SUMIT is also moving relative to him, and so his clock must run slow.
The Paradox
Who, in fact, is younger upon AMIT return?
 Twin Paradox
One of the twins leaves the Earth in a rocket ship traveling at high velocity.

60 years later, the rocket returns to Earth with the astronaut only 40 years old due to Time Dilation
 The Twin-Paradox Resolution
SUMIT‟ss clock is in an inertial system during the entire trip. But AMIT‟s clock is
not. As long as AMIT is traveling at constant speed away from SUMIT, both of them
can argue that the other twin is aging less rapidly.

But when AMIT slows down to turn around, he leaves his original inertial system
and eventually returns in a completely different inertial system.

AMIT‟s claim is no longer valid, because he doesn‟t remain in the same inertial
system.
AMIT ages less than SUMIT.
 Proper Length

When both endpoints of an object (at rest

in a given frame) are measured in that
frame, the resulting length is called the
Proper Length.

We will find that the proper length is the largest length

observed. Observers in motion will see a contracted object.
Length Contraction
 Length Contraction
• Is length of a body depends on its velocity?

• If Yes, how?
• The appeared length of the body in the direction of
motion decreases, is called length contraction

2
v
L  L0 1 2
c

Where L0= actual length or proper length

L= appeared length or non proper length
Variation of mass with velocity
Inferences from above relation:
• When v << c, v2/c2 may be ignored as compared to 1, above equation
gives m = m0
• When v  c, m  
It means no material particle can travel faster than speed of light.
 At high velocity,
does the mass increase or just the momentum?

Some physicists like to refer to the mass as the rest mass (m0 ) and call
the term m =  m0 the relativistic mass (m). In this manner the

• classical form of momentum, m, is retained. The mass is then imagined to

increase at high speeds.

• Most physicists prefer to keep the concept of mass as an invariant,

intrinsic property of an object. We adopt this latter approach and will use
the term mass exclusively to mean rest mass. Although we may use the
terms mass and rest mass synonymously, we will not use the term relativistic mass.
Einstein’s Mass Energy Relation
Concept of rest mass of photon
• From variation of mass relation:
m0
m
v2
1 2
c
• Rest mass of Photon v2
m0  m 1  2
c
• For photon v=c
c2
m0  m 1  2  0
c
Application of Relativstic
Mechanics
 Global Positioning System

• The Global Positioning

System (GPS) is a space-
based navigation system
that provides location and
time information.
Nuclear Plants and Supernovas
• Relativity is one reason that mass and energy can
be converted into each other, which is how
nuclear power plants work, and why the sun
shines
 Summary
• Length, Position, Velocity , Time are not absolute.
• In all inertial frames a body will be observed to have the same
acceleration.
• The fundamental laws of physics have same form for all inertial
system.
• The velocity of light in vacuum is independent of the relative
motion of source and the observer.
• length of a body, mass and time depends on its velocity.
• Mass can be converted into energy and energy can be converted
into mass.
 B. Tech. 1st
Semester
Applied Physics-I (BS-105)
Lecture-6 (Unit-4)
Numerical Problems on Theory of
Relativity
By
Dr. Ajay Pal Indolia