The Conundrum of the Ancient Indian Civilization

Part 3 – The Enigma of the River Saraswati

Dhrubajyoti Mukhopadhyay *

The Vedic River Saraswati attain a mythical character, and so strong

was the influence in the psyche of the
The river Saraswati occupies a very im- people that an unseen Saraswati is thought
portant position in the historiography of to join the confluence of two rivers to form
ancient India. Rigveda, the oldest of the a Triveni Sangam at Allahabad, and several
Hindu scriptures speaks eloquently of Am- rivers in different parts of India are given
bitame, naditame, devitame Saraswati — the name Saraswati.
the best of mothers, best of rivers, the best
of goddesses). The Saraswati is described Hence it is a legitimate endeavour to in-
as the “purest of the pure”, “the bestower vestigate whether a river named Saraswati
of food”, “most powerful among rivers”. It existed in the past and where it was located.
surpasses “in majesty and might all other Ancient religious scriptures or mythologies
rivers”, it “comes onward with tempestuous are not history, but these have a sub-
roar”, “bursting the ridges of the hills with stratum of history and geography. They
its strong waves”, and has a confluence are great imaginative works produced by
with the samudra (ocean or large inland great minds, and they appeal to us even
lake). today for their beautiful literary content.
But the Saraswati is not the only river Historical truth has to be extracted from
mentioned in the Rigveda; it talks of Sapta these literary works, but this is to be done
Sindhava, the seven rivers. A verse in using scientific methods and rational anal-
Nadistuti sukta says,” Oh Ganga, Yamuna, ysis. Personal beliefs or unsubstantiated
Saraswati, Shutudri (Sutlej), Parushni (Ira- speculations have no place in this exercise.
vati, Ravi), follow my praise! O Asikni We have before us the example of how
(Chenab) Marudvridha, Vitasta (Jhelum), the existence of the mythical city of Troy
with the Arjikiya (Haro) and Sushoma (So- described in Homer’s Iliad was established
han), listen!” While many of the Rigvedic by excavations in Asia Minor by Frank
rivers can be identified among the present Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann during
day rivers the most important of them, 1871-79. Almost a century later a geologist,
the naditame Saraswati, remains an elusive John Kraft, from USA joined hands with a
enigma. Later works like the Brahmanas classics scholar from Ireland, John Luce, to
and the Mahabharata talk of Vinashana identify the geographic and coastal features
or disappearance of the Saraswati in the described in Homer’s Iliad. They started
desert. With time the Saraswati came to work in 1977 and published their findings
in 2001 after nearly 30 years of work.1
* Prof Mukhopadhyay is an eminent geologist, a
former Professor of Geology at the Calcutta University, For more than a century scholars from far
and the President of Breakthrough Science Society corners of the world and from diverse dis-

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its tributaries flows in this region. It is an
ciplines like, archeology, linguistics, philol-
ogy, Indology, anthropology, earth sciences, ephemeral river mainly active during the
mathematics. engineering etc. have tried monsoon period. The Ghaggar originates
to locate the Vedic River Saraswati. But in the Siwalik hills, flows in a SSW’ly to
they could not come to a unanimous con- SW’ly direction and is met by the tribu-
clusion. For example, some archeologists taries Kaushalya, Dirang, Markanda, Sar-
contradicted the conclusions arrived at by suti (Figure 1). Further downstream it flows
linguists; even within one discipline schol- in a WSW’ly to SW’ly direction through
ars radically disagreed with each other. The Sirsa and Kalibangan (Figure 1) and enters
disagreements are partly due to the frag- Cholistan in Pakistan and here the dry
mentary and inconclusive nature of the evi- river bed is called the Hakra. Westwards it
dence and partly due to subjective interpre- disappears in the desert sands in Cholistan
tation of the evidence. At times insufficient(Figure 2). However it has been joined
evidence is produced in support of a point through buried channels in the desert with
of view. The distinguished linguist Hans the Nara river to the south (Figure 2)
Heinrich Hock made a sobering discussion which is now a distributory channel in the
on how some pieces of evidence cited in Indus delta and debouches into the Rann
this controversy can be interpreted in dif- of Kutch. Thus according to this view there
ferent ways.2 Hence a discerning scholar was a continuous channel independent of
must have an open mind. Unfortunately the Indus river from the Siwalik hills in
the Saraswati issue has become entangled Haryana through Cholistan to the Rann of
with political overtones in recent years. Kutch (Figure 3). This fluvial* system has
Discussions and exchanges have become been equated with the Vedic Saraswati.4,5,6
emotional, polemical and strident. The other view is that the early Rigvedic
description refers to a time before the Vedic
The Ghaggar-Hakra : Present and people settled in the Indus valley, and the
Past Saraswati is to be equated with the an-
cient river Harakhwati (old Avestan name,
The subject is truly interdisciplinary; ev- phonologically equivalent to Saraswati) in
idence from different disciplines have to the Helmand river basin in Afghanistan,
be integrated to arrive at the truth. We which was in the migration route of the
must also keep in mind the aspects of both Aryans. Rajesh Kochar opines that the
space and time. As far as the location of Saraswati mentioned in the Rigveda refers
the old Saraswati is concerned, there have to two rivers; the Saraswati in older compo-
been two contrasting views from the very sitions of the Rigveda, the so-called family
beginning and both were first published books, described as ambitame, naditame,
in the 19th century in the Asiatic Society debitame Sraraswati, is the Helmand river
Journal.3 in Afghanistan, while the Saraswati of the
In one view, which is subscribed to by a later part of the Rigveda, e.g., in the Nadis-
majority of the later scholars, the Rigvedic tuti, or the Vinashana Saraswati refers
Nadistuti verse quoted above has been in- to the old Ghaggar.7,8 Both groups have
terpreted to imply that the Saraswati must quoted slokas from the Rigveda in support
lie between the Yamuna and the Shutudri of their hypotheses.
(Sutlej). The Sutlej-Yamuna interfluve is
not currently drained by any major river, * For the meanings of the technical terms, see the
but the present day stream Ghaggar with Glossary at the end of the article

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Figure 1: Ghaggar-Hakra river and the upper Ghaggar tributaries. The wide palaeochannel of
Ghaggar- Hakra and two palaeochannels of the Yamuna are marked. Note also the nearly N-S
Shatadru palaeochannel joining Ghaggar palaeochannel. (After Sinha, Singh and Khan, 2020)

The problem with the first hypothesis is Ghaggar-Hakra or the inferred Saraswati
that while the Vedic Saraswati is a mighty, River course, which led to the proposi-
roaring river, the Ghaggar-Hakra is an tion that the civilization should be called
ephemeral stream and the channel is dry Sindhu-Saraswati civilization. Some even
over long stretches and during a large part proposed that the Rigvedic people are the
of the year. The dried out river bed is Harappan people. The Harappan archaeo-
3 to 10 km wide suggesting that once it logical materials could be accurately dated
was a large river. Moreover the Rigvedic as follows: Pre-Harappan — 5050-3250
description suggests that the source of the BCE, Early Harappan to Mature Harappan
Saraswati is in the snowy mountains of the — 3250-2550-1950 BCE. Late Harappan
Himalayas, while the Ghaggar of today is — 1950-1250 BCE (Part 1 of this article).
sourced in the Siwalik hills and is rain-fed. Older dates have also been reported, for
The problem with the second hypothesis example, at Bhirrana the Mature Harap-
is that the other rivers mentioned in the pan is older by about 500 years. Post-
Rigveda in conjunction with Saraswati have Harappan dates as young as 800 BCE have
no counterparts in Afghanistan. been obtained from several sites. The
Meanwhile, many Harappan (Indus Valley pre-Harappan people are described as pas-
Civilization) sites were discovered along the toral to village farming community, mature

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Figure 2: Ghaggar-Hakra-Nara linked channel (hypothetical Saraswati) extending from Siwalik

Hills to the Thar desert. Palaeochannels of Sutlej and Beas join Ghaggar-Hakra in Cholistan, (After
Clift et al., 2012)

Harappans were highly urbanized, and they the Haryana plains and beneath the Thar
built large cities. In the declining stage Desert9,10 (Figure 4). The Hindutva propo-
the cities decayed and smaller villages and nents with political support from the BJP-
isolated farms were established. There led Central and State Governments started
is an overall cultural continuity over the propagating that science has proved the ex-
Harappan time span, but some cultural istence of the ancient Sarasvati river. They
changes took place during and after the equated the Vedic people with the Harap-
Late Harappan stage. It is interesting to pan people and proposed that the great
note that during the Late Harappan stage, civilization that developed on the banks
that is during its decline, the sites migrated of the Sarasvati be called the Sarasvati-
towards the Himalayan piedmont and the Sindhu civilization. Some claimed that the
western part of the Ganga basin, along the river is still flowing underground from the
Yamuna and the Yamuna-Ganga interfluve Himalayan foothills to the sea in Kutchh.
area. The State governments of Haryana and the
Himachal Pradesh made grandiose plans to
The first hypothesis, the Ghaggar-Hakra revive the Sarasvati, and a Sarasvati Her-
hypothesis, received a boost when Land- itage Development Board was constituted.
sat imagery analysis revealed the location
of a large number of palaeochannels in Satellite imageries revealed, along with

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Figure 3: Reconstructed full course of the postulated Saraswati river along with the Mature Phase
Harappan sites. (After Danino, 2010)

several palaeochannels in the Indus- the upper Ghaggar channel and from there
Yamuna interfluve, the presence of a 5- the united channel extended from the exit
6 km wide sinuous palaeochannel of the of the Sutlej at the Himalayan moun-
Ghaggar-Hakra which represents an in- tain front to the Thar Desert11 (Figures 1
cised valley that has eroded several me- and 4). Then the waters coming down
tres into the surrounding plains, and from the High Himalayas flowed down the
which can be traced from Cholistan to Ghaggar-Hakra Channel. Later the Sutlej
the upper Ghaggar plains (Figures 1 and avulsed westwards to its present chan-
4). In the ancient time, the eastern- nel. One of the westerly palaeochannels
most palaeochannel of the Sutlej joined of the Sutlej and a palaeochannel of the

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Figure 4: Palaeochannels traced by different authors in the present day Sutlej-Yamuna

interfluve. Note the palaeochannels of the old Sutlej and old Yamuna joining the Ghaggar-Hakra
palaeochannel (After Orengo and Petrie, 2017)

Beas joined the Hakra in the vicinity of Ghaggar-Hakra and formed the large river
Cholistan12 (Figure 2). Similarly, once upon Saraswati. If the Sutlej and the Yamuna
a time Yamuna was westerly flowing and at donated water to the Ghaggar-Hakra the
least two palaeochannels (Y1 and Y2 with ancient Saraswati would indeed have been
two branches) of the Yamuna joined the a mighty roaring glacier-fed river. Subse-
Ghaggar-Hakra 9 (Figures 1 and 4). Y1 quent avulsion of the Sutlej to the west and
palaeochannel of the Yamuna is along the of the Yamuna to the east to their respective
Markanda river13 and the Y2 palaeochannel modern courses led to drying up of the
is along the present day Chautang river Saraswati river and its degradation to a
which some have identified as the Rigvedic seasonal stream, the present day Ghaggar-
Drishadwati river14,15 . Y1 palaeochannel Hakra.
joined the Ghaggar palaeochannel in its However, it is not enough just to locate
upstream portion and Y2 joined the latter the paleochannels. Unless a time frame
downstream from Kalibangan (Figure 1). can be placed on when the ancient fluvial
The above palaeochannel configurations led system was active, the information would
to the hypothesis that in ancient times the remain inconclusive as far as the identifi-
Sutlej and the Yamuna drained into the cation of the Saraswati river is concerned.

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Chronology and laterally continuous for over 8 km.11,14
The oldest of these is 86,000 years old
Satellite imageries delineate only the sur- and the youngest are 15,000, 12,000 and
face traces of fluvial channels; they tell 8,000 years old (13000, 10000, 6000 BCE)
nothing about what lies underneath. Re- in different sections. In the upstream
cent researches involving analysis of satel- side the Ghaggar-Hakra palaeochannel is
lite imageries have been combined with connected to the Sutlej palaeochannel (Fig-
drilling, trenching, geophysical surveys, ures 1 and 3). The upward termination
and radio carbon (RC) and optically stimu- of the sand bodies marks the cessation of
lated luminescence (OSL) dating to provide the major fluvial activity triggered by the
information on the chronology and palaeo- withdrawal of the Sutlej from the Ghaggar.
hydrology of these ancient rivers. Such
Singh et al. (2017)11 and Sinha et
studies have proved the existence of major 14
al. (2020) concluded that this cessation
sand bodies having width of 3-6 km and
started at 12,000-15,000 years ago (10000
thickness of 10-50 m with distinct chan-
to 13000 BCE) and was completed shortly
nel geometry below the modern alluvial
after 8000 years ago (6000 BCE). Reduced
surface.11−16 These sand bodies represent
water supply and low energy fluvial activ-
buried channels under the surface trace of
ity (ephemeral or perennial rain-fed rivers)
the palaeo-rivers (palaeochannels) pointing
continued as late as 3000 years ago (1000
to the existence of a large long-lived fluvial
BCE).17 Saini et al. (2009) 16 and Saini
system in the region.
and Mujtaba (2010)18 reported fine grained
There is now an impressive array of OSL
fluvial deposition between 6000 and 4300
dates and also some radiocarbon dates
years ago (4000 to 2300 BCE), after which
from the subsurface sand bodies, which
there was an upward fining of sediments
have put some time-constraint on the past
representing a decline in fluvial compe-
fluvial activity.11−22 The channel sands
tence; the channel was finally abandoned
overlie dune sands which are >150000
3400 years ago (1400 BCE).
years old. In Cholistan, that is in the lower
reaches of the Ghaggar-Hakra, the wide From a different study Chatterjee et al.
channels date back to 49,000 years ago, (2019)19 inferred that the major high energy
but were also active 4,900 to 7,500 years fluvial activity existed till about 20,000
ago (2,900 to 5,500 BCE) and the channels years ago (18000 BCE) when it was trans-
stopped delivering flow to Cholistan after formed to a low energy domain. This
4,500 years before present (2,500 BCE)12 . change-over coincided with the peak aridity
Saini et al. (2009)16 reported that in the of the Last Glacial Maximum. However,
middle reaches of the Ghaggar palaeochan- the sedimentary logs suggest that there was
nel, the main fluvial activity involving a rejuvenation of the river during 9000
glacier-fed rivers happened at 26,000 to to 4500 years ago (7000-2500 BCE),19
28,000 years ago (24000 to 26000 BCE), probably due to intensification of the Indian
and a much weaker fluvial activity at 6000 Summer Monsoon 9000 years ago (7000
to 3000 years ago (4000 to 1000 BCE). BCE) accompanied by melting of the Hi-
Study of the sedimentary columns and malayan glaciers.
OSL dating at different sections of the mid- Subsequently the river declined and the
dle to upper reaches of the Ghaggar–Hakra change-over from a perennial to ephemeral
palaeochannel have brought out the pres- phase roughly coincided with the beginning
ence multistoried sand bodies 30 m thick of the Meghalayan Stage (4200 years ago or

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20
ca. 2200 BCE). Giosan et al. (2012) is of 24000 years (22000 BCE). This change
the opinion that the Ghaggar-Hakra existed from Himalayan fluvial phase to aeolian
as a perennial monsoon-fed river during phase took place between 41,000 to 24,000
the urban Harappa phase, 5400 years ago years ago, probably close to 40000 years.22
(3400 BCE) in Cholistan, and 4300 years Aeolian activity continued till 12,000 to
ago (2300 BCE) in upper Ghaggar-Hakra 16,000 years ago when seasonal flooding
interfluves. A declining fluvial system at was resumed triggered by strengthening
even younger ages up to 3,000 years ago Indian Summer Monsoon and increased
(1000 BCE) has been reported by Saini winter rainfall.
and Mujtaba (2010)18 . The Intensity of the Giosan et al. (2012)20 pointed out an
Indian summer monsoon also influenced important feature that in Punjab channel
the volume of water in the channel.20 sedimentation ceased in the Indus trib-
In the Ghaggar-Yamuna interfluve two utaries about 10,000 years ago and the
paleochannels of Yamuna were marked rivers started to incise, while in the Sutlej-
as Y1 and Y2 (bifurcating and rejoining)9 Yamuna interfluve, the Ghaggar has a
(Figures 1 and 3). Trace elements and wide channel, but remarkably there is no
the Sr-Nd isotopic signatures suggest that Holocene incision in the river channels
57,700 to 3,100 years old (55700 to 1100 in this region. According to them this
BCE) sediments in the Markanda valley suggests that glacier-fed rivers did not flow
were derived from the sub-Himalayas, and across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during
hence the Yamuna, which brings down sed- the Holocene, only monsoon-fed rivers were
iments from the High Himalayas, was not active in the Ghaggar-Hakra channel.
linked to the Ghaggar-Hakra river system Provenance studies are important for
through the Y1 channel at least for the past palaeohydrology reconstructions. Zircon
50000 years.13 Late Holocene (3.8-3.9 Ka) age distribution pattern in the sediments
palaeoflood deposits along the Markanda dating back to >49,000 years ago in the
valley represent larger flooding of foothills lower reaches of the Hakra palaeochannel
rivers that could have sustained flows in in Cholistan (Pakistan) have similar zir-
the downstream reaches of the Ghaggar- con population as modern Yamuna river
Hakra palaeochannels during Late Harap- sediments and between 49,000 to 7,300
pan civilization.21 years old (47000 to 5300 BCE) sediments
Yamuna was linked by the Y2 have zircon age population similar to the
palaeochannel with the Ghaggar–Hakra modern Sutlej sands; younger sediments
and the confluence was at the lower ∼7000 years old (5000 BCE) have zircon
reaches of the Ghaggar palaeochannel, age population similar to modern dune
downstream of Kalibangan (Figures 1 and sands.12
4). Y2 palaeochannel follows the course of Further downstream, sediments between
the Chautang river (Rigvedic Drishadwati), 44,000 years and 5,000 years age have
and the bottommost subsurface channel zircon population similar to the modern
sediments indicate existence of a large Beas river sands. This would suggest
glacially-fed Himalayan river 41000 years that the Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna were
ago (39000 BCE).22 After these sediments, all connected to the Hakra palaeochannel
aeolian deposits with intermittent alluvial (Figure 2). However, chronological data
deposits were formed by strong monsoon indicate that the withdrawal of Yamuna
events (seasonal flooding) are recorded at from the Y2 channel likely occurred after

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49,000 years ago and before 10,000 years river degenerated from a High Himalayan
ago, that is, before the Holocene.12 river to a rain-fed river with source in the
In the middle and upper reaches of the Sub-Himalayas.
palaeochannel near Kalibangan and further It is to be noted that the acme of the
upstream the subsurface channel sands Ghaggar-Hakra river was attained in the
86,000 years to 12,000 years old (84000 to Pleistocene period, much before the ap-
10000 BCE) have detrital zircon age pop- pearance of human civilization and when
ulation similar to that in modern sands of its decline started the Harappan people had
the Sutlej river with High Himalayan crys- not yet settled in the region. Palaeoclimatic
talline and Lesser Himalayan source indi- data retrieved from stable isotopes in lake
cating that during this period the Ghaggar- sediments, in animal teeth and bones from
Hakra palaeochannel was fed by a river the Harappan sites and in foraminifera
like modern Sutlej. 40Ar-39Ar age of from the Arabian Sea indicate that the
detrital mica in the buried fluvial deposits region was quite wet in the late Pleistocene
of the Ghaggar-Hakra palaeochannels also times (40,000-60,000) years ago. After-
identify the catchment area of the Sutlej wards aridity set in and reached its peak
river in the High Himalayas as the source during the Last Glacial Maximum (about
of these.11,14 Signatures of sources in the 20,000 years ago), but there was intensified
Higher Himalayas are absent in the bronze monsoons at 7,000-9,000 years ago (5000-
age (3300 to 1200 BCE) sediments along 7000 BCE).
the Ghaggar-Hakra channel indicating that
A rejuvenation of the river took place dur-
the river no longer had its sources in the
ing 9000 to 4500 years ago,19 probably due
high mountains.
to this intensification. This was the time
when the Pre-Harappan to Early Harap-
Saraswati and the Indus Valley
pan settlements were established along the
Civilization Ghaggar-Hakra river. Afterwards the mon-
The cumulative evidence shows that a ma- soons started to weaken from 7000 years
jor river flowed along the Ghaggar-Hakra ago (5000 BCE), and reached its minimum
channel from as early as 80000 years ago. 4000 years ago (2000 BCE). The river be-
It was fed by the old Sutlej and old Yamuna came ephemeral; during heavy monsoons it
rivers and was then a glacially fed river might have been swollen with water, rest of
evolving from a braided stream through a the time it might have been dry or had very
wide valley with floodplains and channel little water. This was the Mature Harappan
shifting to an incised meandering river. 23 period when large cities were established;
There was probably a reduction in the water thus civilization thrived along a declining
flow, and transition from a high energy river. It was probably perennial at some
domain to a low energy domain at about stage, but as the monsoon weakened it
20000 years ago due to the peak aridity became a seasonal one.
associated with the Last Glacial Maximum. The ultimate disruption of flow coincided
The disorganization of the fluvial system with the beginning of the Meghalayan Stage
started due to the withdrawal of Yamuna (4,200 years ago) aridification event. By
through avulsion to the present easterly 3,900 years ago (1900 BCE) the Harappan
channel at about 18000 years ago and with- people started abandoning their urban set-
drawal of the Sutlej river due to westerly tlements in the Ghaggar valley and moved
avulsion at 12000 to 8000 years ago.14 The eastwards to the Yamuna interfluves and

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northwards to the Himalayan foothills. The saw the Saraswati when it was a major
urban civilization collapsed, but small rural Himalayan river. This is the hypothesis
settlements persisted for many centuries. aggressively put forward by some of today’s
Painted Grey Ware (about 1000 BCE) sites Hindutwa proponents. However, the lin-
have been discovered in the river bed and guistic and genetic evidence indicate that
not on the banks suggesting that the chan- the Vedic people appeared after the Harap-
nel was dry by that time. pan people. There is also the evidence
of absence of the horse in the Harappan
Final Words civilization, and its preeminent presence in
the Vedic civilization. Moreover there is
As we discussed in the second part of the a profound difference in culture, life-style
article the earliest parts of the Rigveda were and social structure between the urban
composed about 3,500 years ago (1500 Harappan people and the pastoral Vedic
BCE). By this time the Ghaggar-Hakra or people. So the two civilizations cannot be
the Sarasvati river had declined to a rain- considered to be one and the same.
fed ephemeral stream. This does not fit with
(b) The second idea is that the description
the Rigvedic description of the Saraswati
of the mighty river in early Rigveda refers
as a mighty river roaring down from the
to ancient Harakhwati in Afghanistan and
mountains. This is the enigma about the
the later Rigvedic Saraswati, the Vinashana
Saraswati river. The river was indeed once
Saraswati, refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra.
upon a time a mighty Himalayan river, but
However, the other rivers which are men-
that was 80,000, 60,000, 40,000 or 20,000
tioned in the Rigveda have no matching
years ago. Its decline started with the
counterparts in Afghanistan; on the con-
withdrawal of the Sutlej and the Yamuna
trary they can be identified with the existing
from the Saraswati channel due to westerly
rivers in NW India. It is questionable to
and easterly avulsion respectively. This
selectively take one river out of many and
fluvial disorganization was caused either
place it in Afghanistan setting.
by tectonic activity or aridification due to
climate change. No palaeoseismic data (c) In an earlier article that came out in
have yet been marshaled to link the flu- Breakthrough24 , before the new data on the
vial disorganization with tectonic activity. subsurface sediments and chronology were
Palaeoclimatic changes during this period published, the author, Ashoke Mukherjee,
have already been discussed. supported the idea of some historians and
Alternative solutions to the enigma of the archeologists that the term Saraswati is an
Saraswati have been suggested by different adjective meaning ‘full of water’, and sug-
scholars working on ancient Indian history gested that the name referred to the Sindhu
and culture. A few of these are listed below. (Indus) river. This argument is difficult
(a). The Vedic civilization and the Harap- to accept, because several Rigvedic verses
pan civilization are to be equated, or the refer to Saraswati and Sindhu separately
latter is to be considered as the continu- and individually; Rigvedic sapta sindhaba
ation of the former and the two together includes Sindhu, Saraswati and five other
should be designated as Saraswati-Sindhu rivers.
civilization. Some regard the Vedic civiliza- Thus, there is no universally acceptable
tion to be much older than the Harappan solution to the Saraswati enigma. It is pos-
civilization and the Vedas to be as old sible that when the Vedic people settled in
as 6000 to 10000 BCE. The Vedic people this region the Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati)

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was a rain-fed river with a wide channel. By 11. A. K. Singh and others. 2017. Nature Communica-
this time the Harappan people had already tions, 8:1617, doi: 10.1038/s41467-017-01643-9.
left this area to small rural settlements 12. P. Clift et al., 2012. Geology, Vol. 40, p. 212-215.
in the Yamuna interfluves. The river was 13. A. Singh et al., 2022. Geomorphology, Vol. 402, p.
prone to floods during heavy monsoons. 108-124.
The Vedic people must have witnessed the 14. R. Sinha et al., 2020. In, Saraswati: The river par
floods and been affected by them. In fact excellence, Editors, S. K. Acharyya, K. Ghosh and
A. Kar, The Asiatic Society, Kolkata, p. 117-134.
the verses describe Saraswati as ‘mother of
15. I. Khan and R. Sinha, 2019. Jour. Applied
floods’, and some suktas are supplications Geophysics, Vol. 167, p. 128-139.
to save them from destruction by floods.
16. H. S. Saini et al., 2009. Current Science, Vol. 97,
Can the Rigvedic description of such a river p. 1634-1643.
be considered as poetic license?
17. J. A.Durcan et al. 2019. Quaternary Interna-
We suggest that though we now know tional, Vol.501, p. 317-327.
many details about the Vedic and the In- 18. H. S. Saini and S. A. I. Mujtaba. 2010.
dus Valley civilization, for finding answers Geochronometria, Vol. 37, p. 29-35,
to the many questions about this critical 19. A. Chatterjee et al., 2019. Scientific Reports,
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26 Breakthrough, Vol.23, No. 2, July 2023

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