University of Bohol

Mathematics in Modern World

SETS

Types of Sets

There are different types of sets categorized on various parameters. Some types of sets are mentioned
below:

Set Name Description Example

Empty Set A set containing no elements whatsoever. {}

Singleton
A set containing exactly one element. {1}
Set

Finite Set A set with a limited, countable number of

{apple, banana, orange}
elements.

Infinite Set A set with an uncountable number of

{natural numbers (1, 2, 3, …)}
elements.

Equivalent Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {a, b, c}

Sets that have the same number of elements
Sets (assuming a corresponds to 1, b to 2, and
and their elements can be paired one-to-one.
c to 3)

Equal Sets Sets that contain exactly the same elements. Set A = {1, 2} and Set B = {1, 2}

Universal A set containing all elements relevant to a The set of all students in a school (when
Set specific discussion. discussing student grades)

Unequal
Sets that do not have all the same elements. Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {a, b}
Sets

Power Set The set contains all possible subsets of a Power Set of {a, b} = { {}, {a}, {b}, {a,
given set. b} }

Overlappin Sets that share at least one common

Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {2, 4, 5}
g Sets element.

Disjoint Sets Sets that have no elements in common. Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {a, b, c}

Subset A set where all elements are also members

{1, 2} is a subset of {1, 2, 3}
of another set.

Set Theory Symbols

Delimiters are special characters or sequences of characters that indicate the beginning or end of a
certain statement or function body of a specified set. The following are the delimiters set
theory symbols and meanings:

Symb Name Meaning/Definition Example

ol

{} Within these brackets is a bunch of

Set {15, 22, c, d}
elements/ numbers/ alphabets in a set.

| { q | q > 6}
Such These are used to construct a set by
The statement specifies the collection of
that specifying what is contained within it.
all q’s such that q is bigger than 6.

: Such The “:” symbol is sometimes used instead The above sentence can alternatively be
that of the “|” symbol. written as {q | q > 6}.
Sets and Relational Symbols in Sets Theory

Set theory symbols are used to identify a specific set as well as to determine/show a relationship
between distinct sets or relationships inside a set, such as the relationship between a set and its
constituent. The table below depicts such relationship symbols, along with their meanings and
examples:

Symbo Name Meaning/Definition Example

l

a∈A Is a
This specifies that an element is a If a set A={12, 17, 18, 27} we may say
Component
member of a specific set. that 27 ∈ a.
of

b∉B If a set B={c, d, g, h, 32, 54, 59} then

Is not a
This indicates that an element does any element other than the one in the
Component
not belong to a particular set. set does not belong to this set. As an
of
example, 18 ∉ B.

A=B The provided sets are equivalent in

Equality If you put P={16, 22, a} and Q={16, 22,
the sense that they have the same
Relation a} then P=Q.
components.

A⊆B When all of the items of A are A= {31, b} and B={a, b, 31, 54}
Subset
present in B, A is a subset of B. {31, b} ⊆ {a, b, 31, 54}

A⊂B P is said to be a proper subset of B A= {24, c} and B={a, c, 24, 50}

Proper
when it is a subset of B and not
Subset A⊂B
equal to B.

A⊄B Not a As a result, set A is not a subset of A = {67,52} and B = {42,34,12}

Subset set B. A⊄B

A⊇B A is a superset of B if set B is a A = {14, 18, 26} and B={14, 18, 26}
Superset subset of A. Set A can be the same
{14, 18, 26} ⊇{14, 18, 26}
as or greater than Set B.

A⊃B Proper Set A has more elements than set B

{14, 18, 26, 42} ⊃ {18,26}
Superset since it is a superset of B.

A⊅B When all of the elements of B are A = {11, 12, 16} and B ={11, 19}
Not a
not present in A, A is not a true
Superset {11, 12, 16} ⊅ {11, 19}
superset of B.

Ø An empty or null set is one that

Empty Set {22, y} ∩ {33, a} = Ø
does not include any elements.

U A set that contains elements from If, A = {a,b,c} and B = {1,2,3,b,c}, then
Universal Set
all relevant sets, including its own. U = {1,2,3,a,b,c}

|A| or Cardinality Cardinality refers to the number of

If A= {17, 31, 45, 59, 62}, then |A|=5.
n{A} of a Set items in a particular collection.

P(X) If, X = {12, 16, 19}

A power set is the set of all subsets
P(X) = {12, 16, 19}={{}, {12}, {16},
Power Set of set X, including the set itself and
{19}, {12, 16}, {16, 19}, {12, 19}, {12,
the null set.
16, 19}}
Operator-based Symbols in Sets Theory

With examples, we will study set theory symbols and meanings for numerous operations such as union,
complement, intersection, difference, and others.

Symbol Name Meaning/Definition Example

A∪B A = {p, q, u, v, w}
The union of sets creates an entirely new B = {r, s, x, y}
Union of Sets set by combining all of the components in
the provided sets. A ∪ B (A union B) = {p, q, u, v,
w, r, s, x, y}

A∩B A = { 4, 8, a, b} and B = {3, 8,

Intersection of The common component of both sets is c, b}, then
Sets included in the intersection.
A ∩ B = {8, b}

Xc OR If A is universal set and A = {3,

X’ 6, 8, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 22, 24}
and B = {13, 15, 17, 18, 19}
Complement A set’s complement comprises all things then
of a set that do not belong to the provided set.
X′ = A – B
⇒ X′ = {3, 6, 8, 22, 24}

A−B The difference set is a set that contains A = {12, 13, 15, 19} and B =
{13, 14, 15, 16, 17}
Set Difference items from one set that are not found in
another. A – B = {12, 19}

A×B A = {4, 5, 6} and B = {r}

Cartesian A Cartesian product is the product of the
Now, A × B ={(4, r), (2, r), (6,
Product of Sets ordered components of the sets.
r)}

A∆B Symmetric A = {13, 19, 25, 28, 37},B =

A Δ B = (A – B) U (B – A) denotes the {13, 25, 55, 31}
Difference of
symmetric difference.
Sets A ∆ B = { 19, 28, 37, 55, 31}

Union of Sets

Union of two sets means finding a set containing all the values in both sets. It is denoted using the
symbol ‘∪’ and is read as the union.
Example 1:
If A = {1, 3. 5. 7} and B = {1, 2, 3} then A∪B is read as A union B and its value is,
A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}
Example 2:
If A = {1, 3. 5.7} and B = {2, 4} then A∪B is read as A union B and its value is,
A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
Example 3:
If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 4} and C = {1, 3, 4}
A∪B∪C = {1, 2, 3, 4}
The union of the set can also be represented using the Venn Diagrams. For example, if we have set A and
set B which have some values in common then their Venn diagram is represented in the image below,
We can represent any set using the Venn diagram in the Venn diagram explained above the rectangle
represents the Universal set, and set A and set B are represented using the circles. The common area of
the two sets represents the intersection of the two sets and both the circles combined along with the
common area represent the union of the set.

How to Find Union of Sets?

We can easily find the union of two sets by taking all the elements of both sets and removing the
common elements. Let’s learn this concept through an example.
Example: Find the union of the sets, set A = {p, q, r, s, t, u} and set B = {s, t, u, v, w,}.
Solution:
The union of set A and set B is found by taking all the elements of set A and set B and
taking the common element only once.
A∪ B = {p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w}
Here, all the elements of set A and set B are taken and the elements which appear twice
(s,t,u) are taken only once.
Formula for Number of Elements in A union B
To find the number of elements in the set of A union B, we can use the following formula:
n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
Where,
 n(A U B) is the number elements in A U B,
 n(A) is the number of elements in A,
 n(B) is the number of elements in B, and
 n(A ∩ B) is the number of elements that are common to both A and B.
Note: n(A) or |A| is called the cardinality of the set A i.e., the number of elements set A
contains.

Properties of Union of Sets

The intersection of set has various properties. The table below discusses the properties of the union of
the set.

Properties of Union Notation

Commutative Property A∪ B = B ∪ A

(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪
Associative Property
(B ∪ C)

Identity Law (Property

A∪∅=A
of Ⲫ)

Property of Universal
A∪ U=U
Set
 Properties of Union Notation

Idempotent Property A∪ A=A

Now let’s learn about these properties in detail.

Commutative Property

The commutative property of the union of the set explains that the order in which the union of two sets
is taken is not important. For example, if take the union of two sets, set A and set B then the value of A
∪ B is equal to the B ∪ A. We can write this property as,
A∪B=B∪A
Example: Take two sets, set A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, and set B = {a, b, c, d} and find their union.
Solution:
Given sets,
A = {1,3,5,7}
B = {a,b,c,d}
Now, for proving the commutative property.
A ∪ B = {1,3,5,7} ∪ {a,b,c,d}
⇒ A ∪ B = {1,3,5,7,a,b,c,d}…(i)
Similarly,
B ∪ A = {a,b,c,d} ∪ {1,3,5,7} = {a,b,c,d,1,3,5,7}
As we know the order of elements is not important in sets so,
B ∪ A = {a, b, c, d, 1, 3, 5, 7}
⇒ B ∪ A = {1, 3, 5, 7, a, b, c, d}…(ii)
Thus from (i) and (ii) we say that
A ∪ B = B ∪ A,
Thus, commutative property for union of sets can be verified.

Associative Property

The associative property of the union of the set explains that the order in which the two sets are
grouped for finding the union of two or more sets is not important. For example, if take the union of
three finite sets, set P, set Q, and set R then,
(P ∪ Q) ∪ R = P ∪ (Q ∪ R)
Example: Take three sets, set P = {1, 3, 5, 7}, set Q = {a, b, c, d}, and set R = {p, q, r, s}.
Verify Associative property.
Solution:
Given sets,
P = {1, 3, 5, 7}
Q = {a, b, c, d}
R = {p, q, r, s}
Now, for proving the associative property.
P ∪ Q = {1,3,5,7} ∪ {a,b,c,d} = {1,3,5,7,a,b,c,d}
⇒ (P ∪ Q) ∪ R = {1, 3, 5, 7, a, b, c, d} ∪ {p, q, r, s}
⇒ (P ∪ Q) ∪ R = {1, 3, 5, 7, a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s}…(i)
Similarly,
Q ∪ R = {a,b,c,d} ∪ {p,q,r,s} = {a,b,c,d,p,q,r,s}
⇒ P ∪ (Q ∪ R) = {1, 3, 5, 7} ∪ {a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s}
⇒ (P ∪ Q) ∪ R= {1, 3, 5, 7, a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s}…(ii)
Thus from (i) and (ii) we say that
(P ∪ Q) ∪ R = P ∪ (Q ∪ R)
Thus, the associative property of the union of the set is verified.

Identity Law (Property of Ⲫ)

The Identity Law of the union of the sets states that the union of any set with an identity element will
result in the same set. It can be represented as
A∪Ⲫ=A
where Ⲫ is the identity set or null set. This is also called the Property of Ⲫ or the Property of identity
set.
Example: If A = {1,2,3,4,5,6} prove A ∪ Ⲫ = A
Solution:
Given,
A ∪ Ⲫ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∪ { } = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
⇒A∪Ⲫ=A
Thus, Identity Law is verified.

Property of Universal Set

Property of the Universal Set of the union of the sets states that the union of any set with the universal
set will result in the Universal set. It can be represented as
A∪U=U
Note: This property is sometimes referred to as Domination Law.
Example: If A = {1,2,3} and U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} then prove A ∪ U = U
Solution:
Given,
A ∪ U = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
⇒ A ∪ U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
⇒A∪U=U
Thus, Property of Universal set is verified.

Idempotent Property

Idempotent property of the union of the sets states that the union of any set with itself will result in
the same set. It can be represented as
A∪A=A
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} then verify the idempotent property.
Solution:
Given,
A ∪ A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
⇒ A ∪ A = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
⇒A∪A=A
Thus, Idempotent Property is verified.

Union of Sets Examples

Example 1: Find the Union of the sets,

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
B = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Solution:
Given set,
Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Set B = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Union of sets
A∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∪ {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
⇒ A∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Example 2: Find the Union of the sets given below,

P = {a, e, i, o, u}
Q = {p, q, r, s, t}
R = {j, k, l, m, n}
Solution:
Given set,
 P = {a, e, i, o, u}
Q = {p, q, r, s, t}
R = {j, k, l, m, n}
Thus, P∪ Q∪ R = {a, e, i, o, u} ∪ {p, q, r, s, t} ∪ {p, q, r, s, t}
⇒ P∪ Q∪ R = {a, e, i, o, u, p, q, r, s, t, j, k, l, m, n}
Example 3: Find the union of sets P and Q, if P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Q = Ⲫ.
Solution:
Given,
Set P = {1,2,3,4,5}
Set Q = Ⲫ
We know that,
P∪Ⲫ=P
⇒ P ∪ Q = {1,2,3,4,5} ∪ Ⲫ
⇒ P ∪ Q = {1,2,3,4,5} = P

Practice Problems on Union of Sets

Problem 1: Let set A={1,2,3,4,5} and setB={4,5,6,7,8}. Find A ∪B.

Problem 2: Given set C={a,b,c} and set D={c,d,e}, calculate C ∪D.
Problem 3: If set E={2,4,6,8,10} and set F={3,6,9,12}, determine E∪F.
Problem 4: Consider two sets: set G={x,y,z} and set H={w,x,y}. Find G ∪H.