Crop Protection II

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Fifth Year
Biar Deng (Ph.D) & Kuyu Dhel (Ph.D)
Department of Agricultural Sciences

School of Natural Resources

University of Juba
April 2024
Table of Contents

➢ Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

➢ Historical perspective of IPM
➢ Philosophy of IPM
➢ Principles and Approaches of IPM
➢ Economic aspects of IPM
➢ Methods of pests management (IPM control options)

➢ Monitoring, Sampling and Forecasting

 Important Definitions
1. Pest
- The word pest is derived from Latin word ‘Pestis’ meaning ‘plague or contagious disease or
devastating infectious disease (Nothnagle and Schultz 1987)

- Any living organisms whose population increase to such an extent as to cause economic
losses to crop or a nuisance and health hazard to human and his livestock will be regarded
as a pest e.g. Insects, nematodes, rats, ticks, mites, snails, slugs, birds and weeds, and so
forth (vertebrate and invertebrate species)
Important Definitions
2. Pest infestation
• The occurrence of one or more pest species in an area or location where their numbers and
impact are currently or potentially at intolerable levels

• A sudden increase in destructiveness or population numbers of a pest species in a given area

3. Insect

The word insect is derived from Latin word ‘insectum’ which means “to cut in to. The insects are
“tracheate arthropods in which the body is divided into head, thorax & abdomen” (Zar and M.,
2018)
Concepts of Economic Threshold
1. Economic Threshold Level (ETL)

“It is the pest population density at which control measures should be applied to prevent an
increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level” (Stern et al. 1959). ).

- It is also referred as 'Action Threshold Level' (Wei, et al.2022)

- ETL = EIL- Daily reproductive rate of insects

- For vectors, the ETL is below 1 (Zero)

- There is no threshold for termites

Concepts of Economic Threshold

▪ Factors affecting the ETL:

i. Primary factors
- Crop value / market value
- Management costs

ii. Secondary factors

- Degree of injury per insect
- Crop susceptibility to injury
Concepts of Economic Threshold
2. Economic Injury Level (EIL)
EIL” is the lowest population density of the pest that will cause economic damage”
(Stern et al. 1959). It is also known as 'Damage Threshold Level (DTL).
- EIL is expressed as insects/ha
-EIL = Gain threshold/ Damage per insect in kg

3. Injury equivalent
Injury equivalent “is the loss caused by one individual insect”

4. Damage Boundary (DB)

DB is the lowest level of damage/injury which can be measured
Concepts of Economic Threshold

5. Gain threshold (kg/ha)

“The term is used to express the beginning of economic damage”.

Gain threshold = Cost of management /Value of commodity

6. General Equilibrium Position (GEP)

“GEP is the average population density of an insect population over a long period of time,
unaffected by the temporary interventions of pest control”.

-It is the mean value of pest density around which pest population tend to fluctuate
Categories of Pests
1. Key Pests
An important major pest species in the complex of pests attacking a crop. These are the
most severe and damaging pests. They are also persistent pests and perennial threat to
crop
- GEP lies well above the DB and EIL.

- Spray temporarily bring population below EIL

- The environment must be changed to bring GEP below EIL

Examples: Cotton boll worm, Diamond back moth (DBM), Gram pod borer and Sugarcane
borer
Categories of Pests
2. Regular Pests
These pests affect specific seasonal crops like cereals, pulses, fruits, passes through many
generations during the crop period. Examples: Maize stem/stalk borer, Aphids

3. Seasonal Pests
Occur during a particular season every year e.g. Red hairy caterpillar on groundnut, Mango
hoppers in India

4. Negligible pests
Population density never increases high enough to cause economic injury
Categories of Pests
5. Occasional pests
Occasionally, the pest population density reaches EIL when the population is affected by
unusual weather conditions or the injudicious use of insecticides. At their peaks of
population density, some sort of intervention usually an insecticide is required to reduce
their numbers to tolerable level

6. Perennial pests
The pest whose EIL’s are slightly above the GEP, an intervention is necessary at every stage
when the population reaches the upward level. The general practice is to intervene with
insecticides whenever necessary to produce a modified average population density well
below the EIL
Categories of Pests

7. Severe pest
- Regular and constant interventions with insecticides are required to produce marketable
crops

- They have EIL below the GEP

8. Persistent pests
These pests occur on the crop throughout the year and is difficult to control e.g. Chilli
thrips, Mealy bug on guava. Mango hoppers and Coccids
Categories of Pests
9. Potential pests
- The GEP lies below the DB and doesn't cross EIL even under favourable conditions. But
any change in ecosystem may push their GEP higher

- There is a danger of economic damage from these pests if control operations against the
other categories of pests are under taken in an indiscriminate manner

- These insects are presently not causing any economic damage. Therefore, as such should
not be labelled as pests
Categories of Pests
10. Endemic pests
Occurrence of the pest in a low level in few pockets, regularly and confined to particular area. These
pests which are restricted to a particular locality

11. Epidemic pests

Sudden outbreak of a pest in a severe form in a region at a particular time e.g. outbreak of locusts and
Quelea quelea

12. Sporadic pests

Population of these insect is usually negligible, but in certain year under favourable environmental
conditions they appear epidemic and crossing many times over EIL and DB
Categories of Pests
13. Migrant pests
These pests move from one area to cause damage to crops in another area. They are
special group of key pests which are classified as migrant pests. Their control normally
involves international cooperation between the member countries affected

Examples:

- The African migratory locust involves joint tackling in West Africa

- Armyworm Forecasting Programme involving many East African countries

- The Village weaver birds, Quelea quelea sp. are also migrant pests
Causes of Pests Outbreak in Agroecosystems
• Activity of human which upsets the biotic balance of ecosystem is the prime cause for
pest outbreak
• Examples of some human interventions that cause outbreak of pests:
1. Deforestation of forests and bringing forest area under cultivation

- The destruction of forest for cultivation affects weather factors (temperature, humidity,
rainfall, wind velocity etc) in that locality and thus set conditions favourable for some
insects to develop enormously.
- The insects feeding on forest trees are forced to feed on crops
- Biomass/unit area more in forests than agricultural land
- The insects feeding on the trees and plants in the forest area are driven to neighbouring
areas where they may infest the cultivated crops and become new pests
Causes of Pests Outbreak in Agroecosystems
2. Destruction of natural enemies
Due to excess use of insecticides, natural enemies are killed. This affects the natural
control mechanism and pest outbreak occurs

3. Intensive and Extensive crop production

- Monoculture (Intensive) leads to multiplication of pests.
- Extensive cultivation of susceptible variety in large area e.g. Stem borers in rice and
sugarcane

4. Introduction of new varieties and crops

Mostly improved strains of crop plants are susceptible to pests. Sometimes, the insects
which are considered of minor importance, become major importance with the
introduction of new varieties and strains
Causes of Pests Outbreak in Agroecosystems
5. Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers
Excess use of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers creates congenial conditions for rapid
multiplication and subsequent outbreaks of pests

6. Indiscriminate use of pesticides

Sometimes use of insecticides as a prophylactic or curative measure results in reducing one
of the competitive species of pests while allowing the others to multiply. Repeated use of
same insecticides may also lead to the secondary infestation

7. Improved agronomic practices

- Increased N fertilizer - High leaf folder incidence on rice
- Closer planting - leaf folder increases
- Granular insecticides - Possess phytotoxic effect on rice
Causes of Pests Outbreak in Agroecosystems

8. Introduction of new pest in new environment

When an insect gets introduced into a favourable new area without its natural enemies it
becomes more abundant

9. Accidental introduction of foreign pests

Immature and adult stages of certain insects adhere closely to the plants such as scales
and those which bore into the tissues of plant parts such as leaf miners, stem borers, gall
insects etc., and are more liable to be introduced into other countries
Causes of Pests Outbreak in Agroecosystems

10. Large scale storage of food grains

• Storage of food leads to pest problems since there is plenty of food for stored product
insects to feed, breed and multiply

• Rat problems
11. Resurgence
Tremendous increase in pest population brought about by insecticides despite good initial
reduction in pest population at the time of treatment
History of Pest Management
• 2500 BC First records of insecticides; Sumerians used element sulfur compounds to
control insects, mites and several fungal diseases

• 200 BC Romans advocated oil sprays for pest control

• 300 AD First records of biological controls; Chinese used. predatory ants in citrus
orchards to control caterpillar and beetle pests

• 1500 Discovery of plant based pesticides (Pyrethroids, Neem, bottlebrush plant)

• 1880 First commercial spraying machine

• 1930 Introduction of synthetic organic compounds for plant pathogen control

• 1940 First successful use of an entomopathogen; Milky Spore (Bacillus popillae) used to
control Japanese beetle
History of Pest Management

• 1800 Discovery of quite toxic inorganic compounds used for problematic pests (insects
and fungicides). These included: Paris green, Bordeaux mix, Lead arsenate, Creosote (coal
tar derivative), and Sodium hypochlorite solutions (bleach)

•1800 witnessed discovery of the first spraying machine

• 1930 Introduction of synthetic organic compounds for plant pathogen control

• 1940 First successful use of an entomopathogen; Milky Spore (Bacillus popillae) used to
control Japanese beetle
History of Pest Management

▪ Supervised insect control

- It was developed by entomologists from California shortly after World War II, when synthetic
insecticides became widely available

- It was an alternative to calendar-based insecticide programs

- It was based on a sound knowledge of the ecology and analysis of projected trends in pest and
natural-enemy populations
History of Pest Management

▪ Integrated control
- Supervised control formed much of the conceptual basis for "integrated control“ that
University of California entomologists articulated in the 1950s

- Integrated control sought to identify the best mix of chemical and biological controls for a
given insect pest

- The adage of "if a little works, a lot will work better“ was the major premise for applying
chemical to address pest problems on the farm and around the home
History of Pest Management

▪ Ecological (setback) Backlash

- As early as the 1950's, pesticide-induced problems such as pest resurgence, pest
replacement, and pesticide resistance caused problems in agriculture

- Pest resurgence - In 1959, scientists discovered that aphids could be better controlled by
reducing the amount of pesticide used because the pesticides were killing aphid predators
as well as the aphids themselves, causing large-scale pest resurgence (Stern, et al., 1959)
History of Pest Management
▪ Pest Management

- The concept of 'pest management' was proposed in 1961 (Geier and Clark, 1961)

- For the reduction of pest problems actions are selected after the life systems of the pests are
understood and the ecological and economic consequences of these actions have been
predicted,
as accurately as possible, to be in the best interests of human

- Widespread pest resistance in 1950’s to DDT and other Pesticides

- Environmental Awareness during the 1960s – new awareness of ecology and the
environmental impact of pesticide pollution resulted from a public outcry about
environmental contamination found in the air and water
History of Pest Management

▪ Pest Management

- By 1962, when "Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson was published, serious concerns about
the disadvantages of pesticide use were widely raised

- Rachel Carson and others suggested that pest control methods other than chemical
pesticides should be used in order to protect wildlife, human health and the environment

- Public pressure led to government legislation restricting pesticide use in many countries
resulting in ban of DDT and other pesticides
History of Pest Management

▪ Integrated Pest Management

- In 1967 the term IPM was introduced by R.F. Smith and R. van den Bosch.

- The term IPM was formalized by the US National Academy of Sciences in 1969

- IPM was adopted as policy by various world governments during the 70's and 80’s,
including the USA (1972)

- 1970’s-1980’s IPM adapted for managing pests of landscape trees and shrubs in Urban
Areas

- Over the years IPM underwent several changes in its focus and approaches
History of Pest Management

▪ Ecological Engineering for Pest Management

• Explores the ecological engineering strategies based on the management of habitat to achieve
pest suppression

• It could be argued that all pest management approaches are forms of ecological engineering,
irrespective of whether they act on the physical environment (e.g., via tillage), chemical
environment (e.g., via pesticide use) or biotic environment (e.g., via the use of novel crop
varieties)

• However, the use of cultural techniques to effect habitat manipulation and enhance biological
control most readily fits the philosophy of ecological engineering for pest management
Definitions of Integrated Pest Management

1. Definition by the FAO (1967)

“IPM is a pest management system that, in the context of associated environment and
population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in a
compatible manner as possible and maintains pest populations at levels below those
causing economic injury.” In IPM three aspects are emphasized, i.e.

i. Multiple control tactics used in a compatible manner.

ii. The populations maintained below levels that cause economic damage.

iii. Socio-economic and eco-friendly to the environment.

Definitions of Integrated Pest Management
2. Definition by Luckmann and Metcalf (1994)
IPM is defined as “the intelligent selection and use of pest control tactics that will ensure
favourable economical, ecological and sociological consequences”

3. The definition of IPM provided by the European Union (2009)

IPM ’ means careful consideration of all available plant protection methods and subsequent
integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of populations of harmful
organisms and keep the use of plant protection products and other forms of intervention to levels
that are economically and ecologically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human health and
the environment. ‘Integrated pest management’ emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with
the least possible disruption to agroecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms
Definitions of Integrated Pest Management

4. The definition of IPM by Barzman et la. (2015)

The IPM is defined as “the practice of preventing or suppressing damaging populations of
insect pests by application of the comprehensive and coordinated integration of multiple
control tactics”. Tactics are the various control methodologies, e.g., chemical, biological,
cultural. Strategies are the planned manipulations undertaken to optimize the dynamic
integration of control methodologies in the context of their economic, environmental and
social consequences. The philosophy is holistic, but deeply rooted in applied ecology
Philosophy of the Integrated Pest Management

• Integration; is the harmonious use of multiple methods to control single pests or pest
complexes. To do this, one must learn everything they can about a pest and the crop that is
affected by the pest, and then put that information together as a management plan.

• Pest; is any organism that is detrimental to humans and it includes invertebrates (insects,
mites, spiders, etc.), vertebrates (ground squirrels, mice, rabbits, birds, etc.), weeds, and
pathogens (microorganisms that cause plant diseases).

• Management, which is simply a set of decisions making up a strategy or plan to control

a pest based on ecological principles and economic and social considerations
Philosophy of the Integrated Pest Management

▪ Hence, the IPM is a multidisciplinary endeavour. It takes from branches of crop science
and then integrated information from the following disciplines:
- Agronomy—understanding about the crop production, physiology and the soils and
landscape that the crop will grow on.
- Entomology—understanding insects and mites, including both pests and beneficial insects
that affect a specific crop.
- Plant pathology—understanding the disease‐causing microorganisms that affect crops.
There are also beneficial microorganisms, including “entomopathic” organisms that attack
insects and other invertebrates (plant pathologists and entomologists work together on
these) and nitrogen‐fixing bacteria that infect soybean and other legume roots
Philosophy of the Integrated Pest Management

- Economics is basically making decisions that generate profit to the operator when compared
with other decisions.

- Agricultural Engineering usually addresses how we deliver management tactics to the field. It
works with machinery, grain handling equipment, soil sampling equipment, and operator safety
issues that allow for more effective management practices.

- Climatology is important to understand weather trends including rainfall, wind, and

temperature that affect both crop and pest development. “Cold blooded” organisms (both crops
and most pests) develop based on heat, water, solar radiation, etc. and understanding weather
is a key component of understanding how a pest can cause damage to a crop
Concepts of IPM
▪ IPM seeks to minimize the disadvantages associated with use of pesticides and
maximizing socio-economic and ecological advantages through:
1. Understanding the agricultural ecosystem
An agroecosystem contains a lesser diversity of animal and plant species than natural ecosystem like
forests. A typical an agroecosystem contains only 1-4 major crop species and 6-10 major pest
species.
An agroecosystem is intensively manipulated by human and subjected to sudden alterations such as
ploughing, inter cultivation and treatment with pesticides. These practices are critical in pest
management as pest populations are greatly influenced by these practices. Agroecosystem can be
more susceptible to pest damage and catastrophic outbreaks owing to lack of diversity in species of
plants and insects and sudden alternations imposed by weather and human
However, agroecosystem is a complex of food chains and food webs that interact together to produce
a stable unit
Concepts of IPM
2. Planning of agricultural ecosystem
• In IPM programme, the agricultural system can be planned in terms of anticipating
pest problems and also the ways to reduce them

- that is to integrate crop protection with crop production system

• Growing of susceptible varieties should be avoided

• Related crops shouldn’t be grown

Concepts of IPM

3. Cost benefit ratio

- Based on the possibility of pest damage by

• predicting the pest problem

• defining economic threshold level

emphasis should be given to cost benefit ratio

- The crop life table to provide solid information analysis of pest damage as well as cost benefit
ratio in pest management

- Benefit risk analysis comes when a chemical pesticide is applied in an agroecosystem for
considering its impact on society as well as environment relevant to its benefits
Concepts of IPM

4. Tolerance of pest damage

• The pest free crop is neither necessary in most cases for high yields nor appropriate for
insect pest management
- For example; Castor crop can tolerate upto 25 % defoliation. Exceptions occur in case of
plant disease transmission by vectors
- The relationship between density of pest population and profitability of control
measures is expressed through threshold values.
a) Economic Injury Level (EIL): Lowest population at which the pest will cause economic
damage or it is the pest level at which the damage can no longer be tolerated and
therefore it is the level at or before which the control measures are initiated.
-”The amount of injury which will justify the artificial control measures” is termed as
economic damage. EIL is usually expressed as the number of insects per unit area
Concepts of IPM

4. Tolerance of pest damage

b) Economic Threshold Level (ETL)
- It is the index for making pest management decisions

- ETL is defined as “the population density at which control measures should be applied to prevent
increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level”

c) General equilibrium position (GEP)

“It is the average population density of insect over a long period of time unaffected by temporary
interventions of pest control”

- However, the economic injury level may be at any level well above or below the general equilibrium
Concepts of IPM

5. Leaving a pest residue

• Natural enemy population is gradually eliminated not only in the absence of their
respective insect hosts, but because of the indiscriminate use of broad-spectrum
insecticides, which in turn also eliminate natural enemies

• Therefore, it is an important concept of pest management, to leave a permanent pest

residue below economic threshold level, so that natural enemies will survive.
Concepts of IPM
6. Timing of treatments

Treatment in terms of pesticide spray should be need based, with minimum number of
sprays, timely scheduled, combined with improved techniques of pest monitoring
and crop development E.g.: Use of pheromone traps for monitoring pest population

7. Public understanding and acceptance

In order to deal with various pest problems special effort should be made for effective
communication to the people for better understanding and acceptance of pest management
practices. The IPM practices followed should be economical and sustainable
Aims of IPM

• Reduce the use of (synthetic organic) pesticides

• Strategies that are environmentally sound

• Pest minimal risk for human health

• Re-useable return on investment

• Provide consumable safe food

Benefits of IPM

i. IPM allows producers to make informed decisions to manage their crops and minimize
reliance on pesticides. It can therefore help to reduce costs

ii. IPM can help maintain biodiversity, encourage beneficial organisms, decrease pollution
and lower the build-up of pesticide resistance

iii. Use of IPM will help to demonstrate adherence to the Code of Practice for using Plant
Protection Products

iv. IPM can therefore play a significant role in making farming more environmentally,
economically and socially sustainable
Limitations of IPM
• An IPM programme requires a higher degree of management

• Making the decision not to use pesticides on a routine or regular basis requires advanced
planning and therefore, a higher degree of management. This planning includes:

- Attention to field histories to anticipate what the pest problems might be

- Selecting crop varieties which are resistant or tolerant to pest damage

- Choosing tillage systems that will suppress anticipated pest damage while giving the crop the
greatest yield potential

• IPM can be more labour intensive, consistent, timely and accurate field scouting takes time.
Without this information, intelligent management decision cannot be made

• Success of IPM programmes can be weather dependent

Therefore, good IPM planners will have an alternate plan when these problems arise
Principles of IPM

1. The prevention and/or suppression of harmful organisms

• Prevention can be considered as the creation of cropping systems inherently less likely to
experience significant economic losses due to the presence of pests

• Suppression, understood as the reduction of the incidence of pests or of the severity of

their impact, complements prevention

• This principle means that the aim is not to completely eliminate pests but to prevent any
single one from becoming dominant or damaging in a cropping system

• The prevention and/or suppression of harmful organisms should be achieved or supported

among other options especially by:
 Principles of IPM
1.The prevention and/or suppression of harmful organisms
a. Crop rotation,
b. Use of adequate cultivation techniques (e.g., stale seedbed technique, sowing dates and
densities, under sowing, conservation tillage, pruning and direct sowing),

c. Use, where appropriate, of resistant/tolerant cultivars and standard/ certified seed and
planting material,

d. Use of balanced fertilization, liming and irrigation/drainage practices,

e. Preventing the spreading of harmful organisms by hygiene measures (e.g., by regular

cleansing of machinery and equipment),

f. Protection and enhancement of important beneficial organisms, e.g., by adequate plant

protection measures or the utilization of ecological infrastructures inside and outside
production sites
Principles of IPM

2. Monitoring of harmful organisms

• Pests must be monitored by adequate methods and tools where available.

• This should include:

- observations in the field

- scientifically sound warning

- forecasting and early diagnosis systems where feasible

- and use of advice from professionally qualified advisers

Principles of IPM

3. Application of appropriate plant protection measures

• Decision-making should be based on robust and scientifically sound threshold Levels

• Preventative treatments may be the best option to control a pest and can mean a lesser
pesticide loading than is required in a curative/eradicate situation

• For harmful organism’s threshold levels defined for the region, specific areas, crops and
particular climatic conditions must be taken into account before treatments, where
feasible.
Principles of IPM

4. Use of sustainable biological, physical or other non-chemical methods

• Preference must be given to non-chemical methods if they provide satisfactory control

• There is a wide range of non-chemical but direct pest control measures such as soil
solarization or biological control, but their availability, efficacy, or pertinence varies
considerably

• Use of propane burners and manual weeding for weeds control

• Use of deterrents (bangers, kites etc.) primarily to deter birds from crops
Principles of IPM
5. Use of pesticides that are specific for the pest/disease
• Pesticides applied should be specific for the target area and should have minimum side-effects on non-target
organisms, human health and the environment

• Selective biopesticides represent a particularly desirable alternative to chemical pesticides

• Applications usually for multiple pests

• Resistance development is considered

• Broad-spectrum products avoided

• Different modes of action considered. In considering the likelihood or possible development of resistance, it
is good practice to use a combination of chemical, cultural and biological control measures.

• Economics are considered

• Buffer zones are adhered to

Principles of IPM
6. Use of pesticides at required levels
• Reducing doses, application frequency, and resorting to partial application of pesticides
contribute to the IPM goal of reducing or minimizing risks to human health and the
environment

• The professional user should keep the use of pesticides to levels that are required, giving
consideration to acceptable levels of risk and ensuring that the risk for development of
pesticide in pest or disease populations does not increase.

- Use appropriate application rates

- Applications timed to minimise use

- Reduce frequency of application

- Partially treat / spot spray fields

Principles of IPM

7. Use of anti-resistance strategies to maintain product effectiveness

• Where there is a risk of pesticide resistance, a regular control is required, and anti-
resistance strategies should be applied

- Use products with multiple modes of action

- Use appropriate rates of pesticides

- Keep informed of resistance development

Principles of IPM
8.Checking and recording the success of the applied crop protection measures
(evaluation)
• Sound analysis of the success of applied plant protection measures should be undertaken continuously

• Success or failure of intervention measured

• Success or failure of intervention recorded

• Crop yields / disease and pest incidences recorded

• Results discussed with adviser

- It is important to discuss the success or failure of strategies to enable better decisions to be made in the
future

• Member of discussion group

- A valuable channel for the sharing of ideas and experiences in all aspects of production and farming-
Integrated Pest Management Approaches

▪ IPM is not a single pest control method but a series of pest management evaluations,
decisions and controls. Generally, a four-tier approach is followed:

1. Prevention

As a first line of pest control aim to avoid situations where the pest or disease may
become a threat. Plan to prevent, minimize and avoid pest and disease problems

2. Monitor and identify pests

Not all pests and / or diseases require control. Accurate identification allows appropriate
control measures to be taken. This removes the possibility that unnecessary or incorrect
pesticide applications will be used
Integrated Pest Management Approaches
3. Set action thresholds

This is when a pest population and or/a disease reaches a certain level, or environmental
conditions are such, that action should be taken to prevent economic loss

4. Control

- When monitoring, identification and thresholds of pests and/or diseases indicate that action is
needed, appropriate control measures can be taken

- Non-chemical methods should be selected first, for example mechanical weeding or trapping.
If these are not available, donot work, or are not economical, targeted (selective) pesticide
applications can be used. Field applications of non-specific (broad-spectrum) pesticides are the
last resort
Types of IPM strategies

1. Do nothing strategy
When pest densities are below ETL, “do nothing” strategy is followed. Considerable
sampling is required to assure that ‘no action’ is appropriate and significant pest
suppression is likely to occur as a result of natural environmental factors

▪ Pest surveillance

Pest surveillance is ‘periodical assessment of pests populations and their damage’

or ‘watch kept on a pest for the purpose of decision making in pest management’
Types of IPM strategies

▪ Pest surveillance
By implementing Pest surveillance programmes, the population dynamics and the key
natural mortality factors operating under field conditions can be identified, which in turn
helps in devising the appropriate management strategies

Pest surveillance can provide the necessary information to determine the feasibility of a
pest control programme
Types of IPM strategies

▪ Objectives of Pest surveillance

- to know existing and new pest species

- to assess pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop

- to study the influence of weather parameters on pest

- to study changing pest status (Minor to major)

- to assess natural enemies and their influence on pests

- To know effect of new cropping pattern and varieties on pest

Types of IPM strategies

▪ Components of pest surveillance

1. Identification of the pest

2. Distribution and prevalence of the pest and its severity

3. The different levels of incidence and the loss due to the incidence

4. Pest population dynamics

5. Assessment of weather

6. Assessment of natural enemies etc

Types of IPM strategies

▪ Advantages of Pest surveillance

- One can know how a pest is multiplying in an area and when it is expected.

- Minimize the cost of plant protection by reducing the amount of pesticides used and in turn
reduce environmental pollution

- Pest control measures can be initiated in time due to advance forecasting

- Useful for pest forecasting

- To find out natural enemy population

- To study the influence of weather parameters on pests

- Mark endemic areas

- Maintain the stability of the agroecosystem

Types of IPM strategies
▪ Pest surveying

- Regular survey activity is necessary for successful surveillance programmes

- An insect pest survey is ‘a detailed collection of insect population information at a

particular time in a given area’

- These surveys are both qualitative and quantitative

• The qualitative surveys aim at the pest detection, employed with newly introduced pests
and often precedes quantitative survey

• The quantitative surveys attempt to define numerically the abundance of an insect

population in time and space. It is useful to predict future population trends and to assess
damage potentials
Types of IPM strategies

▪ Pest sampling

• It is ‘a representative part of the total population and our estimate is based on that part’.

• Sampling techniques: Surveillance requires suitable sampling techniques.

• A sampling technique is ‘the method used to collect information for a single sample’.
The sampling techniques include direct counts (insitu counts), knock down, netting,
trapping, (use of light trap, pheromone trap, sticky trap), extraction from soil etc.

• Sampling programme: It is ‘the procedure for employing the sampling techniques in

time and space’. Sampling programme describes when sampling is to begin, location of
samples, number of samples and how often samples should be taken.
Types of IPM strategies

2. Reduce number strategy

- When the general equilibrium position (GEP) is low compared to ETL (problems are not
severe), the best strategy would be to dampen population peaks

- However, when GEP is lying very close to or above the ETL, the appropriate method is to
reduce the environmental carrying capacity (e.g. Crop rotation) or to reduce the inherited
reproductive and or survival potentials of population (sterile insect technique or application of
chemicals that disrupt the mating activity)

- Tactics used in this strategy may be the release of natural enemies, application of insecticide,
growing of resistant cultivars, and adaptation of ecological modification and use of IGR
Types of IPM strategies

3. Reduce crop-susceptibility strategy

This is one of the most effective and environmentally desirable strategies available. For this
we rely on changes made in the host plant that makes it less susceptible to the pest. This
includes planting resistant/tolerant crop varieties and the crop environment manipulation
(time of sowing, fertilization etc)

4. Combined strategies
This is the most desirable strategy when feasible. As such adoption of multiple strategies
and tactics is a basic principle in developing insect pest management programme
 Tools or Components of IPM
1. Cultural methods (agronomic practices) of Pest Management
• Cultural practices include all the crop production and management techniques which are
utilized by the farmers to maximize their crop productivity and/or farm income
• It includes decisions on crops/varieties to be grown, time and fertilizers and irrigation,
harvesting times and procedures, and even off-season operations in fallow/cropped fields
• Since cultural control manipulations are based on habitat management and require a
thorough understanding of different components of the agroecosystem in which the pest
thrives, this approach has also been called as ecological management or environmental
control
• The purpose of cultural control practices is to make the environment less favourable for
the pest and/or more favourable for its natural enemies.
• The aim is to reduce pest density by reducing the average availability of food, shelter and
habitable space
Tools or Components of IPM
▪ Cultural practices are based on the following strategies:

• Usually, food sources or physical factors of the crop environment are made unfavourable
for insects through manipulating production practices.

• To use this approach weak links in the insect seasonal cycle are identified and exploited
(Red hairy caterpillar summer ploughing is done to expose the pupal stage for natural
predation)

• Reduce pest survival on the crop by enhancing its natural enemies, or by altering the crop's
susceptibility to the pest

• This approach is a preventive tactic that anticipate problems before they occur and
attempts to avoid or minimize their impact. Therefore, timing is critical to the success of
most cultural practices
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Cultural practices are based on the following strategies:

• It serves as a baseline procedure that is compatible and can be integrated with many
other pest management tactics.

• Several cultural practices give good control when adopted at community level. E.g Bonfire
to attract moths of Red hairy caterpillar.

• Cultural practices are often pest, crop and region specific. Care should be exercised in

transferring tactic to a region with markedly different agroecological conditions.

Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Common Cultural Practices

1) Tillage or proper preparatory cultivation:

- Several insects which live or hide in the soil get exposed to sun as well as predators like
birds etc due to proper preparatory cultivation/ploughing such as Red hairy caterpillar,
white grubs, cut worms etc.

- Raking and hoeing of the soil around melon plants, mango and other fruit trees serve to
destroy pupae of fruit flies
Tools or Components of IPM

2) Growing resistant varieties:

It is well known that some crops are less attacked by pests, because they have more natural
resistance than others. They have some special characteristic like acidity or tasteless of cell sap,
early maturity, hard bark etc., which helps in building their resistance

▪ Types of plant resistance

I. Ecological or Pseudo resistance (Apparent resistance)

- Ecological resistance relies more on environmental conditions than on genetics

- Certain crop varieties may overcome the most susceptible stage rapidly and thus avoid insect
damage
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Types of plant resistance

I. Ecological or Pseudo resistance (Apparent resistance)

- Early maturing crop cultivars have been used in agriculture as an effective pest
management strategy. However, plants that evade insect attack by this mechanism are
likely to be damaged if the pest populations build-up early

• Pseudo resistance may be one or combination of the following:

- Host evasion
- Host escape
- Induced resistance
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Ecological or Pseudo resistance

• Host evasion
Under some conditions, a host plant may pass through the most susceptible stage quickly
or at time when insects are less in number. Example; In India, Early planting of paddy rice
in kharif minimize the infestation of stem/stalk borer Scirpophaga incertulas. Sowing of
sorghum soon after onset of monsoon in June helps to overcome shoot fly infestation
• Induced resistance
It is a form of temporarily increased resistance as resulting from some conditions of plant
or its environment such as changes in the amount of nutrients or water applied to the crop.
Example; application of potassium fertilizers
Tools or Components of IPM
I. Ecological or Pseudo resistance
▪ Host escape
It refers to lack of infestation or injury to the host plant, because of transitory
circumstances like incomplete infestation. Thus finding of uninfested plant in a
susceptible population does not necessarily mean that it is resistant
II. Genetic or true resistance
The factors that determine the resistance of host plant to insect establishment
include:

- presence of structural barriers

- allelochemicals and nutritional imbalance

These resistance qualities are heritable and operate in a concerted manner, and tend
to render the plant unsuitable for insect utilization.
Tools or Components of IPM

3. Seed rate
• Adoption of appropriate seed rate ensures proper stand, spacing and crop canopy that
helps in adaptation of proper spray technology and checks the unwanted growth of crop

• Use of high seed rate is recommended in those crops where removal of infested plants is
helpful in minimizing the incidence of insect pests, viz. maize borer in maize, and
sorghum shoot fly in sorghum.
Tools or Components of IPM

4. Planting time
• The manipulation of planting time helps to minimize pest damage by producing
asynchrony between host plant and the pest or synchronizing insect pests with the
natural enemies or crop production with available alternate host plants of the pest

• Early planting has been found to reduce gall midge and leaf folder damage in rice, shoot
fly and head bug damage in sorghum and millet, white grub damage in groundnut and
mustard aphid damage in mustard.

• Timely and synchronous planting has been found to reduce bollworm damage in cotton
and stem borer damage in sugarcane
Tools or Components of IPM

5. Plant spacing
• In entomology point of view plant spacing may influence the population and damage of many
insect pests by modifying the micro-environment of the crop or affecting health, vigour and
strength of the crop plants

• Closer spacing has been reported to increase the incidence of planthoppers etc.

• The closer spacing in cotton results in increase the relative humidity that favour higher incidence of
sucking pets and bollworm

• Closer spacing in groundnut lowered the incidence of thrips, Jassids and leaf miners and also
increased parasitism in the latter
Tools or Components of IPM

6. Fertility Management
• High levels of nitrogen fertilizers significantly increase the incidence of most of the insect
pests including yellow stem borer, leaf folder, gall midge, BPH, WBPH, Hispa , Whorl
maggot etc. in rice & cotton also it results in greater attack of leaf folder, white fly and
bollworms

• Reduction in the incidence of aphids and thrips in chilies has been reported by the
application of potash.

• Potassium increase the silica content in the leaf due to which cell-wall of parenchyma and
tissues containing epidermal sclerenchyma become hard and unfavourable for pest attack
Tools or Components of IPM
7. Water management
Flooding the field:

Flooding of fields is recommended for reducing the attack of cutworms, army worms, termites etc

8. Sanitation Clean cultivation/ weed management

Removal of weeds which act as alternate hosts reduce insect pests
• Fruit sucking moth spend their life on alternate host before attacking on main host crops.

• Mealy bug infestation in cotton is reduce by removal of weed which is alternate host for mealy
bugs.

• Systematic cutting/prunning and removal of infested parts: Keeps down subsequent infestation.

• Removal of sugarcane shoots affected by borers

Tools or Components of IPM

8. Sanitation Clean cultivation/ weed management

• Cutting and removal of infested parts of brinjal attacked by Leucinodes orbonalis

• Prunning of dried branches of citrus eliminates scales and stem borer

• Clipping of tips of rice seedlings before transplanting eliminate the egg masses of stem
borer

• Clipping of leaflets in coconut reduces the black headed caterpillar

Tools or Components of IPM
Trap cropping
• Growing of susceptible or preferred plants by important pests near a major crop to act as a
trap, and later it is destroyed or treated with insecticides

• Trap crop may also attract natural enemies thus enhancing natural control

• Trap crop can be from the same or different family group, than that of the main crop, as
long as it is more attractive to the pest

• There are two types of planting the trap crops, border trap cropping and row intercropping:

- Boarder trap cropping is the planting of trap crop completely surrounding the main cash
crop. It prevents a pest attack that comes from all sides of the field.

- Row intercropping is the planting of the trap crop in alternating rows within the main crop.
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Advantages of trap cropping

i. It lessens the use of pesticide

ii. Lowers the pesticide cost

iii. Preserves the indigenous natural enemies

iv. Improve the crop quality

v. Additional yield from trap crop

Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Tips for successful trap cropping:

• Select trap crop that is more attractive to the pests than the main crop

• Monitor the plants regularly

• Immediately control the pests that are found in the trap crop

• Destroy the trap crops once the pest population is high, otherwise they will serve as the
breeding ground and pests will attack the rest of the field

• Be ready to sacrifice trap crop as an early crop and destroy them once pest population is
high
Tools or Components of IPM

10. Intercropping
• Tomato intercropped with cabbage has been reported to inhibit or reduce egg laying by
Dimondback moth

• The intercrop of cowpea, maize etc in cotton helped in the colonization of coccinellids and also
enhanced the parasitism of spotted bollworm

• Okra intercrop with cotton increased the population buildup of jassids, whitefly, spotted bollworms
and American bollworm

• Intercropping of groundnut with pearl millet reduced the incidence of thrips, jassids and leaf miner
whereas the same with sunflower and castor increased the incidence of thrips and jassids,
respectively
Tools or Components of IPM
11. Crop rotation
• Crop provides food for insect pests, and if the food is abundant all-round the year, such pests flourish
and multiply rapidly. Lady’s finger followed by cotton will suffer from increased infestation of pests

• Hence if a non-host crop is grown after a host crop, it reduces the pest population

• The pest problem of monoculture can be control by adopting crop-rotation cultivation

Examples:

- Cereals followed by pulses reduce pest incidence

- Cotton should be rotated with non-hosts like maize, rice to minimize the incidence of insect pests

- Groundnut with non-leguminous crops is recommended for minimizing the leaf miner incidence.
Tools or Components of IPM

12. Harvesting practices

Includes; crop maturity, time of harvest or cutting practices, selective harvesting and strip
harvesting can be of considerable assistance in suppressing a variety of insect pests and/or
conserving their natural enemies
Tools or Components of IPM

2.1. Physical control

• Physical control is a “Modification of physical factors in the environment to minimize or
prevent pests problems”

• Insect require definite range of physical conditions and any deviation from such range is lethal
to the survival and other life activities of insects

▪ Physical methods in pest management:

1. Manipulation of temperature
Insect activity and metabolic rate are influenced by temperature. Optimum range of temperature
is vital for normal insect activity
Tools or Components of IPM
1. Manipulation of temperature
Techniques for manipulation of temperature in IPM includes:

• Sun drying the seeds to kill the eggs and hidden stages of stored product pests

• Exposure of cotton seeds to sun heat in thin layer for 2-3 days in April-May helps in killing larvae of
pink bollworm

• Treatment of sugarcane with heat energy units either as hot water or hot air treatment kill the
scale insects carried over through

• Hot water treatment of paddy seeds at 50-55 0 C° Use of flame throwers against locusts

• Use of burning torch against hairy caterpillar

• Cold storage of fruits and vegetables at 1-2C° for 15 minutes to control rice white tip nematodes
- Low lethal temperature: Cold storage of potatoes - potato tuber moth & fruit flies
Tools or Components of IPM
2. Manipulation of moisture
- Alternate drying and wetting of rice fields to manage rice Brown plant hopper

- Drying of seeds below 10% moisture level affect insect development (rice weevil, pulse beetle)

3. Manipulation of light

• Behavioural orientation is influenced by light

- Mating frequency reduction

- Reduce fertility

- Diapause disruption in all diapausing insects

• Use of light trap to attract positively phototropic insects

Tools or Components of IPM

4. Manipulation of air

Increasing of Carbon dioxide concentration in control atmosphere of stored grain to cause

asphyxiation in stored product pests.

5. Use of irradiation: Gamma irradiation from Co60

6. Use of abrasive dust:

- It is used to sterilize the insects in laboratory

• Activated clay: Causes injury to the insects wax layer, resulting in loss of moisture leading
to death. It is used against stored product pests.

• Dri-die: This is porous finely divided silica gel used against stored insects
Tools or Components of IPM

7. Radiant energies
Radiant (solar) energies which have been tried in the control of insect pests are
1 Radio frequencies Energies of longer wave length

2 Infra-red light
3 UV and visible light producing heating effects

4 X- ray Energies of shorter wave length

5 Gamma ray
producing chemical effects

Figure 2. Radian energies

Tools or Components of IPM
• These radiations can be used mostly for pests of stored grain and their products. Most of above
energies have not been commercially feasible on account of their high costs

a. Radio-frequencies: High frequencies radio waves generate temperature of 80 C grains to kill

granary weevils and confused flour beetles in 15-20 seconds.

b. Infrared: Kill insects by heating

c. Visible and ultraviolet (UV):

• Human is able to see the colours violet to red (380-779 nm wave lengths) of the solar spectrum.

• The insect responsive range lies between UV to red (253-700 nm).

• In general UV to blue-green (350-560 nm) region of the spectrum is the most effective in attracting
insects while red, orange and yellow are not attractive.

- For this reason, yellow colour in particular is used to repel insects and UV lamp is used to attract
nocturnal insects.
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Visible light can be used in three ways to control pests:

i. BY producing photo taxis- Positive (to attract) or negative (to repel)ii

ii. By inducing dipause through altering photo period. The field can be flood light to
extend the day length and to prevent the onset of dipause in insects and finally perish
in adverse weather

Iii . By modifying behaviour: Exposure of apple plants to artificial light interfered with egg
laying of the codling moths
Tools or Components of IPM

d. Ionizing radiation:

X-ray and gamma rays are ionizing radiation which provides prospects of controlling stored
grain pests

e. Use of sound energy

- Acoustical device (Bird scarer/acetylene exploders) produces sudden loud sound which
frighten birds

- Fire crackers also used to make loud sound to scatter away squirrel, foxes, rats, mice,
deer, etc
Tools or Components of IPM
2.2. Mechanical Control Methods
Mechanical control” is the reduction or suppression of insects’ population by means of manual devices
or machines”

1. Collection and destruction:

Different life stages of the insects are killed manually or by using mechanical force:

a. Manual forces:

- The egg masses of rice stem borer, Spodoptera, Red hairy caterpillar can be picked up and destroy.

- Hand picking of caterpillar i. e, 1st and 2nd instar larvae of Spodoptera caterpillar, red hairy
caterpillar etc.

- Destruction of infested cane stalks harbouring larvae of stem borer

Tools or Components of IPM

a. Manual forces:
- Collection and destruction of fallen infested fruits is effective against fruit flies and fruit borers
- Manual removal of pink bollworm attacked rosette flowers, wither and dropping terminal
infested by spotted bollworm
-Pruning and destruction of infested shoots and flower parts is effective in checking the
multiplication of scales, mealy bug, aphids etc
- Passing rope across rice fields to dislodge case worm over the standing water which is then
drain out.
- Hooking with iron hook to remove adult Rhinocerous beetle
- Sieving and winnowing the red flour beetle (sieving) and rice weevil(winnowing)
- Clipping and destruction of aphid infested twig of mustard helps in the management of
mustard aphids
Tools or Components of IPM

b. Mechanical force:
• Entoletor:
In entoletor centrifugal force is used to break infested kernels and kill stages of
storage pests.
• Tillage implements: Use to expose the soil born insects e.g: red hairy caterpillar
• Mechanical traps:
- Rat trap
- Screw crow
- Use of sting slot
- Drumming
- Use of insect collection net
Tools or Components of IPM

2. Preventive barriers:
Use of mechanical barriers to prevents access of pests to host includes:

a. Wrapping the fruits: Covering with polythene bag against pomegranate fruit borer

b. Banding: Banding with grease or polythene sheet on the trunk of mango to prevent insect pests from
climbing to the tree top so as to destroy inflorescence or to descent back to soil to lay eggs by mealy bug.

c. Netting: Use for mosquitoes and vector control in green houses

d. Trenching: For trapping of marching larvae of red hairy caterpillar, locusts, army worms digging 30-60 cm
wide and 50 cm deep trenches.
Tools or Components of IPM

2. Preventive barriers:
e. Tin barrier: Tin bands are fixed over coconut palms to prevent damage by rats.

f. Electric fencing: Putting fences around crop fields in the normal ways or charged with low
voltage electricity will key away animal pests like rats, jackals, monkey etc.
Tools or Components of IPM
▪ Trapping:
-Light trap: These are used to attract nocturnal insects which are strongly phototaxic. It serves many
purposes like monitoring initial infestation, seasonal incidence, pest / weather relationship, pest intensity,
pest survey, trapping and killing.

- Sticky trap: Cotton white fly, aphids and thrips prefer yellow colour. Yellow colour is painted on tin boxes
and sticky material like castor oil or grease is smeared on the surface. Those insects are attracted to yellow
colour and trapped on the sticky materials.

- Bait trap: In bait trap attractants are placed to attract the insects and kill those using insecticides.

- Fish meal trap: Used against sorghum shoot fly

- Pit fall trap: Trap insects moving about on the soil surface, such as ground beetle, collembolan etc.

- Pheromone trap: Synthetic sex pheromones are placed in traps to attract mostly males.

-Probe trap: The trap can be inserted in to the stored grain. Rice weevil, Rhizopertha, Tribolium can be
effectively traps.
Tools or Components of IPM

Advantages of Trapping

- Home labour utilization

- Low-cost equipment

- High technical skill not required in adoption

- No residue problem and side effect

Disadvantages of Trapping

- Required repeated use so labour intensive

- It is practice in small scale i. e. Kitchen Garden

Tools or Components of IPM
3. Biological Control (Biocontrol)
• Biological control ”is the use of living organisms to maintain pest populations below the economic
injury levels” (Hajek and Eilenberg, 2018).

• The main categories of natural enemies for arthropods include: parasites, parasitoids, predators,
and pathogens

1. Parasite:
• Parasite is “an organism that lives on or in another organism from which it feeds”

• Does not usually kill the host

• A parasite is usually much smaller than its host and a single individual usually does not kill the host

• Parasite may complete their entire life cycle (e.g. Lice) on or in the host or may involve several host
species
Tools or Components of IPM

1. Parasite

▪ Parasites can be grouped as follow

I. Depending upon the nature of host:

- Zoophagous - that attack animals (cattle pests)

- Phytophagous - that attack plants (crop pests)

- Entomophagous - that attack insects (parasites)

- Entomophagous insects – parasitoids

Tools or Components of IPM

II. Based on the specialization of the site of preference

a. Ectoparasites: they attack its host from the outside of the body of the host. The mother
parasite lays its eggs on the body of the host and after the eggs are hatched the larvae
feed on the host by remaining outside only. Examples; Head louse; Epiricania melanolenca,
Epipyrops sp. Sugarcane fly.

b. Endoparasites: they enter the body of the host and feeds from inside. The mother
parasite either lays its eggs inside the tissues of the host or on the food material of the host
to gain entry inside. Examples; Braconids and Icheneumonids, Apanteles flavipes on jowar
stem borer larvae
Tools or Components of IPM

III. Specialization based on the stage of the host.

Examples; Host: Coconut black headed caterpillar, Opisina arenosella

- Egg parasite: Trichogramma australicum

- Early larval parasite – Apanteles taragama

- Mid larval parasite – (Micro) Bracon hebtor

- Prepupal parasite – Gonizus nephantidis

- Prepupal parasite – Elasmus nephantidis

- Pupal parasite –Stomatoceros sulcatiscutellum Trichospilus pupivora, Testrastichus israeli,

Tools or Components of IPM
IV. Depending upon the duration of attack

a. Transitory parasite: It is not permanent but transitory parasite which spends a few stages of its life in
one host and other stages on some other species of hosts or as a free-living organism. Examples
Braconids and Ichneumonids

b. Permanent parasite: Which spends all the stages of its life on the same host. Example; Head louse

V. Depending upon degree of preference

a. Obligatory parasites: Parasite, which can live only as a parasite and cannot live away from the host
even for shorter period. Examples; Bird lice, Head louse

b. Facultative parasite: Parasite, which can live away from the host at least for a shorter period, as in
Fleas
Tools or Components of IPM

VI. Depending upon the food habits

1. Polyphagous: develops on number of widely different host species. Examples. Bracon sp.
Apanteles sp on lepidopteran caterpillars

2. Oligophagous: which has very few hosts (more than one host) but all the hosts are
closely related. Examples; Isotema javensis on sugarcane and sorghum borers

3. Monophagous: which has only one host species. and cannot survive in another species
i.e. host specific. Example; Gonizus nephantidis on Opisina aresosella
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Types of Parasitism

1. Simple parasitism: Irrespective of number of eggs laid the parasite attacks the host only
once. Example; Apanteles taragamae on the larvae of Opisina arenosella, Goniozus
nephantids

2. Super parasitism: phenomenon of preference of an individual host by more larvae of

single species that can mature in the host. Examples; Apanteles glomeratus on Pieris
brassica, Trichospilus pupivora on Opisina arenosella.
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Types of Parasitism

3. Multiple parasitism: Phenomenon of simultaneous preference of host individual by two or

more different species of primary parasites at the same time. Examples; Trichogramma,
Telenomous and Tetrastichus attack eggs of paddy stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas.
Super parasitism and multiple parasitism are generally regarded as undesirable situations
since much reproductive capacity is wasted

4. Hyper parasitism: When a parasite itself is parasitized by another parasite. Example;

Goniozus nephantidis is parasitized by Tetrastichus Israeli. Most of the Bethylids and
Braconids are hyper parasites
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Types of parasites
- Primary parasite: A parasite attacking an insect which itself is not a parasite (Beneficial to
human)

- Secondary parasite: A hyperparasite attacking a primary parasite (Harmful to human)

- Tertiary parasite: A hyperparasite attacking a secondary parasite (Beneficial to human)

- Quaternary parasite: A hyperparasite attacking tertiary parasite (Harmful to human)

• A primary parasite becomes harmful in case of productive insects like silkworms, Bombyx
mori and lac insect Kerria lacca
Tools or Components of IPM

2. Parasitoid
• “An animal which its immature stage lives on or in another organism from which it
feeds, usually resulting in the death of that organism”
• A parasitoid is essentially a predator, but one that feeds on and kill only a single prey
item
• They also different from the predators in that it is the parent that find the prey and the
offspring that feed on it
• Parasitoids feed on different stages of insect; egg, nymph, larva and pupa.
• Hymenoptera are the primary group of insect parasitoids, but other orders such as
Diptera and Coleoptera have their shares as well
• Other arthropods such as arachnids and myriapods have their suite of parasitoids
Tools or Components of IPM

2. Parasitoid
Example of parasitoids:
i). Egg parasitoids:
- Trichogramma chilonis against cotton bollworm,
- Trichogramma japonicum against rice yellow stem borer
ii). Larval parasitoids:
- Campoletis chloridae targets Helicoverpa armigera larvae
- Bracon hebetor against coconut black headed caterpillar
iii). Larval pupal parasitoids:
- Isotima javensis attacked on prepupal parasite of top shoot borer of sugarcane
Tools or Components of IPM
2. Parasitoid
▪ Qualities of a Successful Parasitoid in Biological Control Programme:

- Should be adaptable to environmental conditions in the new locality

- Should be able to survive in all habitats of the host

- Should be specific to a particulars species of host or at least a narrowly limited range of

hosts

- Should be able to multiply faster than the host

- Should be having more fecundity

- Life cycle must be shorter than that of the host

Tools or Components of IPM
2. Parasitoid
▪ Qualities of a Successful Parasitoid in Biological Control Programme:

- Should have high sex ratio

- Should have good searching capacity for host

- Should be amendable for mass multiplication in the laboratories

- Should bring down host population within three years

- There should be quick dispersal of the parasitoid in the locality

- It should be free from hyperparasitoids

Tools or Components of IPM
3. Predator
• A predator is “an animal that kills another animal for food”

• Example: Various ladybird beetle species exhibit predation on different aphid species

▪ Qualities of Insect predators

i. A predator generally feeds on many different species of prey, thus being a generalist or
polyphagous nature

ii. A predator is relatively larger compared to its prey

iii. Typically individual predator consumes large number of preys in its life time Example: A single
coccinellid predator larva may consume hundreds of aphids

iv. Predators kill and consume their preys quickly, usually via extra oral digestion
Tools or Components of IPM
Qualities of Insect predators
v. Predators are very efficient in search for their preys, and have capacity for swift movements

vi. Predators develop separately from their preys, and may live in the same habitat or adjacent
habitats

vii. Structural adaptation with well-developed sense organs to locate the prey

viii. Predator is carnivorous in both its immature and adult stages and feeds on the same
kind of prey in both stages

ix. May have cryptic colourations and deceptive markings

• Examples; Preying mantids and Robber flies

Tools or Components of IPM
▪ Predatism

• Based on the degree of its usefulness to human, the predators are classified as:

i. Entirely predatory, Examples; lace wings, tiger beetles, lady bird beetles except
Henosepilachna genus

ii. Mainly predator but occasionally harmful. Examples: Odonata and mantids occasionally
attack honey bees

iii. Mainly harmful but partly predatory. Examples; Cockroach feeds on termites. Adult blister
beetles feed on flowers while the grubs predate on grass hopper eggs
Tools or Components of IPM
▪ Based on the degree of its usefulness to human, the predators are
classified as:

iv. Mainly scavenging and partly predatory. Examples; Earwigs feed on dead decaying
organic matter and also fly maggots. Both ways, it is helpful

v. Variable feeding habits of predator, example; Tettigonidae: omnivorous and carnivorous

but damage crop by lying eggs.

vi. Stinging predators. In this case, nests are constructed and stocked with prey, which have
been stung and paralyzed by the mother insect on which the eggs are laid and then scaled
up. Larvae emerging from the egg feed on paralyzed but not yet died prey. Examples:
Spider wasps and wasps
Predator Parasite/parasitoid
Mostly a generalized feeder excepting lady bird Exhibits host specialization and in many cases the range
beetles and hover flies which show some of host species attacked is very much limited
Table 3.
specificity to pray Comparison
Organs of low common-sense organs and mouth Usually, sluggish once the host is secured between
parts are well developed Predators and
Stronger, larger and usually more intelligent Smaller and not markedly more intelligent than the host Parasites/par
than the prey asitoids
Habitat is in dependent of that of its prey Habitat and environment are made and

determined by that of the host

Life cycle long Short
Attack on the prey is casual and not well planned Planning is more evident

Seizes and devours the prey rapidly Lives on or in the body of the host killing it slowly
Attack on prey is for obtaining food for the It is for provision of food for the off spring
attacking predator itself, excepting in wasps
which sting the caterpillars to paralyze and
provide them as food in the nest for the young

A single predatory may attack several hosts in a A parasite usually completes development in a single
short period host in most cases
Tools or Components of IPM
▪ Non-insect predators

- Arachnids: Spiders, Scorpions, mites, ticks

- Fishes: Gambusia affinis on mosquito larvae

- Amphibians: Frogs and toads (insectivorous)

- Birds: Ducks, owls (on rats); king crow, mynah (on larvae of Helicoverpa)

- Reptiles: Lizards, snakes (rats)

Tools or Components of IPM
3. Pathogens
• Various entomopathogenic bacteria, viruses, fungi, and nematodes are employed for the
control of different insects

Examples:

- Entomopathogenic bacteria: Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus thuringiensis

- Entomopathogenic Virus: Nuclear polyhedrosis virus, Granulosis virus

- Entomopathogenic fungus: Beauveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii

- Entomopathogenic nematode: Steinernema feltiae, Rhabditis sp.

• In such programme the natural enemies are introduced, encouraged, multiplied by

artificial means and disseminated
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Natural Control: is the maintenance of population numbers within certain upper and
lower limits by the action of a combination of abiotic and biotic factors as well as the
characteristic of the species under consideration

▪ Biological control practices involve three techniques viz., Introduction, Augmentation and
Conservation
Tools or Components of IPM

1. Introduction or classical biological control

It is the deliberate introduction and establishment of natural enemies to a new locality where they did
not occur or originate naturally. When natural enemies are successfully established, it usually
continues to control the pest population. Example from India: Pest – Cotton cushion scale, Icerya
purchesi, and its predator was -Vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis

2. Augmentation

It is defined as the effort to increase population of natural enemies either by propagation and release
or by environmental manipulation. It is the rearing and releasing of natural enemies to supplement
the numbers of naturally occurring natural enemies. There are two approaches to augmentation
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ There are two approaches to augmentation

a. Inoculative releases: Large number of individuals are released only once during the season and
natural enemies are expected to reproduce and increase its population for that growing season.
Hence, control is expected from the progeny and subsequent generations and not from the release
itself

b. Inundative releases: It involves mass multiplication and periodic release of natural enemies when
pest populations approach damaging levels. Natural enemies are not expected to reproduce and
increase in numbers. The control is achieved through the released individuals and additional releases
are only made when pest populations approach damaging levels. In this case large numbers of
natural enemies are released to obtain rapid pest suppressions
Tools or Components of IPM
3. Conservation

It is defined as “the actions to preserve and release of natural enemies by environmental manipulations or altering
production practices to protect natural enemies that are already present in an area, or non-use of those pest control
measures that destroy natural enemies”

▪ Important conservation measures are

• Use of selective insecticide which is safe to natural enemies

• Avoidance of cultural practices which are harmful to natural enemies and use favourable cultural practices

• Cultivation of varieties that favour colonization of natural enemies

• Providing alternate hosts for natural enemies

• Preservation of inactive stages of natural enemies

• Provide pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies

Tools or Components of IPM

Biological control of weeds with insects

• Many insects feed upon unwanted weeds, just the same manner they do with cultivated
plants. As they damage the noxious and menacing weeds, these insects are considered to be
beneficial to human and called as weed killers

• Successful eradication of certain weeds due to specific insects is achieved. Certain insects are
specifically employed against deleterious weeds and got rid of them

• The classical example being prickly pear control with cochineal insect, Dactylopius tomentosus
Lantana, a troublesome weed was kept in check by the coccid, Orthezia insignis. Water
hyacinth was controlled by bruchids, Neochetina eichhorniae and Neochetina bruchi.
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Advantages of Biological control

1. Control of the insect is achieved in a wide area

2. Biological agent survives as long as the pest is prevalent and hence control is effective
over longer periods

3. Though the initial cost is high, but it will be cheaper in a long run after few years of field
release. When the biological agents are established, there may not be any necessity to
propagate it further

4. Compatible with other methods

Tools or Components of IPM

Disadvantages of Biological control

- It is a slow process and takes a long time
- Natural enemies cannot be restricted to particular pest, crop or areas
- Presence of alternative hosts delays the biological control
- If hyper-parasites exist in the area, the effect of parasites will be adversely affected
- Expensive to develop and supply bioagents
Tools or Components of IPM

4. Chemical Control
“Chemical control is the application of pesticides to control pests in agroecosystems”

• Insecticide may be defined as a substance or mixture of substances intended to kill, repel

or otherwise prevent the insects.

• Pesticide is a generic name of all specific chemicals use for controlling different pests &
diseases such as nematicides (nematodes), miticides or acaricides (mites and ticks) ,
rodenticides (rodents), herbicides (weeds), fungicides (fungi) bactericides (bacteria) etc
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Importance of chemical control

• Insecticides are the most powerful tools available for use in pest management
• They are highly effective
• Rapid in curative action
• Adoptable to most situations
• Flexible in meeting changing agronomic and ecological conditions and economical
Tools or Components of IPM

• Insecticides are the only tool for pest management that is reliable for emergency action when
insect pest populations approach or exceed the economic threshold. A major technique such as the
use of pesticides can be the very heart and core of integrated systems. Chemical pesticides will
continue to be essential in the pest management programmes

• There are many pest problems for which the use of chemicals provides the only acceptable solution.
Contrary to the thinking of some people, the use of pesticides for pest control is not an ecological
sin. When their use made on sound ecological principles, chemical pesticides provide dependable
and valuable tools for the biologist. Their use is indispensable to modern society
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ General Properties of Insecticides

• Pesticides are generally available in a concentrated form which are to be diluted and used
except in ready to use dust and granules

• They are highly toxic and available in different formulations

▪ Toxicity terms used to express the effect on mammals

Tools or Components of IPM

Acute toxicity Toxic effect produced by a

single dose of a toxicant Table 4.Terms of
Chronic toxicity Toxic effects produced by the chemical toxicity
accumulation of small amounts of
the
toxicant over a long period of
time
Oral toxicity Toxic effect produced by
consumption of pesticide orally
Dermal toxicity Toxic effect produced when
insecticide enters through skin
Inhalation toxicity Toxic effect produced when
poisonous fumes of insecticide
are
inhaled (fumigants)
Tools or Components of IPM
▪ Insecticides are classified in several ways taking into consideration of their origin, mode of entry,
mode of action and the chemical nature of the toxicant

I. Based on the origin and source of supply

A. Inorganic insecticides

This group is comprised of compounds of mineral origin and elemental Sulphur. This group includes
arsenate and fluorine compounds as insecticides. Sulphur as acaricides and zinc phosphide as
rodenticides.

B. Organic Insecticides

i. Insecticides of animal origin: Nereistoxin isolated from marine annelids, fish oil rosin soap from fishes
etc.

ii. Plant Origin insecticides or Botanical insecticides: Nicotinoids, pyrethroids, Rotenoids etc.

iii. Synthetic organic insecticides: Organochlorines, Organophosphorus, Carbamate insecticides etc.,

iv. Hydrocarbon oils: Coal tar oil, mineral oils etc.

Tools or Components of IPM

II. Based on the mode of entry of the insecticides into the body of the insect they are
groups as:

a. Contact poisons

These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect body either through spiracles
and trachea or through the cuticle and kill them. Examples; Phoalone and HCH.

b. Stomach poisons

• The poison or toxicant which enter the body of the insect through its food and kill it.
Examples; Bacillus thuringiensis, trizophos, quinalphos
Tools or Components of IPM

c. Fumigants
A fumigant is a chemical substance which is volatile at ordinary temperatures and
sufficiently toxic to the insects. Fumigation is the process of subjecting the infested material
to the toxic fumes or vapours of chemicals or gases which have insecticidal properties.
Chemical used in the fumigant and a reasonably airtight container or room is known as
fumigation chamber or “Fumigatorium”. Fumigants mostly gain entry into the body of the
insect through spiracles in the trachea.
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ Commonly used Fumigants and their doses:

i. Aluminum phosphide, marketed as Celphos tablets used against field rats, groundnut
bruchids etc
ii. ii. Carbon disulphide 8-20 lbs/1000 ft3 of food grains
iii. EDCT (Ethylene Dichloride Carbon Tetrachloride) 20-30 lbs/1000cft of food grains
iv. EDB Ethylene dibromide 1 lb/1000ft3 of food grains.
v. SO2: By burning sulphur in godowns SO2 fumes are released.
d. Systemic insecticides
Tools or Components of IPM

d. Systemic insecticides

Chemicals that are capable of moving through the vascular systems of plants irrespective of
site of application and poisoning insects that feed on the plants. Examples; Methyl demeton,
Phosphamidon, Acephate

‘Non-systemic insecticides’ are not possessing systemic action are called non systemic
insecticides.

Some-non systemic insecticides, however, have ability to move from one surface leaf to the
other. They are called as ‘trans laminar insecticides. Examples; Malathion, Diazinon,
Spinosad etc.
Tools or Components of IPM

• An ideal systemic insecticide quality is:

- Should have high intrinsic pesticidal activity

- The toxicant must be adequately liposoluble for it to be absorbed by the plant system,
and water soluble for it to be translocated in the plant system

- The toxicant or its metabolites should be stable for sufficiently long period to exercise
residual effect

- Sufficiently soluble in water for translocation through vascular system

- Should degrade to nontoxic form in reasonable time to avoid toxicity to consumer
Tools or Components of IPM

• Systemic insecticides are applied as seed dressing, granular formulations, sprays etc.

• In the leaf, the entry of the toxicant is through stomata and cuticle.

• On stem the entry is through lenticels and cracks in the cuticle.

• In the seed it is through seed coat especially through the micropyle.

• Systemic insecticides are highly useful against sap sucking and vectors such as
leafhoppers, whiteflies, thrips, aphids etc
Tools or Components of IPM

▪ III. Based on mode of action:

• Physical poisons
Bring about the kill of insects by exerting a physical effect. Examples; Heavy oils, tar oils etc.
which cause death by asphyxiation. Inert dusts effect loss of body moisture by their
abrasiveness as in aluminum oxide or absorb moisture from the body as in charcoal
• Protoplasmic poisons
The poisons or toxicants which kill the insect by destruction of cellular protoplasm of the mid
gut epithelium cells. Examples; Arsenical compounds, mercury, copper
• Respiratory poisons
The poisons or toxicants which block cellular respiration and inhibits the respiratory
enzymes. Ex. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), carbon monoxide, rotenone etc
Tools or Components of IPM

• Nerve poisons

The poisons or toxicants which block Acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) and effect the nervous
system leading to death of the insects. Examples; Organophosphorus, carbamates

• Chitin inhibitors

Chitin inhibitors interfere with process of synthesis of chitin due to which normal moulting
and development is disrupted. Examples; Novaluron, Diflubenzuran, Lufenuron, Buprofezin

• General Poisons

Compounds which include neurotoxic symptoms after some period and do not belong to the
above categories. Examples; Chlordane, Toxaphene, aldrin.
Tools or Components of IPM

IV. Based on toxicity (Based on LD50):

Category of Symbol Oral LD50 Dermal LD50 Colour of the Table 5. Toxicity
insecticides label based on LD50

Extremely Skull and 1-50 1-200 Red

toxic Poison
Highly toxic Poison 51-500 201-2000 Yellow
Poison

Moderately Danger 501-5000 2001-20,000 Blue

toxic
Less toxic Caution >5000 >20,000 Green
Tools or Components of IPM

V. Based on stage specificity:

- Ovicides

- Larvicides

- Pupicides Table 6. Generation of insecticides

- Adulticides Sl. No. Generation Category of
insecticde
VI. Generation wise: 1 First Inorganic and
Botanicals
2 Second Synthetic
organics
3 Third IGR like MH and
JH mimics
4 Fourth Anti JH,
Synthetic
pyrethroids
References:
1. Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA). College of Agriculture, Food
and Rural Enterprise (cafre). Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute (afbi), INVESTORS IN PEOPLE
(2009). Integrated Pest Management Guide. DAERA website at: www.daera-ni.gov.uk/integrated-
pest-management.

2. Barzman, M.; Bàrberi, P.; A. Nicholas E. Birch, N.E A., (2015). Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2015)
35:1199–1215. DOI 10.1007/s13593-015-0327-9

3.The definition of IPM provided by the European Union Framework Directive on the Sustainable Use
of Pesticides (Directive 2009/128/EC)

4. Specifications for pesticides used in public health: insecticides, molluscicides, repellents, methods,
6th ed. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1985.

5. Guidelines for personal protection when using pesticides in hot climates. Brussels, International
Group of National Associations of Manufacturers of Agrochemical Products, 1989

6. Guidelines for the safe and effective use of pesticides. Brussels, International Group of National
Associations of Manufacturers of Agrochemical Products, 1989.

7. Guidelines for the avoidance, limitation and disposal of pesticide waste on the farm. Brussels,
International Group of National Associations of Manufacturers of Agrochemical Products, 1987.

8 . Guidelines for emergency measures in cases of pesticide poisoning. Brussels, International Group
of National Associations of Manufacturers of Agrochemical Products, 1984.

9. Hajek, A. E., and J. Eilenberg (2018). Natural enemies: an introduction to biological control.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

10. Henry J, Wiseman H. Management of poisoning: a handbook for health care workers. Geneva,
World Health Organization, in press.

11. International Programme on Chemical Safety/World Federation of Associations of Clinical

Toxicology Centres and Poison Control Centres. Yellow Tox. World directory of poisons centres.
Geneva, World Health Organization, 1993 (unpublished document; available on request from the
International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, 1211 Geneva 27,
Switzerland).