Lab – 1 ECE 101L – Fall 2024

Description & Objectives:

Kirchoff’s two fundamental Laws, voltage and current, KVL and KCL, form the basis of all circuit theory. Knowing
voltages and currents, their ratio gives us the useful property of resistance in Ohms [Ω], while their product gives us
power flow in Watts [W]. This lab experimentally investigates and verifies these fundamental laws and derived
quantities. In the first circuit, we will experimentally apply KVL and KCL to several simple lumped linear DC circuits to
gain theoretical confidence and experimental skill using the lab DC power supply and digital multimeter (DMM). The
second circuit introduces the concept of differential and common-mode voltages and the third circuit introduces non-
linear resistances.

General Discussion:
You should ask yourself why KVL and KCL work? And why do they apply to circuit theory? KVL and KCL are conservation
laws. Voltage is defined to quantitatively describe work as charge is moved through a circuit by the force of an electric
field. Thus, the total work done on or by moving charge is conserved. Current is conserved since we can have no more
charge entering a node than leaving it. The beauty of circuit theory is that we can avoid the complexity of working
directly with the underlying electric and magnetic vector fields by assuming that all node voltages and currents
between them change simultaneously. This is the unique perspective of lumped circuits. Essentially lumped circuits
completely omit time-delay. We must resort to field theory to deal with any circuit where propagation or time-delay is
an important parameter; these are aptly called distributed circuits, like transmission lines and antennas.

Part 1:
Verification of basic laws and derived quantities
The following circuit is a network of lumped resistors called a “T-Network”. It is a building block circuit commonly
used in audio and RF (radio frequency) work.

Fig. 1. Experimental T-Network circuit.

Construct it on your lab breadboard using three nominally equal resistances of your own choosing and letting the
load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 = 0Ω (i.e. a short circuit).
CHECK-OFF [1/3] REQUIRED --- Demonstrate correct construction of the circuit in Fig.1 to the TA.
You may proceed with the next steps if the TA is busy: just keep your circuit intact to show them when available.
The TA will record the names of all students in your group.

Next, design an experiment to obtain the following only from measured voltage and current data, unless otherwise
indicated:
• Verification of KCL and KVL.

• The experimental resistances of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 . In your report compare these to the values measured for
each one using the DMM. If they are different, consider what might account for this.

• Verify that total power is conserved by finding the power dissipated in each resistor and the power
delivered from the power supply.

• The equivalent resistance between the two input nodes. Compare this to the resistance measured using
the DMM. If they are different, consider what might account for this.

• Verify the current and voltage divider theorems at the three-branch node.
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Guidelines & Suggestions:
Transcribe this circuit into your lab notes. Then, design your experiment and annotate your notes schematic by first
identifying all nodes and branches, assigning voltage polarities and current directions using the passive sign
convention, and choose a node to be the common reference node. Once you have a complete schematic, setup the
lab DC power supply to generate a suitable DC voltage between +2 and + 15V and proceed to use the DMM to take
DC voltage and current measurements aimed first at verifying KVL and KCL. However, before doing so choose
resistors careful (consider power rating) and take the time to draw equivalent circuits (in your notes!) of what the test
equipment input looks like to assess whether it will significantly affect your circuit or the test equipment in different
measurement modes. Although this can readily be deduced by referring to the 34401 / EDU34450 test equipment
manual, for convenience we have done this for you:

Fig. 2. DMM equivalent circuit when measuring DC voltage (Voltmeter).

Fig. 3. DMM equivalent circuit when measuring DC current (Ammeter).

Fig. 4. DMM equivalent circuit when measuring resistance (Ohmmeter).

Study these DMM circuits carefully. Figure 3, especially, reveals that if you connect the DMM probes directly to a
DC voltage source while configured as an Ammeter, the DC voltage will be applied directly across an internal
100mΩ sense resistor, causing the protective fuse will blow(!!!). Instead, current should always be measured by
placing the Ammeter in series with an existing circuit branch. By contrast, since voltage is potential difference, it
is measured by a parallel measurement across or between any two circuit nodes. Figure 4 reveals that when
measuring resistance; the DMM uses an internal current source to probe for resistance, and whose test current
value is varied dynamically, depending on the range of resistance being measured. Remember too that the DMM
will take floating measurements of current and voltage, so you don’t have to worry about where the common
node (“LO”) is located. Don’t just mindlessly connect things. Be theoretically very clear about what’s involved in
taking different kinds of measurements.
In addition, when choosing resistor values be sure to carefully consider any relevant effects test equipment may
have as well as the power capability of the actual 1/8 Watt resistors used in the lab. Use the universal three color
resistor color code to verify the nominal value of resistors used (Canvas/Files/Lab Resources/ Quick Reference).
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Lab – 1 ECE 101L – Fall 2024
Part 2: Single-Ended and Differential Circuits

Single-ended voltages are always referenced to a common “zero-volt” node, usually called “ground” because it’s
assigned or associated with the lowest potential possible. Differential voltages are basically the difference between
any two single-ended voltages. The study of op-amps, in particular, requires a clear understanding of this distinction.
So the circuit we will now investigate looks ahead to op-amps where the concept of differential voltages will be figured
greatly.
Consider the network shown in Fig. 5 (top) designed to convert a single-ended voltage 𝑉1 to a differential voltage 𝑉23 . It
too is a common circuit block called the Wheatstone Bridge.

Fig. 5. Fundamental Wheatstone bridge with resistive elements.

It has many uses. It can be designed to measure unknown resistances, especially very large ones; it can be used in
sinusoidal oscillators if some of the resistors are replaced with capacitors and combined with active amplifier
devices. It is also frequently used with sensors of all types (discussed in CMPE167). Here we will use it to illustrate
how a single-ended voltage can be converted to either a positive, zero, or negative differential voltage, 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 ,
𝑉 +𝑉
having a non-zero common-mode voltage equal to 𝑉𝑐𝑚 = 2 3 .
2
Single-ended voltages have only one property, namely their voltage with respect to the common node. Differential
voltages, however, have two properties: their differential voltage and the average of the single-ended voltages they
𝑉 +𝑉
have in “common”; hence this is called the common-mode voltage and is equal to 𝑉𝑐𝑚 = 2 3. If 𝑉2 happens to equal
2
𝑉3 , then 𝑉𝑐𝑚 is the same for both of them, and the differential voltage is 𝑉𝑑 = 0. The point of this exercise is to
experimentally observe the three basic properties associated with single-ended and differential circuits. Many
electronic devices, like the op-amp, require a differential input voltage, but will fail to work properly when the
associated common-mode voltage exceeds prescribed limits.
Construct the bridge circuit on your lab breadboard and excite it using a nominal +10V DC source. Choose
resistor values for 𝑅1,2,3 so they are all the same nominal values, about half of the resistance of the potentiometer
provided in your lab kit (double check that power ratings are not exceeded also!). Use the potentiometer (or “pot”) to
make 𝑅4 a mechanically “variable resistor”, as denoted by the arrow crossing through 𝑅4 in Fig.5.
CHECK-OFF [2/3] REQUIRED during this step - Verify correct construction of your circuit with the TA.

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Lab – 1 ECE 101L – Fall 2024
Take sufficient measurements of relevant DC quantities to obtain the following:
• Single-ended voltages and how they relate to differential and common-mode voltages.
• The actual experimental resistance of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and 𝑅3 , measured using the DMM.
• The conclusion that the differential voltage depends primarily on ratios of the bridge resistors, while the
common-mode voltages depends primarily on the single-ended magnitudes (sizes) of voltage on each
branch.

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Lab – 1 ECE 101L – Fall 2024
Part 3: Non-Linear Resistances

The concept of linearity is important to circuit design, performance and analysis. Non-linear circuit elements can
cause unwanted distortions of various kinds, but they can also be used to introduce stabilities into some electronic
circuits, notably oscillators where they appear as feedback elements. A linear circuit is one that fundamentally obeys
superposition and whose input-output response is homogeneous (passes through the origin). For example, if we apply
a voltage (input) to a resistor, the current (output or response) will obey Ohm’s Law, and if the resistor is linear the
derivative of this volt-amp ratio will be constant. This property simply means that its absolute resistance is
independent of the applied voltage. Moreover, the response must pass through zero when the applied voltage is zero.
Otherwise the resistor would be required to have an internal source of power. The purpose of this section is to
introduce these concepts by experimentally investigating the non-linear volt-amp ratio of a simple incandescent lamp.

Several lamps are included in your lab kit. You can work with only one or both of them. Devise an experiment to show
that an incandescent lamp has a non-linear volt-amp ratio and that its response is homogeneous. In particular, a
lamp’s resistance varies with temperature. The “cold” resistance of an incandescent lamp is quite low, but as it heats
up due to current flow and internal heat dissipation (P=I 2R), its resistance increases. Use the lab power supply to vary
voltage and resulting current. Collect enough pairs of data to make an accurate two-dimensional plot of a single lamp’s
behavior.
CHECK-OFF [3/3] REQUIRED at this point – Demonstrate to the TA how you are characterizing the lamp.

To help make this concept clear repeat this experiment with a fixed linear resistance and observe that the slope is now
constant. From your experiment and data show that:

• The resistance is non-linear by creating a 2-dimensional graph of your data clearly showing that the
𝜕𝑖
conductance slope ቚ varies with each applied DC voltage while the fixed resistance’s slope doesn’t.
𝜕𝑣 𝑉𝐷𝐶

• Show analytically (mathematically) that the response of the lamp doesn’t obey superposition, while the
fixed resistor’s response does. Discuss what the concept of superposition means and how your data
demonstrates this property

Report and Submission

Submit a report (refer to the guidelines in the Lab_Report_Cover_Sheet.pdf uploaded to Canvas / Files / Lab Resources)
discussing the work done in this laboratory. Treat each of the three Parts in separate sections.

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