CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING REVIEWER

SIZE REDUCTION
Compiled by: Engr. Albert D.C. Evangelista

Size Reduction, also known as comminution, is applied to all ways in which particles of solids
are cut or broken into smaller pieces.

Purpose of Size Reduction:

(1) To produce solids with desired size ranges or specific surfaces
(2) To break apart minerals or crystals of chemical compounds which are intimately associated
in the solid state.
(3) To increase the surface area of solids because it will increase its reactivity like in
combustion, leaching, drying, and other unit operations.
(4) To permit separation of unwanted ingredients by mechanical methods.
(5) To reduce the bulk of fibrous materials for easier handling.

Mechanisms of Size Reduction

Commonly Used Breaking Mechanisms;
(1) Compression or Crushing
– Particle disintegration by two rigid forces.
– Generally used for reduction of hard solids to coarse sizes.
– Example: nutcracker
(2) Impact
– Particle concussion by a single rigid force.
– Generally gives coarse, medium or fine products.
– Example: sledgehammer
(3) Attrition or Rubbing
– Arising from particles scraping against one another or against a rigid surface
– Yields very fine products from soft, non-abrasive materials.
– Example: file
(4) Shear or cutting
– Produced by a fluid or by particle–particle interaction.
– Gives definite particle size and sometimes a definite shape with few or no fines.
– Example: scissors or blades

Energy Laws
There are empirical laws to estimate the amount of energy needed for size reduction:
(1) Von Rittinger’s Law
(2) Kick’s Law
(3) Bond’s Law

General Equation:

− C dx
𝑑E =
Xn

Where:
E = work done to reduce a unit mass of feed
X = particle size or diameter
C & n = constants depending upon type and size of material and type of machine

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

(1) Rittinger’s Law

– Rittinger’s Law states that the work in crushing is proportional to the new surface created.
– This law was the first to be used for approximation of power requirements and holds most
accurately for fine grinding where increase in surface per unit mass of material is great.
– This led to the value of n = 2 since area is proportional to the length squared.

dx
dE = −C X2

1 1
𝐸 = −𝐶 [𝑋 − 𝑋 ]
1 2

Let:
E = P/m where P = Total power required; m = Total mass of feed
KR = C = Rittinger’s Law Constant
D𝐹 = X1 = Diameter of the feed
Dp = X2 = Mean Diameter of the product

Therefore:

P 1 1
= KR [ − ]
m Dp DF

Note:
– Rittinger’s Law constant designates the new surface produced per unit of mechanical energy
absorbed by the material being crushed.
– The values vary for different materials, depending on the elastic constants and their relation
to the ultimate strength and on the manner or rate of application of the crushing force.
– It was determined by drop weight crusher based on maximum effectiveness of size reduction.
– A few values of Rittinger’s number as determined by a drop weight crusher are given in table
9 page 42 of Unit Operations by Brown.

Drop weight Rittinger’s Number for a few common minerals

Rittinger’s Number
Mineral
sq in./ft-lb sq cm./ft-lb sq cm./kg-cm
Quartz (SiO2) 37.7 243 17.56
Pyrite (FeS2) 48.7 314 22.57
Sphalerite (ZnS) 121.0 780 56.2
Calcite (CaCO3) 163.3 1053 75.9
Galena (PbS) 201.5 1300 93.8

(2) Kick’s Law

– Kick’s Law states that the energy required to reduce a material in size was directly
proportional to the size reduction ratio.
– The size reduction ratio is the ratio of the average diameter of the feed to the average diameter
of the product.
– This law is recognized as applicable only to plastic deformation of particles within the elastic
limit and not to crushing.
– More accurate for coarse crushing (i.e., surface area produced or created is considerably
less).
– This implies n = 1.

dx
dE = −C X

X
E = −C ln X2
1

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

Let:
E = P/m where P = Total power required; m = Total mass of feed
𝐾𝐾 = C = Kick’s Law Constant
D𝐹 = X1 = Diameter (mean) of the feed
Dp = X 2 = Mean Diameter of the product

Therefore:

P DF
= K K ln
m D𝑃

(3) Bond’s Law

– A more realistic way of estimating the power required for crushing and grinding.
– Bond’s Law states that the work required using a large-size feed is proportional to the square
root of the surface/volume ratio of the product.
– This corresponds to n = 1.5.

dx
dE = −C X1.5

1 1
𝐸 = −2𝐶 [𝑋 0.5 −𝑋 0.5 ]
1 2
Let:
E = P/m where P = Total power required; m = Total mass of feed
𝐾𝐵 = 2C = Bonds’s Law Constant
D𝐹 = X1 = Diameter (mean) of the feed
Dp = X2 = Mean Diameter of the product

Therefore:
P 1 1
= KB [ − ]
m √Dp √DF

To use the above equation, Bond proposed a work index Wi as the work in kW-h/ ton
required to reduce a unit weight from a very large size to 80% passing a 100 - µm screen.
The work E is the gross work required to reduce a unit weight of feed with 80% passing a
diameter DF µm to a product with 80% passing Dp µm. Bond’s final equation in terms of
more familiar units is
P 1 1
= 1.46Wi [ − ]
m √Dp √DF

where: P = hP; m = tons/min; DF = ft.; Dp = ft.

Or
P 1 1
= 0.3162Wi [ − ]
m √Dp √DF

where: P = kW; m = tons/hr; DF = mm; Dp = mm; Wi = kW-hr/ton. Typical values of Wi

for various types of materials are given in ChE HB

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

Work Indexes (kW-h/ton) for Various Materials

(Page 20-14, Table 20-4 of Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, 7th Edition; Page 21-48, Table 21-8
of Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, 8th Edition); Page 21-70, Table 21-15 of Chemical Engineer’s
Handbook, 9th Edition)

Energy utilization
Energy fed into a crusher was utilized as follows:
(1) In producing elastic deformation of the particles before fracture occurs.
(2) In producing inelastic deformation which results in size reduction.
(3) In causing elastic distortion of the equipment.
(4) In friction between particles, and between particles and the machine.
(5) In noise, heat and vibration in the plant, and
(6) In friction losses in the plant itself.

For a given energy input, the new surface produced was independent of:
(1) The velocity of impact,
(2) The mass and arrangement of the sample,
(3) The initial particle size, and
(4) The moisture content of the sample.

General Classification of Size Reduction Equipment

(1) Crusher
– Heavy work of breaking large pieces of solid materials into small lumps.
(2) Grinder
– Induce crushed materials to powder.
(3) Cutters
– Give particles of definite size and shape approximately 2 to 10 mm in length.

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

Classification of Crushing and Grinding Equipment

According to the way in which forces are applied (ChE HB 7th Ed)
(1) Between two solid surfaces (Fig. 20-20a, crushing or attrition; Fig. 20-20b, shearing; Fig.
20-20c, crushing in a particle bed)

(2) Impact at one solid surface (Fig. 20-20d), or between particles (Fig. 20-20e)
(3) By shear action of the surrounding medium (Fig. 20-20f, colloid mill)
(4) Nonmechanical introduction of energy (Thermal shock, explosive shattering,
electrohydraulic)

Practical Classification of Crushing and Grinding Equipment ChE HB 7th Ed: Table 20-6

Types of Size-Reduction Equipment

A. Jaw crushers: G. Rotary cutters and dicers
1. Blake
2. Overhead eccentric H. Media mills:
1. Ball, pebble, rod, and compartment mills:
B. Gyratory crushers: a. Batch, b. Continuous
1. Primary 2. Autogenous tumbling mills
2. Secondary 3. Stirred ball and bead mills
3. Cone 4. Vibratory mills

C. Heavy-duty impact mills: I. Medium peripheral-speed mills:

1. Rotor breakers 1. Ring-roll and bowl mills
2. Hammer mills 2. Roll mills, cereal type
3. Cage impactors 3. Roll mills, paint and rubber types
4. Buhrstones
D. Roll crushers:
1. Smooth rolls (double) J. High-peripheral-speed mills:
2. Toothed rolls (single and double) 1. Fine-grinding hammer mills
3. Roll press 2. Pin mills
3. Colloid mills
E. Dry pans and chaser mills 4. Wood-pulp beaters

F. Shredders: K. Fluid-energy superfine mills:

1. Toothed shredders 1. Centrifugal jet
2. Cage disintegrators 2. Opposed jet
3. Disk mills 3. Jet with anvil
4. Fluidized-bed jet

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

Guide to Selection of Crushing and Grinding Equipment

ChE HB 8th Ed: Table 20-7

Size*
Hardness
Size-reduction Range of feeds, Range of Reduction Types of
of
operation in.† products, in.† ratio‡ equipment
material
Max. Min. Max. Min.
Crushing:
Primary Hard 60 12 20 4 3 to 1 A to B
20 4 5 1 4 to 1
Secondary Hard 5 1 1 0.2 5 to 1 A to E
1.5 0.25 0.185 0.033 7 to 1
(4) (20)
Soft 60 4 2 0.4 10 to 1 C to G
Grinding:
Pulverizing:
Coarse Hard 0.185 0.033 0.023 0.003 10 to 1 D to I
(4) (20) (28) (200)
Fine Hard 0.046 0.0058 0.003 0.00039 15 to 1 H to K
(14) (100) (200) (1250)
Disintegration:
Coarse Soft 0.5 0.065 0.023 0.003 20 to 1 F, I
Fine Soft 0.156 0.0195 0.003 0.00039 50 to 1 I to K
(5) (32) (200) (1250)
*85% by weight smaller than the size given.
†Sieve number in parentheses, mesh per inch
‡Higher reduction ratios for closed-circuit operations.
NOTE: To convert inches to millimeters, multiply by 25.4.

Methods of feeding material to a crusher:

(1) Free Crushing
– The first, known as free crushing, involves feeding the material at a comparatively low rate
so that the product can readily escape.
– In free crushing, the crushed product with whatever fines have been formed is quickly
removed after a relatively short sojourn in the crushing zone.
– The product may flow out from gravity, be blown out with compressed air, be washed out
with water, or be thrown out by centrifugal force.
– This method of operation prevents the formation of an excessive amount of fines by limiting
the number of contacts.

(2) Choke Feeding

– The second method is known as choke feeding.
– In choke feeding, the crusher is equipped with a feed hopper and kept filled (or choked) so
that it does not freely discharge the crushed product.
– In this case, the machine is kept full of material and discharge of the product is impeded so
that the material remains in the crusher for a longer period.
– This results in a higher degree of crushing, although the capacity of the machine is reduced
and energy consumption is high because of the cushioning action produced by the
accumulated product.
– This method is therefore used only when a comparatively small amount of materials is to be
crushed and when it is desired to complete the whole of the size reduction in one operation.

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

Two Methods of Industrial Crushing/Grinding

(1) Open Circuit
– No material is returned for re-crushing
– If the plant is operated, as in choke feeding, so that the material is passed only once through
the equipment, the process is known as open circuit grinding.

I
Feed Reject
Crusher

Product

(2) Closed Circuit Operation

– The oversize material is returned to the crusher.
– Closed circuit operation is economical of crushing power, which at least is high, permits
smaller units per given tonnage, and produces a material with greater uniformity of sizes.

Reject

Feed
Crusher

Product
– Typical closed circuit grinding process, in which a coarse crusher, an intermediate crusher
and a fine grinder are used.

Grinding may be carried out either wet or dry, although wet grinding is generally applicable only
with low-speed mills. The advantages of wet grinding are:
– The power consumption is reduced by about 20–30 per cent.
– The capacity of the plant is increased.
– The removal of the product is facilitated and the amount of fines is reduced.
– Dust formation is eliminated.
– The solids are more easily handled.

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

Important properties of the material to be crushed

The choice of a machine for a given crushing operation is influenced by the nature of the product
required and the quantity and size of material to be handled. The more important properties of the
feed apart from its size are as follows:
(1) Hardness. The hardness of the material affects the power consumption and the wear on the
machine. With hard and abrasive materials, it is necessary to use a low-speed machine and to
protect the bearings from the abrasive dusts that are produced. Pressure lubrication is
recommended.

(2) Structure. Normal granular materials such as coal, ores and rocks can be effectively crushed
employing the normal forces of compression, impact, and so on. With fibrous materials a
tearing action is required.

(3) Moisture content. It is found that materials do not flow well if they contain between about 5
and 50 per cent of moisture. Under these conditions the material tends to cake together in the
form of balls. In general, grinding can be carried out satisfactorily outside these limits.

(4) Crushing strength. The power required for crushing is almost directly proportional to the
crushing strength of the material.

(5) Friability. The friability of the material is its tendency to fracture during normal handling. In
general, a crystalline material will break along well-defined planes and the power required for
crushing will increase as the particle size is reduced.

(6) Stickiness. A sticky material will tend to clog the grinding equipment and it should therefore
be ground in a plant that can be cleaned easily.

(7) Soapiness. In general, this is a measure of the coefficient of friction of the surface of the
material. If the coefficient of friction is low, the crushing may be more difficult.

(8) Explosive materials must be ground wet or in the presence of an inert atmosphere.

(9) Materials yielding dusts that are harmful to the health must be ground under conditions
where the dust is not allowed to escape.

Most Commonly Used Commercial Size Reduction Equipment

(1) Jaw Crusher
– Jaw crushers are applied to the primary crushing of hard materials and are usually followed
by other types of crushers.
– Jaw crushers are usually rated by the dimensions of their feed area. This depends on the
width of the crushing jaws and the gape, which is the maximum distance between the fixed
and movable jaws at the feed opening.
– The setting or set of a jaw crusher is the closed (or close) or the wide opening between the
moving jaws at the outlet end, usually measured between the tips of the corrugations.
– The reciprocating motion of the jaws causes the opening to vary between closed and wide,
and the difference is the throw.

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

Jaw Crushers: (a) Dodge Type, (b) Blake Type

(2) Gyratory Crusher

– Basically, it is like a mortar-and-pestle crusher.
– The movable crushing head is shaped like an inverted truncated cone and is inside a truncated
cone casing.
– The crushing head rotates eccentrically and the material being crushed is trapped between
the outer fixed cone and the inner gyrating cone.

Size Reduction Equipment: (a) Gyratory Crusher, (b) Roll Crusher

Taggart’s Formula
– Used to estimate the capacity of Jaw & Gyratory Crushers with gapes of 4 inches to 2 feet.

T = 0.6LS

Where: T = capacity (tons/hr)

L = length of feed opening (in jaw crushers, normal to gape; in gyratories, the
perimeter of a circle whose diameter is the arithmetic average of the diameter
of the two cones) (in.).
S = greatest width of discharge opening (in.).

Note:

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

– The power requirement for jaw and gyratory crushers are about the same, but the gyratory
load is somewhat more uniform since it is crushing continuously whereas the jaw crusher
works intermittently.
– If the capacity requirements are small enough so that one jaw crusher is adequate, the jaw
crusher is the usual choice.
– If the capacity requirements are large enough to keep a gyratory in continuous operation,
the gyratory is usually preferred.
– Taggart states an empirical rule that “if the hourly tonnage to be crushed divided by the
square of the gape in inches is less than 0.115, use a jaw crusher; otherwise, a gyratory.”

(3) Smooth Roll Crusher/Crushing Rolls

– Two rolls, one in adjustable bearings, rotate in opposite directions and the clearance between
them can be adjusted according to the size of feed and the required size of product.

– The machine is protected, by spring loading, against damage from very hard material.
– Both rolls may be driven, or one directly and the other by friction with the solids.
– The crushing rolls, which may vary from a few centimeters up to about 1.2 m in diameter,
are suitable for effecting a small size reduction ratio, 4: 1 in a single operation.
– The capacity is usually between one-tenth and one-third of that calculated on the assumption
that a continuous ribbon of the material forms between the rolls.

Particle fed to crushing rolls

– Consider an idealized system (as shown in the figure in the previous page) where a spherical
or cylindrical particle of radius r2 is being fed to crushing rolls of radius r1.
– 2α is the angle of nip, the angle between the two common tangents to the particle and each
of the rolls, and 2b is the distance between the rolls.
– It may be seen from the geometry of the system that the angle of nip is given by:

(𝑟1 + 𝑏)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 =
(𝑟2 + 𝑟1 )

– For steel rolls, the angle of nip is not greater than about 32◦.
– The theoretical capacity of roll crushers using Coulson’s equation is given by:

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( ) = (𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)(𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

– The theoretical capacity of roll crushers using Brown’s equation is given by:

60𝜐𝐿𝐷𝑃 𝜌
𝑇=
2000
Where:
T = capacity in tons/hr
υ = peripheral velocity (fpm). For rolls up to 72 inches in diameter, υ is usually
approximately equal to 300 + 84Dr
Dr = diameter of roll
L = width of rolls (ft)
DP = distance between rolls (ft)
ρ = density of materials (lb/ft3)

– The actual capacity is usually from 0.10 to 0.30 of the theoretical.

– The theoretical capacity of roll crushers using Ribbon’s theory is given by:

𝑑𝐿𝑠
𝑄=
2.96

Where: Q = capacity in cm3/min

d = distance between rolls, cm
L = length of rolls, cm
s = peripheral speed, cm/min

(4) Ball Mill

– In its simplest form, the ball mill consists of a rotating hollow cylinder, partially filled with
balls, with its axis either horizontal or at a small angle to the horizontal.
– The material to be ground may be fed in through a hollow trunnion at one end and the
product leaves through a similar trunnion at the other end.
– w trunnion at one end and the product leaves through a similar trunnion at the other end.
The outlet is normally covered with a coarse screen to prevent the escape of the balls.
– If the mill is rotating at the critical angular velocity ώC, then:

𝑟ώ2𝐶 = 𝑔

𝑔
ώ𝐶 = √
𝑟

Where: r = the radius of the mill less that of the particle; g = acceleration due to gravity

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING BOARD EXAM REVIEWER APRIL 2024

– The corresponding critical rotational speed, Nc in revolutions per unit time, is given by:

ώ𝐶 1 𝑔
𝑁𝐶 = = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑟

– It is found that the optimum speed is between one-half and three-quarters of the critical
speed.

COMPILED BY: ENGR. ALBERT D.C. EVANGELISTA