Database

What is Data?
Data is a collection of a distinct small unit of information. It can be used in a variety of
forms like text, numbers, media, bytes, etc. it can be stored in pieces of paper or
electronic memory, etc.

Word 'Data' is originated from the word 'datum' that means 'single piece of information.'
It is plural of the word datum.

In computing, Data is information that can be translated into a form for efficient
movement and processing. Data is interchangeable.

What is Database?
A database is an organized collection of data, so that it can be easily accessed and
managed.

You can organize data into tables, rows, columns, and index it to make it easier to find
relevant information.

There are many databases available like MySQL, Sybase, Oracle, MongoDB, Informix,
PostgreSQL, SQL Server, etc.

Modern databases are managed by the database management system (DBMS).

SQL or Structured Query Language is used to operate on the data stored in a database.
SQL depends on relational algebra and tuple relational calculus.

A cylindrical structure is used to display the image of a database.

What is Database
The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert
and delete the data efficiently. It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table,
schema, views, and reports, etc.

For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff, students
and faculty etc.
Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information.

Database Management System

o Database management system is a software which is used to manage the database.
For example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database which is
used in different applications.
o DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database creation,
storing data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot more.
o It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users, it
also maintains data consistency.
DBMS allows users the following tasks:

o Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition

that defines the organization of data in the database.
o Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the
actual data in the database.
o Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be
used by applications for various purposes.
o User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain
data integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control,
monitoring performance and recovering information corrupted by unexpected
failure.

Characteristics of DBMS
o It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and manage the
information.
o It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data.
o DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.
o It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state in case of
failure.
o It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
o It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
o It is used to provide security of data.
o It can view the database from different viewpoints according to the
requirements of the user.

Advantages of DBMS
o Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it
stores all the data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed
in the database.
o Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share
the data among multiple users.
o Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized
nature of the database system.
o Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
 o Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic
backup of data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if
required.
o multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like
graphical user interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS
o Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor
and large memory size to run DBMS software.
o Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them
efficiently.
o Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and
requirements.
o Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in
most of the organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the
database is damaged due to electric failure or database corruption then the
data may be lost forever.

Database Applications
Nowadays, any business that has small or large amounts of data needs a
database to store and manage the information. The database is an easy, reliable,
secure, and efficient way to maintain business information. There are many applications
where databases are used.

In this article, we will discuss some of the applications of databases, which are
mentioned below:
Key Difference Between File System and
DBMS
 A file system is software that manages and organizes the files
in a storage medium, whereas a DBMS is a software
application that is used for accessing, creating, and managing
databases.
 The file system doesn’t have a crash recovery mechanism; on
the other hand, the DBMS provides a crash recovery
mechanism.
 Data inconsistency is higher in the file system. On the
contrary, data inconsistency is low in a database management
system.
 File system does not provide support for complicated
transactions, while in the DBMS system, it is easy to
implement complicated transactions using SQL.
 File system does not offer concurrency, whereas the DBMS
provides a concurrency facility.

What is a File system?

A file system is a technique of arranging files in a storage medium
like a hard disk, pen drive, DVD, etc. It helps you organize the data
and allows easy retrieval of files when they are required. It mostly
consists of different types of files, like mp3, mp4, txt, doc, etc., that
are grouped into directories.

A file system enables you to handle the process of reading and

writing data to the storage medium. It is directly installed into the
computer with operating systems such as Windows and Linux.

What is DBMS?
Database Management System (DBMS) is software for storing and
retrieving user’s data while considering appropriate security
measures. It consists of a group of programs that manipulate
the Database. The DBMS accepts the request for data from an
application and instructs the DBMS engine to provide the specific
data. In large systems, a DBMS helps users and other third-party
software store and retrieve data.

Difference between File System and DBMS

Here, I will detail the differences between the file system and DBMS
based on my own professional encounters.

Basis DBMS Approach File System Approach

DBMS is a collection of data. In The file system is a collection of da

In this system, the user has to writ
Meaning DBMS, the user is not required the procedures for managing the
to write the procedures. database.

Data is distributed in many files, an

Due to the centralized
Sharing of data may be of different formats, so it is
approach, data sharing is easy. easy to share data.

The file system provides the detail

DBMS gives an abstract view of
Data Abstraction the data representation and storag
data that hides the details. data.

DBMS provides a good It isn't easy to protect a file under t

Security and Protection file system.
protection mechanism.

DBMS provides a crash The file system doesn't have a cra

recovery mechanism, i.e., mechanism, i.e., if the system cras
Recovery Mechanism while entering some data, then the
DBMS protects the user from
system failure. content of the file will be lost.

DBMS contains a wide variety

The file system can't efficiently sto
Manipulation Techniques of sophisticated techniques to and retrieve the data.
store and retrieve the data.

DBMS takes care of Concurrent In the File system, concurrent acce

has many problems like redirecting
Concurrency Problems access of data using some form file while deleting some information
of locking. updating some information.

Where to use Database approach used in File system approach used in large
large systems which interrelate
 many files. systems which interrelate many file

The database system is The file system approach is cheap

Cost design.
expensive to design.

Due to the centralization of the In this, the files and application

programs are created by different
Data Redundancy and database, the problems of data
programmers so that there exists a
Inconsistency redundancy and inconsistency of duplication of data which may le
are controlled. to inconsistency.

The database structure is The file system approach has a sim

Structure structure.
complex to design.

In this system, Data

Independence exists, and it can
be of two types.
Data Independence In the File system approach, there
o Logical Data exists no Data Independence.
Independence
o Physical Data
Independence

Integrity Constraints are easy to Integrity Constraints are difficult to

Integrity Constraints implement in file system.
apply.

In the database approach, 3

types of data models exist:
In the file system approach, there i
Data Models o Hierarchal data models concept of data models exists.
o Network data models
o Relational data models

Changes are often a necessity

to the content of the data stored
The flexibility of the system is less
Flexibility in any system, and these compared to the DBMS approach.
changes are more easily with a
database approach.

Hard disk,pen drives etc..

Oracle, SQL Server, Sybase
Examples
etc.
Features of a DBMS (Database Management
System)
here are the essential features of a DBMS:

 A user-accessible catalog of data

 Transaction support
 Concurrency control with recovery services
 Authorization services
 The value of data is the same at all places.
 Offers support for data communication
 Independent utility services
 Allows multiple users to share a file at the same time

What are the Different Types of

Database Users in DBMS?
Database users in DBMS can access the database and retrieve the
data from the database using applications and interfaces provided by the Database
Management System (DBMS).

Database users in DBMS can be categorized based on their interaction with the
databases. According to the tasks performed by the database users on the
databases, we can categorize them into seven categories as follows:

 Database Administrators (DBA)

 Database Designers
 System Analysts
 Application Programmers / Back-End Developers
 Naive Users / Parametric Users
 Sophisticated Users
 Casual Users / Temporary Users

 Database Administrators (DBA)?

Database Administrators (DBA) are the most important type of database
users in DBMS. Database Administrator is an individual or a team of users who
defines the database schema and takes charge of controlling various levels of the
database within the organization.

Database Administrators (DBAs) have full control of the database and they
are sometimes known as the super-users of the database. They work alongside
developers in order to discuss and design the overall structure of the database
including layouts, functionalities, workflow, etc.

Database Administrators (DBAs) can grant or revoke authorization

permission to all other users at any point of time. In order to access the database,
DBAs have to provide login credentials (account ID and password) to all other users
when required. Database Administrators (DBAs) are solely responsible for providing
security to the database by restricting unauthorized users from accessing the
database.

Database Administrators (DBAs) have all the privileges allowed by the DBMS.
They have to update the database timely in terms of technology, functionality, and
workflow in order to meet future requirements and in making the database ready for
future scope.

Database Administrators (Database admins) are also responsible to keep

a check on data integrity, data consistency, data redundancy, hardware and
software installation requirements, and routine maintenance of the databases. They
are also responsible for handling data loss, which can be caused due to any error or
even due to system failures.

Also, Database Administrators (DBAs) monitor the backup & recovery of the
database records and provide technical support as well. If the technical team raises
any concern, DBAs have to resolve it.

 Database Designers?
As the name suggests, Database Designers are the users in DBMS who
design and create the structure of the database including triggers, indexes,
schemas, entity relationships, tables, constraints,, etc. which complete the
database.

Database designers try to gather information depending upon the

requirements related to the database like the layout, looks, database functioning,
costing, technologies to be used & implementation techniques, and finally, they
design the final layout of the database for programmers to code its logic.

Database Designers are the type of database users in DBMS who are
responsible for implementing the overall design of the database. They decide
which form of data needs to be stored, what kind of relations exist among different
entities of the database, what will be the type of attributes, etc.

 Naive Users / Parametric Users?

Naive users also known as Parametric End users, don't have any knowledge
of DBMS but still frequently use the database applications to get the desired results.
With the help of the interface provided by the DBMS applications, Naive
users mostly use the database to fill in or retrieve the information (view level of the
database).
 Naive users don't need to be aware of the presence of the database system
as they can interact with the database with the help of menu-driven application
interface. In simple terms, Naive / Parametric End users work directly on
developed applications to access the database indirectly to get the desired results.

, For example, Railway ticket booking users in general are naive/parametric end
users as they don't have much knowledge about DBMS and directly use railway
booking applications to book their tickets.

 System Analyst?
System Analysts are the type of database users in DBMS who analyze the
requirements of Naive / Parametric End users. It is their responsibility to check
whether all the requirements of end users are satisfied or not.

Analyzing feasibility, economic, and technical aspects are some of the

major responsibilities for a system analyst in DBMS. Sometimes, they are also
responsible for the design, structure & functioning of the database. They usually
check and gather all the necessary information related to the database, and if
needed, they can change or update the final layout of the database as per
requirements. System Analysts always make sure that the final product should meet
all the requirements.

 Application Programmers / Back-End

Developers?
Application Programmers also known as Back-End Developers, are
computer professional users who are responsible for developing the application
programs (C, C++, Java, PHP, Python, etc.) or the user interface so that other users
can use these applications to interact with the database.

Application Programmers have deep knowledge of DBMS & databases and

know everything in detail. They interact with the database using DML (Data
Manipulation Language) queries to store data inside the database and when
needed, they can also fetch the data from it.

When needed, Application Programmers also specify the modifications

needed in the database structure for an application. They are efficient enough in
designing or developing their database in any language they know.

 Sophisticated Users?
Sophisticated users are the type of database users in DBMS who
know DBMS (DDL & DML commands) and are familiar with the database.
Sophisticated users can be business analysts, engineers, scientists, system
analysts, etc.
 Sophisticated users can develop or access their database applications
according to the requirements, without actually writing the program code for it. These
users are also known as SQL programmers as they can interact with the
database directly using SQL queries using query processors. Using SQL queries,
they can fetch the data from the database. They can also delete, update or insert
new data into the database.

For example: Data Engineers & Developers who are familiar with the
database, directly access the database using SQL queries rather than writing
programming code for accessing the database again. Hence, they are termed as
sophisticated users.

Casual Users / Temporary Users?

Casual users also known as temporary users, are the type of database users
in DBMS who frequently or occasionally use the database services. Whenever these
users try to access the database, they want all the information sorted in place.

Casual/Temporary users have little knowledge about DBMS and each time
they try to access the database, they require new information.

For example: High-level management people are casual users who have
little knowledge about DBMS and hence, they can access the database to either fill
in new information or retrieve existing results.

What are Data Models in DBMS?

Data models in DBMS help to understand the design at the conceptual, physical, and
logical levels as it provides a clear picture of the data making it easier for developers to
create a physical database.

Data models are used to describe how the data is stored, accessed, and updated in a DBMS. A
set of symbols and text is used to represent them so that all the members of an organization
can understand how the data is organized. It provides a set of conceptual tools that are vastly
used to represent the description of data.

There are many types of data models that are used in the industry.

Types of Data Models in DBMS

Hierarchical Model

The hierarchical data model is one of the oldest data models, developed in the 1950s by IBM.
In this data model, the data is organized in a hierarchical tree-like structure. This data model
can be easily visualized because each record in DBMS has one parent and many children
(possibly 0) as shown in the image given below.
The above-given image represents the data model of the Vehicle database, vehicle are
classified into two types Viz. two-wheelers and four-wheelers and then they are further
classified.

The main drawback we can see here is we can only have one too many relationships under
this model, hence the hierarchical data model is very rarely used nowadays.

Network Model

A network model is nothing but a generalization of the hierarchical data model as this data
model allows many to many relationships therefore in this model a record can also have more
than one parent.

The network model in DBMS can be represented as a graph and hence it replaces the
hierarchical tree with a graph in which object types are the nodes and relationships are the
edges.

For example –
Here you can see all three departments are linked with the director which was not possible in
the hierarchical data model.

In the network model, there can be many possible paths to reach a node from the root node
(College is the root node in the above case), therefore the data can be accessed efficiently
when compared to the hierarchical data model. But, on the other hand, the process of
insertion and deletion of data is quite complex.

Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model)

An Entity-Relationship model is a high-level data model that describes the structure of

the database in a pictorial form which is known as ER-diagram. In simple words, an ER
diagram is used to represent logical structure of the database easily.

ER model develops a conceptual view of the data hence it can be used as a blueprint to
implement the database in the future.
Developers can easily understand the system just by looking at ER diagram. Let's first have a
look at the components of an ER diagram.

 Entity - Anything that has an independent existence about which we collect the data. To
learn more about Entity in DBMS click here.

They are represented as rectangles in the ER diagram. For example - Car, house, employee.

 Entity Set - A set of the same type of entities is known as an entity set. For example - Set of
students studying in a college.
 Attributes - Properties that define entities are called attributes. They are represented by an
ellipse shape.
  Relationships - A relationship in DBMS is used to describe the association between
entities. They are represented as diamond or rhombus shapes in the ER diagram.

In the above-represented ER diagram, we have two entities that are Employee and Company,
and the relationship among them. Also, in the above-represented ER diagram, we can see that
both the employee and company have some attributes and the relationship is of "works in"
type, which means the employee works in a company.

Relational Model

This is the most widely accepted data model. In this model, the database is represented as
a collection of relations in the form of rows and columns of a two-dimensional
table. Each row is known as a tuple (a tuple contains all the data for an individual record)
while each column represents an attribute. For example -

Stu. Id Name Branch

101 Naman CSE

102 Saloni ECE

103 Rishabh IT

104 Pulkit ME

The above table shows a relation "STUDENT" with attributes such as Stu. Id, Name, and
Branch which consists of 4 records or tuples.
Object-Oriented Data model

As suggested by its name, the object-oriented data model is a combination of object-oriented

programming and relational data model. In this data model, the data and their relationship are
represented in a single structure which is known as an object.

Since data is stored as objects we can easily store audio, video, images, etc in the database
which was very difficult and inconvenient to do in the relational model. As shown in the
image below two objects are connected with each other through links.

In the above image, we have two objects that are Employee and Department in which all the
data is contained in a single unit (object). They are linked with each other as they share a
common attribute i.e.i.e. Department_Id.

Advantages of Data Models in DBMS

 Data models ensure that the data is represented accurately.
 The relationship between the data is well-defined.
 Data Redundancy in DBMS can be minimized and missing data can be identified
easily.
 Last but not least, the security of the data is not compromised.

Disadvantages of Data Models in DBMS

 The biggest disadvantage of the data model is, one must know the characteristics of
physical data to build a data model.
 Sometimes in big databases, it is quite difficult to understand the data model also the
cost incurred is very high.

Instance and Schema in DBMS

What is DBMS Schema?
Here the DBMS schema means designing the database. For example, if we take the
example of the employee table. The employee table contains the following attributes.
These attributes are EMP_ID, EMP_ADDRESS, EMP_NAME, EMP_CONTACT. These
are the schema of the employee table.

Schema is further divided into three types. These three are as follows.

1. Logical schema.
2. View schema.
3. Physical schema.

The schema defines the logical view of the database. It provides some knowledge about
the database and what data needs to go where.

In DBMS, the schema is shown in diagram format.

We can understand the relationship between the data present in the database. With the
help of this schema, we can implement the DBMS function such as delete, insert,
search, update, etc.

Let us understand this by the below diagram. There are three diagrams, i.e., section,
course, and student. This diagram shows the relationship between the section and the
course diagram. Schema is the only type of structural view of the database that is shown
below.
1. Physical schema:
In the physical schema, the database is designed at the physical level. At this level, the
schema describes how the data block is stored and how the storage is managed.

2. Logical schema:
In the logical schema, the database is designed at a logical level. At this level, the
programmer and data administrator perform their work. Also, at this level, a certain
amount of data is stored in a structured way. But the internal implementation data are
hidden in the physical layer for the security proposed.

3. View schema:
In view schema, the database is designed at the view level. This schema describes the
user interaction with the database system.

Moreover, Data Definition Language (DDL) statements help to denote the schema of a
database. The schema represents the name of the table, the name of attributes, and
their types; constraints of the tables are related to the schema. Therefore, if users want
to modify the schema, they can write DDL statements.

What is DBMS Instance?

In DBMS, the data is stored for a particular amount of time and is called an instance of
the database. The database schema defines the attributes of the database in the
particular DBMS. The value of the particular attribute at a particular moment in time is
known as an instance of the DBMS.

For example, in the above example, we have taken the example of the attribute of the
schema. In this example, each table contains two rows or two records. In the above
schema of the table, the employee table has some instances because all the data stored
by the table have some instances.

Let's take another example: Let's say we have a single table student in the database;
today, the table has 100 records, so today, the instance of the database has 100
records. We are going to add another 100 records to this table by tomorrow, so the
instance of the database tomorrow will have 200 records in the table. In short, at a
particular moment, the data stored in the database is called the instance; this change
over time as and when we add, delete or update data in the database.

Differences between Database Schema and Instance

Both of these help in describing the data available in a database, but there is a
fundamental difference between Schema and Instance in DBMS. Schema refers to the
overall description of any given database. Instance basically refers to a collection of data
and Information that the database stores at any particular moment.

The major differences between schema and instance are as follows:

Database Schema Database Instance

It is the definition of the database, or it is defined as

It is a snapshot of a database at a specific moment.
the description of the database.

It rarely changes. It changes frequently.

This corresponds to the variable declaration of a The value of the variable in a program at a point in time
programming language. corresponds to an instance of the database schema.

Defines the basic structure of the database, i.e., how

It is the set of Information stored at a particular time.
the data will be stored in the database.
 Data in instances can be changed using addition, deletion,
Schema is same for whole database. updation.

It does not change very frequently. It changes very frequently

DBMS Three Level Architecture Diagram

This architecture has three levels:

1. External level
2. Conceptual level
3. Internal level
1. External level
It is also called view level. The reason this level is called “view” is
because several users can view their desired data from this level which is
internally fetched from database with the help of conceptual and internal level
mapping.

The user doesn’t need to know the database schema details such as
data structure, table definition etc. user is only concerned about data which is
what returned back to the view level after it has been fetched from database
(present at the internal level).

External level is the “top level” of the Three Level DBMS Architecture.

2. Conceptual level
It is also called logical level. The whole design of the database such as
relationship among data, schema of data etc. are described in this level.

Database constraints and security are also implemented in this level of

architecture. This level is maintained by DBA (database administrator).

3. Internal level
This level is also known as physical level. This level describes how the
data is actually stored in the storage devices. This level is also responsible for
allocating space to the data. This is the lowest level of the architecture.

Data Independence

Data independence is the ability to modify one level of a DBMS without

affecting the next higher level's data structure or access methods. It's of two
types, physical and logical. Physical data independence allows you to modify
the physical level without affecting the conceptual and view level, whereas
logical independence makes sure that modifying the logical schema wouldn't
affect the view level.

What is Data Independence in DBMS?

The ability to modify the schema definition of a DBMS at one level,

without affecting the schema definition of the next higher level is called data
independence.
Types of Data Independence in DBMS

Now that you know what data independence means, let's discuss its
types. This is where your knowledge of the 3-level architecture is important!

Data Independence in DBMS is of two types:

 Physical Data Independence

This is defined as the ability to modify the physical schema of the

database without the modification causing any changes in the
logical/conceptual or view/external level.

Physical data independence allows you to distinguish between

conceptual and internal/physical levels. It allows you to describe the database
logically without needing to identify physical structures.

Physical data independence allows you to modify physical storage

structures or devices without affecting the conceptual model of the database.
Any changes made at the internal level would be absorbed by the mapping
between the conceptual and internal levels, preventing any modifications to
the conceptual level.

 Logical Data Independence

Logical data independence is the ability to modify logical schema without

causing any unwanted modifications to the external schema or the application
programs to be rewritten.

Difference between Physical and Logical Data

Independence
Physical Data Independence Logical Data Independence

It is concerned with the internal schema of the It is concerned with the conceptual schema of the
database. database.

It is easier to achieve as compared to logical data Logical data independence is difficult to achieve as
independence. compared to physical data independence.

Physical data independence is mostly concerned It is mostly focused on the structure or updating data
with how data is saved in the system. definitions.

Changes at the internal level may or may not be When the database's logical structure needs to be
 Physical Data Independence Logical Data Independence

required to increase the overall performance of modified, the changes made at the logical level are
the database. crucial.

In most cases, a change at the physical level does If new fields are added or removed from the database,
not necessitate a change at the application then updates are required to be made in the
program level. application software.

Database Languages

Once data is stored or filled it requires manipulation like insertion, deletion,

updating, and modification of data. For these operations a set of languages are
provided by the database management system (DBMS). So, the database
languages are used to read, update and store data in the database.

The different types of DBMS languages are as follows −

 Data Definition Language (DDL) − Create, Drop, Truncate, Rename.

 Data Manipulation language (DML) − Select, Insert, Delete, Update.
 Data Control Language (DCL) − Revoke, Grant.
 Transaction Control Language (TCL) − Rollback, Commit.

The DBMS languages are pictorially represented as follows −

 Data Definition Language (DDL)

It is a language that allows the user to define the data and their relationship to
other types of data. The DDL commands are: Create, Alter, Rename, Drop,
Truncate.
  Data Manipulation Language (DML)
It is a language that provides a set of operations to support the basic
data manipulation operation on data held in the database. The DML
commands are: Insert, delete, update, select, merge, call.

 Data Control Language (DCL)

DCL is used to access the stored data. It is mainly used for revoke and
grant the user access to a database. The DCL commands are: Grant, Revoke.

 Transaction Control Language (TCL)

TCL is a language which manages the transactions within the database.
It is used to execute the changes made by the data manipulation language
statements. The TCL commands are: Commit, Rollback.

 Data Query Language.

DQL is a subset of SQL (Structured Query Language) used specifically for querying and
retrieving data from a database. The main operations in DQL focus on SELECT
queries.SELECT: The most common and important DQL command, used to retrieve data
from one or more tables in a database.

Database Interfaces
A database interface is a layer that allows communication between an application
(like a web application or a program) and a database management system (DBMS). It
abstracts the details of how the database interacts with the application and provides a way to
perform operations such as inserting, querying, updating, and deleting data.

Types of Database Interfaces

1. SQL-based Interfaces
o These interfaces use SQL (Structured Query Language) to interact with databases.
Applications write SQL queries to perform operations such as retrieving, inserting,
updating, or deleting data.
o Examples:
 MySQL: A popular open-source relational database management system
(RDBMS) that uses SQL.
 PostgreSQL: Another RDBMS that uses SQL and has advanced features.
 SQLite: A lightweight, embedded SQL database engine.
2. Database Connectivity Methods
 ODBC (Open Database Connectivity): A standard API for accessing database
management systems. It allows an application to connect to any DBMS that supports
ODBC drivers.
 JDBC (Java Database Connectivity): A Java-based API for connecting to relational
databases from Java applications.
 ADO.NET (ActiveX Data Objects): A set of classes in the .NET Framework for
interacting with databases in .NET applications.
 DB-API: A database interface standard for Python, which allows communication with
relational databases.