INTRODUCTION

The transportation by road is the only road which gives maximum service to one and all.
This mode had also the maximum flexibility for travel and with reference to route,
direction, time and speed of travel. It is possible to provide door to door service only by
road transport. Concrete pavement a larger number of advantages such as a long life span
negligible maintenance, user and environmental friendly and lower-cost. Keeping in this
view the whole life-cycle cost analysis for the black topping and which topping have been
done based on various condition such as type of laying as single lane, two lane, four lane
different traffic namely deterioration of road three categories.
The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed
materials above the natural soil subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the subgrade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a
surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, Favourable light reflecting
characteristic, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted
stresses due to wheel load are Suffice, Nightly reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing
capacity of the sub low grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognised as serving
this purpose, namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This gives an overview on
pavement types, layers and their function cost analysis.

Various grades of concrete under a similar condition of traffic and design concrete road are
found to more suitable than bituminous road. Since the whole life-cycle cost comes out to
be lower in the range of 30% to 50% but for road having traffic less than 400cv/day and
the road is in good condition, the difference between whole Life Cost of the road is very
less. The initial cost of concrete overlay is 15% to 60% more than flexible overlay.

To design the road is stretch as a flexible pavement by using different flexible methods like
group index method, C.B.R. method as per IRC: 37 – 2001, Triaxial method, California
resistance value method, and as a rigid pavement as per IRC: for the collected design upon
a given black cotton soil subgrade and to estimates the construction cost of designed
pavement by each method. To propose a suitable or best methods to a given condition or
problem.
The main objective of this study is to develop a strategy to select the most cost if efficient
pavement design method to carry out for a sections of a highway network and also to
identify the cost analysis of different pavement design method.

Page | 1
1. PAVEMENT

The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed

materials above the natural soil subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the subgrade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a
surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, Favourable light reflecting
characteristic, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted
stresses due to wheel load are Suffice, Nightly reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing
capacity of the sub low grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognised as serving
this purpose, namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements.

 TYPES OF PAVEMENT

 Flexible - Pavements with a bitumen bonded surfacing and the road base.

 Flexible composite - The surfacing and upper road base our bituminous on a lower
road base of cement bonded material.

 Rigid - Pavements with a concrete surface slab which can be unreinforced, joint
reinforced or continuously reinforced.

 Rigid composite - Continuously reinforced concrete slab with a bituminous overlay.

Page | 2
 PAVEMENT MATERIAL

 SOIL:-
Pavements are conglomeration of materials. These materials, their associated
properties, and their interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement.
Thus, a good under - standing of these materials, how they are characterised, and how
they perform is fundamental to understanding pavement. The materials which are used
in construction of Highway are of intense interest to the highway engineer. This
requires not only a through understanding of the soil and aggregate properties which
effect pavement stability and durability, but also the binding materials which may be
added to improve these pavement features.

 SUB GRADE SOIL:-

Side is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived
naturally from the disintegration of rocks or decay of vegetation that can be excavated
readily with power equipment in the field or disintegrated by gen whole the
mechanical means in the laboratory. The supporting soil beneath the pavement and its
special under courses is called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is
called natural sub grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil contacted by controlled
movement of the heavy compactors.

 GRAVEL:-
These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little
or no fines contributing to cohesion of materials.

 MOORUM:-
These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement
rock.

 SILTS:-
These are finer than sand, brighter in colour as compared to clay, and
exhibit little cohesion. When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately
squeezed and tapped Shiny surface makes its appearance, thus dilatency is a specific
property of soil.

 CLAYS:-
These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength
when dry and show no dialtency.Black cotton soil and other expensive clay exhibit
swelling and shrinkage properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between
fingers leavesstrain, which is not observed for silts.

Page | 3
 2. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavement will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain to grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. The wheel load acting on the
pavement will be distributed to the wider area, and the stress decreases with the depth.
Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally has
many layers. Hence the design of flexible payment uses the concept of layered system.
Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in the number of layers and the top
layer has to be of the best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to
wear and tear. The lower layer will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality
material can be used.

Flexible payments are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in the
form of surface treatment (such as bituminous surface treatment generally found on the low
volume road is available) or, asphalt concrete surface courses, flexible payment layer
reflect the deformation of lower layer on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation
in sub grade then it will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible payment,
the design is based on overall performance of flexible payment, and the stresses produced
should be keep well below the allowable stresses of each payment layer.

Page | 4
 TYPE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

The following type of construction had been used in flexible payment:

1. Conventional layered flexible payment.
2. Full depth asphalt pavement.
3. Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
4. Conventional flexible payments are layered system with high-quality expensive
materials are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials
are placed in the lower layers.
5. Full depth asphalt pavement are constructed by placing bituminous layer directly on
the soil subgrade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local material are
not available.
6. Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing Dense/open graded aggregate
layers in the between two asphalts layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is
placed above the subgrade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on
the soil subgrade and protect from surface water.

 LAYERS IN THE FLEXIBLE PAYMENT

 SEAL COAT:-
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to waterproof the surface
and to provide skid resistance.

Page | 5
 TACK COAT:-
Tack coat is very light application of the asphalt, usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water, it provide a bonding between two layer of binder course and
must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

 PRIME COAT:-
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an
absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provide bonding
between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrate into the layer below plugs and
voids, and forms a watertight surface.

 SURFACE COURSE:-
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic
loads and are generally contains superior quality materials. They are is usually constructed
with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC). The function and the requirements of layer are:
 It provides characteristic such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc.it will prevent
the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub
bass and subgrade.
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and is
skid resistance riding surface.
It must be waterproof to protect the entire base and subgrade from the weaking effect of
water.

 BINDER COURSE:-
This layer provides the bulk of asphalt concrete structure. it’s
chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course the binder course is generally consist
of aggregate having layers asphalt and they do not require quality as high as the surface
course, so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results in the more
economical design.

 BASE COURSE:-
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the
surface of binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contribute to the
subsurface drainage it may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated
or a stabilised materials

 SUB BASE COURSE:-

The sub base course is the layer of material beneath the base
course and the primary function are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and

Page | 6
 reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub grade in the pavement structure if the base
course is open graded, then the sub base course with the more fine can serve as a filler
between subgrade and the base course. A sub base course is not always needed or used.
For example, a pavement constructed over our high quality, estate subgrade may not need
the additional feature offered by a sub base course. In such situation, sub base course
maybe not be provide.

 SUBGRADE:-
The topsoil or subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive
the stresses from the layer above. It is essential that at no time soil subgrade is overstressed.
It would be contacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

 FORMATION OF CRACKS:-

CRACKS ON FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

3. RIGID PAVEMENT

Page | 7
Rigid pavement are those which possess not worthy flexural strength or flexural
rigidity .The stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers as in the
case of flexural pavement layers. The rigid pavements are made of Portland cement
concrete-either plain, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete. The plain cement concrete slabs
are expected to take-up about 40kg/cm2. The rigid pavement has the slab action and is
capable of transmitting the wheel load stresses through a wider area below. The rigid
pavement does not get deformed to the shape of the lower surface as it can bridge the minor
variations of lower layers. The cement concrete pavement slab can very well serve as a
wearing surface as well as effective base course. Therefore usually the rigid pavement
structure consist of a cement concrete slab, below which a granular base or sub-base may
be provided. The rigid pavements are usually designed and the stresses are analysed using
the elastic theory

RIGID PAVEMENT
In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium (Figure 19:4). Rigid pavements are constructed
by Portland cement (PCC) and should be analysed by plate theory instead of layer theory,
assuming an elastic plate resting onviscous foundation. Plate theory is a simplified version
of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as amedium thick plate which is plane before
loading and to remain plane after loading Bending of the slab due to wheel load and
temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

Page | 8
 TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with
closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for
load transfer across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement although reinforcements do not improve the

structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to
30m. Dowel bars are required for load transfer. Reinforcement’s help to keep the slab
together even after cracks.

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement Complete elimination of joints are achieved by

reinforcement.

 FAILURE OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

Fatigue cracking has long been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid
pavement design. The
Allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio
between flexural
Tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of late, pumping is identified as an
important failure criterion.
Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry through the joints and cracks of cement concrete
pavement, caused during
The downward movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of
distress in rigid pavements
Include faulting, spelling, and deterioration.

Page | 9
Failure of rigid pavement

 INTRODUCTION:-
The Softening Point of bitumen or tar is the temperature at which
the substance attains particular degree of softening. As per IS: 334-1982, it is the
temperature in ºC at which a standard ball passes through a sample of bitumen in a mould
and falls through a height of 2.5 cm, when heated under water or glycerine at specified
conditions of test. The binder should have sufficient fluidity before its applications in road
uses. The determination of softening point helps to know the temperature up to which a
bituminous binder should be heated for various road use applications. Softening point is
determined by ring and ball apparatus.

 APPARATUS:-
(i) The ring and ball apparatus consisting of
(a) Steel balls-two numbers each of 9.5 mm diameter weighing 3.5 ± 0.05 g.

(b) Brass rings-two numbers each having depth of 6.4 mm. The inside diameter at bottom
and top is 15.9mm and 17.5 mm respectively.

(c) Ball guides to guide the movement of steel balls centrally.

(d) Support -that can hold rings in position and also allows for suspension of a
thermometer. The distance between the bottom of the rings and the top surface of the
bottom plate of the support is 25mm.

(i) Thermometer that can read up to 100° C with an accuracy of 0.2° C.

(ii) Bath–heat resistant glass beaker not less than 85 mm in diameter &1220mm deep.

Page | 10
(iii) Stirrer

 PROCEDURE:-

(i) Preparation of test sample: Heat the material to a temperature between 75-100° C above
its softening point; stir until, it is completely fluid and free from air bubbles and water. If
necessary, filter it through IS sieve 30. Place the rings previously heated to a temperature
approximating to that of the molten material, on a metal plate which has been coated with a
mixture of equal parts of glycerine and dextrin. After cooling for 30 minutes in air, level
the material in the ring by removing the excess material with a warmed, sharp knife.

(ii) Assemble the apparatus with the rings; thermometer and ball guides in position

(iii) Fill the bath with distilled water to a height of 50mm above the upper surface of the
rings. The starting temperature should be 5° C.

Note: Use glycerine in place of water if the softening point is expected to be above 80° C;
the starting temperature may be kept 35° C.

(iv) Apply heat to the bath and stir the liquid so that the temperature rises at a uniform rate
of 5 ± 0.5 °C per minute.

(v) As the temperature increases the bituminous material softens and the balls sink through
the rings carrying a portion of the material with it.

(vi) Note the temperature when any of the steel balls with bituminous coating touches the
bottom plate.

(vii) Record the temperature when the second ball touches the bottom plate.

The average of the two readings to the nearest 0.5°C is reported as softening point.

 PRECAUTIONS:-

(i) Distilled water should be used as the heating medium.

(ii) During the conduct of test the apparatus should not be subjected to vibrations. (iii)The
bulb of the thermometer should be at about the same level as the rings.

Page | 11
 OBSERVATIONS:-

 RESULT:-

Softening point of bitumen / tar = 46.4+45.8 /2 =46.1 °C.

4. ROLE OF STABILISATION

Pavement materials include a combination of coarse and fine aggregate with a proportion
of a smaller clay/silt -sized particles. The objective is to ensure a final grading matrix that
will allow maximum compaction of the product with the least void present. This is to
achieve a solid layer that is in part impervious to water infiltration. Pavement materials can
be used in different layers of the pavement and requirement of such a layers will be
determined by applied load and payment compaction selected by designer.
For the pavement containing mechan1ically stabilised materials and/or modified materials,
the limiting design criteria is the vertical strain at the top of the subgrade. For a stabilised
and higher binder content materials, the vertical strain at the top of subgrade is not only
design criteria as the fatigue life of cemented material must also be considered. The fatigue
life of cemented material is usually the governing criterion.

High-performance quarried materials will likely be obtained from the nearest possible
source in order to minimise transport costs. Often, however, imported material may not be
sufficiently strong payment design requirements. in such cases, the solution is found in the
design of either stronger payment layers or a reduction in the stresses requirement for the
layer.one of the most cost effective ways to make the pavement stronger is to modify or a
stabilised the pavement material.as an alternative, it is possible to reduce the stress
requirement by the stiffening for foundation. Again, this can be done by either modifying
are stabilising the foundation

 LIME STABILISATION

Lime stabilisation or modification is used in the road construction to improve the quality of
existing material within the construction project. Lime is an effective addictive for plastic
soil, improving both workability and a strength. Lime stabilisation can be used to:
 modify marginal material to bring it within specification or for performance
requirement
 increases strength as an alternative to cementetious stabilisation
 enhance volumetric stability for various layers of select material
 improve surface stability of unsealed road

Page | 12
 CEMENTITIOUS STABILISATION

When stabilising the cement, the working time of the resultant material can be critical. The
time available to deliver, incorporate and compact a pavement layer needs to be understood
before project commencement. With cement as the only binder, the time for performing
placement and compaction process is limited to approximately two-hour from the
incorporate of the cement into the moistened payment materials. No rework time is normal
provided for. This can be create a demanding schedule with little opportunity for error
management on the site.
Cement as the only binder is not often used due to working time restrictions. In
addition, higher shrinkage rates can result in an increased cracking tendency. Addition of
FA to the binder extends the working life of the stabilised material, allows more time
placement in compaction of the material and mitigates risks typically associated with a
single cement binder.

5. DESIGN AND COST ANALYSIS OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

The structural capacity of flexible payment is attended by combined action of the different
layer of the payment. The load is directly applied on the wearing course and it gets dispread
with the depth in base, sub base and subgrade layers and then ultimately to the ground.
Since stress induced by traffic load is highest at the top, the quality of top and upper layer
of material is better. The subgrade layer is responsible for transferring the load from above
layers to the ground. Flexible payments are design in such a way that the load transmitted
to the subgrade does not exceed its bearing capacity. Consequently, the thickness of the
layer would vary with CBR of soil and it would affect the cost of pavement.
The thickness design of flexible payment also varies with the amount of traffic. The range
of variation in volume at a different highways has direct effect on the repetitions of traffic
loads. The damaging effect of different axle loads is also different. The Indian Road
Congress method of flexible pavement design uses the concept of ESAL for the purpose of
flexible pavement design and the same has been used in this study also.

 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BY GROUP INDEX METHOD

in order to classify the fine grained soil within one group and for judging their suitability as
subgrade material, and indexing system has been introduced in HRB classification which is
term it as group index. Group index is the function of percentage materials passing through
200 Mesh sieve(0.074 mm), liquid limit and plasticity index of soil and is given by
equation: (0.074 mm). Liquid limit and plasticity index of soil is given by equation:
G.I = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Here, a = that portion of material passing through0.074 mm sieve, greater than 35 and not
exceeding 75%.

Page | 13
 b = that portion of material passing through 0.074 mm sieve, greater than 15 and not
exceeding 35%.
c = that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60
d = that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30
Or, GI = (F-35)0.2 + 0.05(WL-40) + 0.01(F-15)(IP-10) DATA:
F = 66%
WL = 55%
IP = 31%
GI = (F-35)0.2 + 0.05(WL-40) + 0.01(F-15) (IP-10) = 17.35
So pavement thickness = 700mm
Thickness of surface course = 35mm
Thickness of DBM = 145mm
Thickness of base course = 200mm
Thickness of sub base = 320mm

 CALIFORNIA RESISTANCE VALUE METHOD

F.M Hakeem and R.M.carmany in 1948 provided design method based on stabilometer R-
value and Cohesimeter computer value. Based on performance data it was estabilised by
Hveem and Car many that payments thickness varies directly with R value and logarithm
of load repetitions. It varies inversely with fifth root of computer value. The expression for
pavement thickness is given by the empirical equation.
T = K(TI)(90-R)/C1/5
Here K = total thickness of pavement in centimetre.
TI = numerical constant = 0.166.
R = stabilometer resistance value.
C = Cohesiometer value
The annual value of the equivalent wheel load (EWL) here is the accumulated some of the
products of constant and the number of axle loads. The various constant for the different
number of the axles in group are given below:-

Page | 14
 Number of axles EWL constant (yearly basis)
2 330
3 1070
4 2460
5 4620
6 3040

DATA

K = 0.166, TI = 9.66, R = 44, C = 61

Pavement thickness is given by the empirical equation:-
T = K(TI)(90-R)/C1/5
CALCULATION

TI = 1.35(EWL)0.11
TI = 1.35(32729750)0.11
TI = 9.66
T = K(TI)(90-RC)/C1/5
T = 0.166(9.66)(90-44)611/5
T = 730 mm
So pavement thickness = 730 mm
Thickness of surface course = 35 mm
Thickness of DBM = 145 mm
Thickness of base course = 210 mm
Thickness of sub base = 340 mm

Page | 15
CONCLUSION

From this report on payment it is observed that flexible payment are the most economical
for lesser of volume of traffic. The life of flexible payment is near about 15 years whose
initial cost is low needs a periodic maintenance after a certain period and maintenance costs
are high. The life of rigid payment is much more than flexible pavement of about 40 years
approx. 2.5 times life of flexible payment whose initial cost is much more than flexible
payment but maintenance cost is very less.
The pavement is designed as flexible pavement upon a black cotton soil subgrade, the CBR
method as per IRC 37-2001 is most appropriate method than other methods.
The pavement is designed as a flexible method from which each method is design on the
basis of their design thickness from which each method has different cost analysis of a
section, from which CBR as per IRC is most appropriate in term of cost analysis.
The pavement is designed as a rigid pavement, the method suggested by IRC is more
suitable.

Page | 16
 CONTENTS

Chapter No. Page

1. Pavement 6
 Types Of Pavement 6
 Pavement Materials 7
2. Flexible Pavement 8
 Types Of Flexible Pavement 9
 Layers Of Pavement 10
 Failure Of Flexible Pavement 12
3. Rigid pavement 13
 Type Of Rigid Pavement 14
 Failure Of Rigid Pavement 14
4. Role Of The Stabilisation On Pavement Design 42
 Lime Stabilisation 42
 Cementatious Stabilisation 42
5. Design And Cost Analysis Of Pavement 44
 Design Of Flexible Pavement By Group Index Method 44
 California Resistance Value Method 45
6. Conclusion 48

Page | 17