Lecture Note 7

Differential form of Gauss’s Law

If we suppose that the volume V enclosed by a surface S contains volume
charge density , we can write gauss’s law as

∮ ∰ ----------- (1)

The divergence theorem can be used to convert the left hand side of the above
equation into a volume integral

∮ ∮ ∫ --------- (2)

Since this is true for any volume V, we can equate the integrands and write

( ) ( ) ------- (3)

Equation (3) is known as differential form of Gauss’s law. This is a basic

equation of electrostatics and is the differential form of Maxwell’s equation.

This equation is a local differential equation, the field at ‘r’ is related to the
charge density at’ r’.

We can express E as negative gradient of the scalar potential and write

equation (3) as

* + (Or) ------------ (4)

This is known as Poisson’s equation. When this reduces to

---------- (5)

This is known as Laplace’s equation.

In Cartesian co-ordinates, these two equation are expressed as

------------ (6)

--------------- (7)

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 These equations are of central importance in what is known as potential field
theory.

Electrostatics- Part II: Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Introduction

This chapter deals with study of electric potential due to isolated charge,
dipole and system of charges. It also explains equipotential surfaces, potential
energy of system of charges, potential energy of dipole in an external field.
Electrostatics of conductors, dielectrics, polarization in dielectric medium,
capacitors and capacitance.

Electrostatic force is a conservative force (depends on final and initial position

of the charge).

Electric potential: The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge
from infinity to a particular point. Its unit is Volt.

Electrostatic potential:

Work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
to a point is equal to electrostatic potential V at that point.

Work done per unit charge is the characteristic electrostatic potential. .

Its unit is JC-1.

The potential of source charge at infinity distance is zero.

Potential due to point charge:

Let us consider that a charge Q is located at point O. The electric field at P due
to this charge will be

OQ B P A E

r dr

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E will act away from the charge. If a test charge qo is moved through a distance
(dr) opposite to E then,

Work done dW = F.dr = - qoE.dr.

Therefore, work done in carrying charge qo from A to B will be

WAB = ∫ , so the potential difference will be

= ∫ ∫ = ∫

, - = , -, if point A is at infinity then and take ,

so that potential at a point B is , -

or potential at any point due to a point charge Q is

Equipotential surfaces for an isolated point charge are spheres concentric with
the point charge. Potential outside a spherical shell is , where R is the
radius of shell. Potential Inside the spherical shell is zero.

Potential Due to Number of charges:

Potential at a point due to several charges is obtained by algebraic sum of

potential due to individual charges.

If charges q1, q2, q3,..., etc are distances r1,r2,r3, … , etc from the point at which
potential is to be found, then the resultant potential at this point will be

V= = ∑

If the charge distribution is continuous, rather than being collection of points,

the sum is replaced by the integration ∫ . Where dq is the differential
element of charge distribution, r is its distance from the point at which V is to
be calculated.

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Potential energy for a system of two charges:

Potential energy of the system of charges is the work required to assemble this
system of charges by bringing them in from an infinite distance.

Consider two charges q1 and q2 a distance r apart.

q1 r q2

A B

The energy stored in the system (q1+q2) is called electrical potential energy.
Here, we imagine that q2 has been brought from infinity to B.

The electric potential at B due to q1 is V = , which is the work done in

bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to B. Therefore work done in
bringing q2 to B from infinity W = V q2

, this is known potential

energy of the system, which is electric potential energy U of the system of
charges (q1+q2).

For a system of charges containing more than two charges, the potential
energy for every pair of charges is calculated and then added algebraically. For
example

q3

a13 a23

q1 a12 q2

Potential Energy = = . /

If one of charges, say q1 is negative, then

Potential Energy = . /

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Electric Dipole:

Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance say ‘2a’
constitute an electric dipole. Molecules like water (H2O), chloroform (CHCl3),
ammonia (NH3) possess permanent dipoles. Electric dipoles are also induced
when dielectrics are placed in an electric field. Example carbon tetra chloride
(CCl4), which does not possess permanent dipole, induced dipoles are created.
In H2O, CHCl3, NH3 in addition to permanent dipoles, induced dipoles are then
produced.

Electric Dipole Moment:

Electric dipole moment P is equal to the product of magnitude of either charge

or distance, 2a between them. Therefore, P= q×2a Coulomb metre. It is a
vector quantity. It is always directed from negative to positive charge.

2a

_q +q

Potential Energy of a dipole in an electric field:

Consider a dipole with a charges –q and +q placed in a uniform electric field E

as shown in fig.

+qE E
2asinɵ

-qE

Let at any instant, dipoles makes an angle ɵ with the direction of electric field
E. Two equal and opposite forces –qE and +qE act on the two point charges of
dipole.

These forces form couple whose torque (𝜏) is given by

𝜏 = qE × (2a sinɵ) = q (2a) Esinɵ = P Esinɵ, where P =q×2a, is an electric dipole

moment.
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If the dipole is rotated through a small angle dɵ against the torque, the small
work done is given by

dW = 𝜏dɵ = PEsinɵ dɵ

The total work done in rotating the dipole from angle ɵ1 to ɵ2 with the
direction of E is given by

W=∫ ∫

pE [-cos - = pE(cos )

This work done stores in the form of potential energy

Therefore U = pE (cos )

If =

U = -pE cos

This is the potential energy of a dipole placed in a uniform electric field.

For stable equilibrium

Potential energy U = -pE cos and when (cos0°=1)

U = -pE, this is condition for stable equilibrium.

For unstable equilibrium

When

U = -pE cos 180 [since, cos180°=-1]

Umax = pE, this is the condition for unstable equilibrium.

Thus, when dipole is parallel to electric field, it is said to be stable equilibrium

and when dipole is anti-parallel to electric field, it is said to be unstable
equilibrium.

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Potential due to Electric dipole along axial line and equatorial line:

Consider an electric dipole AB, consists of two charges +q and –q separated by

a distance 2a. To find potential at a point P due to electric dipole consider the
following diagram

EAsin

P Ɵ EAcos , EBcos

r1 EBsin

r r2

-q a a +q

A B

Potential due to the dipole is the sum of the potentials due to the charges –q
and +q

( )

Where the distances of the point P from -q and +q respectively.

From the diagram, and

Therefore, ( - )= ( )

Since a is small compared to r, term is neglected.

V=

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 a) At an axial point ,

V=

b) At equatorial line or perpendicular bisector line ( )

V =0.

c) Electric field intensity at axial point

=- ( )=

d) Electric field intensity along equatorial line

( )

( ( + ) ( ( )

Equipotential Surfaces:

An equipotential surface is a surface which has constant potential at every

point. The electric field will be normal to the equipotential surface at every
point.

a) Equipotential surfaces for uniform electric field

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 b) Equipotential surfaces for a charge

c) Equipotential surfaces for a) Dipole and b) two identical charges.

Relation between Field (E) and Potential (V)

Consider two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B as shown in fig.

with potential values V and V + δV, where δV is the change in V in the
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direction of the electric field E. Let P be a point on the surface B. δl is the
perpendicular distance of the surface A from P. Imagine that a unit positive
charge is moved along this perpendicular from the surface B to surface A
against the electric field.
The work done in this process is |E|δ l.
This work equals the potential difference VA–VB.
Thus,
|E|δ l = V− (V +δV) = –δV
i.e., |E|= - δV/δl
Since δV is negative, -δV = |δV|. We can rewrite
| |
E=- V
We thus arrive at two important conclusions concerning the relation
between electric field and potential
(i) Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases steepest.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential per
unit displacement normal to the equipotential surface at the point.

Electrostatics of conductors:
Conductors are those substances which allow current to pass through them.
Electrons are the charge carriers of metallic conductors.

The electrostatic field E is zero in the interior of a spherical charge conductor.

No net charge at any point inside the conductor and any excess charge must
reside at the surface.

Electric field just outside of a spherical charge conductor

Electric potential within a conductor and on the surface of the conductor is

constant.

Electric potential of a cavity within a conductor (with no charges) is zero.

Any cavity in a conductor remains shielded from outside electric influence, the
field inside the cavity is always zero. This is known as electrostatic shielding.

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Dielectrics and polarisation:

Dielectrics are non- conducting substances, they do not contain charge

carriers however they can store the charges when they are placed in an
external field. There are two types of dielectric molecules; they are Polar and
non- polar molecules.

Polar molecules: It is the one in which positive and negative charges are
separated. E.g. HCl and H2O. They have permanent dipoles.

Non- Polar Molecules: It is the one in which positive and negative charges
coincide. E.g., Oxygen and hydrogen. They have no permanent dipoles.

Dielectrics in capacitors:

i) Capacitance of a given air capacitor is increased when dielectric is

inserted between its plates.

ii) The maximum potential difference that a capacitor can stand without
breaking is increased.

iii) The two large sheets can be held close to each other with dielectric in
between them without actual contact.

(a) Polar molecules are randomly oriented in the absence of an external

electric field.

(b) When an external field is applied, the molecules partially align with the
field.

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 (c) When a dielectric is polarized, the dipole moments of the molecules in
the dielectric are partially aligned with the external field E0.

(d) This polarization causes an induced negative surface charge on one side
of the dielectric and an equal induced positive surface charge on the
opposite side. This separation of charge results in a reduction in the net
electric field within the dielectric.

Polarisation: The dielectric placed between parallel plates develops a net

dipole moment in the presence of external field. The dipole moment per unit
volume is called polarisation.

Where, called electronic polarisability.

Electric displacement, D =

P=

Here, D =

Therefore, P = = ( )

( )

Capacitance of a capacitor:

A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator.

The ratio of charge per unit potential difference is called capacitance. Its unit is
farad. The smaller units of capacitance are μF (10-6 F) and pF (10-12F).

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Where, Q or –Q is the charge on the plates, V is the potential difference
between the plates.

The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is

Where, A = Area of the plates, d is the separation between two plates and ϵo is
the permittivity of free space.

Collection of capacitors used in variety of applications.

A parallel – plate capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates, each of

area ‘A’, separated by a distance ‘d’. When the capacitor is charged, the plates
carry equal amounts of charge, one plate carries positive charge and the other
carries negative charge.

Effect of dielectric on capacitance:

When dielectric is placed between the plates of a parallel capacitor, separated

by distance d, then as a result of electric field the centre of positive charge
of the molecules of dielectric no more coincides the centre of negative charge.
That is induced dipoles are produced and the dielectric is said to be polarised.
Thus, electric field E’ due to polarisation is produced which is opposite to .
Where

= , when the plates are charged with charge q.

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Therefore net electric field E =

So, the electric field intensity is reduced and the potential difference between
the plates is also reduced, say it is V. Then the dielectric constant is defined as
K= , it is a pure number. For air K =1 and E =

Permittivity: It is defined as the response of a medium to the presence of

electric field. Its value in free space is 8.85 .

Dielectric constant:

The ratio of permittivity of dielectric, and permittivity of vacuum, is called

dielectric constant.

i.e., K= .

Capacity of condenser with air is and with dielectric i , so

that, the dielectric constant is given by K = and can be determined by
measuring the capacitance of the condenser in the two cases.

Example problem

A parallel –plate capacitor has an area 2cm2 and a plate separation d = 1cm.
Find its capacitance.

Solution:

We know that, , Given A = 2cm2 = 2x10-4m2 and d = 1cm = 1x10-2m.

C= =0. 177pF

Combination of Capacitors:

a) In Series

In this combination, capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series. Each

capacitor has a charge Q, so that

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 V1= and

The total potential difference

V= V1 + V2

For capacitance in series combination, the total capacitance is given by

Where, C1 and C2 are individual capacitances.

b) In parallel

In this combination, the charge Q is shared by all capacitors, so that

Q= --------- (1)

The potential difference across every capacitor is the same say V.

Then, and

If the system is replaced by an equivalent capacitor of capacity, C, then

Q= CV

Therefore, from eqn. (1), we get CV =

C= +
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Hence, if capacitors are joined in parallel, then resultant capacitance is the sum
of individual capacitances.

Energy of a capacitor:

When a capacitor is charged by a battery, work is done by the charging battery

at the expense of its chemical energy. This work is stored in the capacitor in
the form of electrostatic potential energy.

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C, initial charge on capacitor is zero. Initial

potential difference between capacitor plates is zero.

Let Q be the charge given to the plates in small steps. When charge is given to
plates, potential difference between them increases. At any instant, the
potential difference between plates is V .

Now, work done in giving additional infinitesimal charge, dq to capacitor,

The total work done in bringing charge from 0 to Q will be equal to the sum of
all such infinitesimal works, which may be obtained by integration, therefore
total work

∫ ∫ = 0 1

If V is the final potential difference between the capacitor plates, then Q= CV

Therefore, W = =

This work is stored as electrostatic potential energy of capacitor,

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Electrostatic potential energy, U = = .

When battery is disconnected, energy stored will be decreased. Then energy

becomes,

U= = , Thus energy is reduced to times the initial energy and

electric field also reduced to times the initial field.

Energy density of a capacitor (UE = U/V= / Ad) (since Volume = Area X

Thickness)

We know and , using C and V in the above expression

We get, UE = . This called energy density of electrical capacitor which is

defined as energy of a capacitor /unit volume.

The End.

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