SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY

BUILDING NO-630, BLOCK B-1,

JANAKPURI EAST, BELOW RANA
MOTORS, NEW DELHI

CHEMISTRY NOTES
BY
NEHA MA’AM
S.NO CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

1 CHEMISTRY-1 1-8

2 CHEMISTRY-2 9-19

3 CHEMISTRY-3 20-24

4 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS 25-35

5 ATOM & STRUCTURE 36-45

6 ATOM & MOLECULES 46-52

7 CARBON & ITS COMPOUNDS 53-64

8 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS 65-73

9 CHEMICAL REACTIONS 74-79

10 GREEN CHEMISTRY 80-84

 CHEMISTRY-1
The branch of science that deals with the study of • Anything that occupy space and has mass.
matter, its composition, structure, properties and their
• They are made up of small particles.
reaction.
• We can either see, touch, taste and feel them.
Branches of Chemistry
Examples- air, water, oxygen, soil etc.
1. Inorganic Chemistry- studies the structure and
properties of materials that don’t have carbon Energy- Energy can be defined as the capacity to
supply heat or do work
2. Organic chemistry- studies the structure and
properties of carbon containing compound Example- Light, sound, heat, nuclear, mechanical,
chemical and electrical energy
3. Physical chemistry- studies the law and
principles of chemical reactions (behavior of The matter can be classified in two different ways on
materials) the bases of their Physical and chemical properties.
Matter and its composition

Physical classification of Matter

• Matter is found in three physical states i.e Solid, Liquid and Gas.

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Note-
Thermal energy of particles depends on temperature and force of attraction is depends on pressure
Solids are classified in two types

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Other states of matter

Plasma- the state consists super energetic and super excited particles.
It occurs when matter is heated to a very high temperature (kinetic energy high)
The particles are in the form of ionized gases, consisting equal number of positive and negative ions.
Produce magnetic and electric field
Example- stars, sun
Uses- fluorescent tube and neon sign bulb

Bose- Einstein condensation state (BEC)- discovered in 1920 by S.N Bose and Einstein
• it is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about one hundred thousandth of the density of
normal air to super low temperature.
• Atoms join together and form a super atom.
• The motion of molecules become negligible.
• Very low kinetic energy and high force of attraction.
Phase transformation of matter

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Compression- Gas to liquid

Examples- L.P.G ( Liquefied petroleum gas)
C.N.G (Compressed natural gas)
Sublimation- Solid to Gas
Example- solid CO2 or Dry ice, camphor, iodine

Deposition- Gas to solid

Example- formation of frost, formation of snow from
Water vapor.
Condensation- Gas to Liquid
Example- Water droplets on the outside of your cold
drink, morning dew on grass.

Q. Which one of the following is termed as Dry ice'? Boiling Point- the temperature at which the vapor
(a) Ice present in ice-cream pressure of a liquid equals the atmospheric pressure
(b) Solid water at Antarctica surrounding it.
(c) Solid state of carbon dioxide
vapor pressure = atmospheric pressure
(d) Solid water of ionosphere

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Note- The boiling point of water at a hill station will be Alcohol- 78°C
less than that at sea level. This is because the boiling
Acetone- 58°C
point of water decreases as atmospheric pressure
decreases. At higher altitudes, the atmospheric Carboxylic acid- 101°C
pressure is lower than at sea level, which means that
water will boil at a lower temperature. The boiling point Melting Point- the temperature at which a solid change
of water is directly proportional to the atmospheric into a liquid
pressure exerted on it. M.P of-
B.P of- Tungsten= 3422°C
The boiling point of water at sea level is 100℃ or 373K Mercury = -38.9°C

Boiling Evaporation
The process in which a Process in which water
substance change its state change into vapor without
from liquid to gas boiling
Quick process Slow process
Occurs throughout the Takes place only from the
liquid (bulk phenomenon) exposed surface of the
liquid (surface
phenomenon)
Occurs at a definite Occurs at all temperature
temperature and it causes cooling.
Bubbles are formed No bubbles formation
Source of energy needed Energy supplied by the
surroundings

Q. Which one of the following statements is correct? • Increase in wind speed

(a) Both boiling and evaporation are surface
Temperature Scale
phenomena.
(b) Boiling is a surface phenomenon, but evaporation 1. Kelvin Scale (K)-
is a bulk phenomenon.
(c) Both boiling and evaporation are bulk phenomena. K = °C + 273
(d) Boiling is a bulk phenomenon, but evaporation is a 2. Fahrenheit (°F)-
surface phenomenon.
°F=9/5(°C)+32
Factors effected the rate of evaporation –
Note-
• Increase in Surface area
-40 is the temperature which is same at both °C and °F
• Increase in temperature

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Absolute temperature (lowest possible temperature) = Latent Heat of fusion- temperature remains constant
- 273.15°C as solid turn into liquid. the amount of heat required to
convert 1 kg of given solid into liquid.
Room temperature = 25-27 °C
Latent heat of fusion of Ice is = 334 KJ (33.4 ×
Normal body temperature= 37°C
104 J/kg)
Q. Numerically two thermometers, one in Fahrenheit
Latent Heat of Vaporization- temperature remains
scale and another in Celsius scale shall read same at
constant as liquid turn into gas. The amount of heat
(a) −40∘ (b) 0∘ (c) −273∘ (d) 100∘
required t convert 1 kg of given liquid into gas.
Q. Which one of the following is the lowest possible
Latent heat of vaporization of H2O is =2260 KJ (2.25×
temperature?
106 J/kg)
(a) 0∘ Celsius (b) −073∘ Celsius (c) −173∘ Celsius
(d) −273∘ Celsius Q. The specific latent heat of vaporization of a
substance is the quantity of heat needed to change
Q. Evaporation from the surface of a given liquid takes
unit mass from
place more rapidly when
(a) liquid to vapour with a change of temperature
(a) the temperature is high and the surface area of the
(b) liquid to vapour without a change of temperature
liquid is large
(c) vapour to liquid without a change of temperature
(b) the temperature is low and the surface area of the
(d) vapour to liquid with a change of temperature
liquid is large
(c) the temperature is low and the surface area of the Q. A pressure cooker cooks food faster by
liquid is small (a) increasing the boiling point of water
(d) the temperature is high and the surface area of the (b) decreasing the boiling point of water
liquid is small (c) increasing the melting point of water
(d) decreasing the melting point of water
Q. The absolute zero temperature is 0 Kelvin. In ∘ C
unit, which one of the following is the absolute zero Diffusion- Diffusion is the movement of any substance
temperature? from a region of its higher concentration to a region of
(a) 0∘ C (b) −100∘ C (c) −273 ⋅ 15∘ C (d) −173.15∘ C lower concentration. It occurs in all directions.
Latent Heat Example – Addition of ink in water leads to the
coloring of the water.
latent heat, energy absorbed or released by a
substance during a change in its physical state (phase)
that occurs without changing its temperature.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. Bose-Einstein Condensate have

The latent heat Formula is as follows: (a) Very low kinetic energy

L = Q/M (b) Low kinetic energy

where, (c) High kinetic energy

L = a substance’s specific latent heat (d) Highest kinetic energy.

Q = quantity of heat 2. Which of the following is incorrect about plasma?

M = the substance’s mass

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(a) Fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs consist of 9. CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is:
plasma.
a) clean fuel b) rocket fuel c) CFCs
(b) The gas gets ionized when electrical energy flows
d) not a fuel
through it.
10. The factor responsible for converting one state of
(c) It consists of super-energetic and super-excited
matter into another:
particles.
a) change in temperature b) change in pressure
(d) The plasma glows with colour which does not
depend upon nature of gas. c) both a and b d) change in humidity
3. Kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional 11. The amount of heat energy that is required to
to convert 1 kg of liquid into a gas without any rise in
temperature is known as:
(a) Temperature (b) Pressure
a) melting point b) boiling point
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Atmospheric pressure
c) latent heat of fusion
4. The colour of vapours formed on sublimation of
iodine solid is d) latent heat of vaporization
(a) Purple (violet) (b) Colourless 12. The SI unit of atmospheric pressure:
(c) Yellow (d) Orange a) Pascal b) Newton c) Joule d) Calorie
5. CO2 can be easily liquefied and even solidified 13. What is the characteristic property of particles of
because matter regarding their arrangement?
(a) It has weak forces of attraction a) They have no arrangement
(b) It has comparatively more force of attraction than b) They are regularly arranged
other gases
c) They are randomly arranged
(c) It has more intermolecular space
d) They are closely arranged
(d) It is present in atmosphere.
14. Which of the following statements is incorrect
6. Which of the following has highest kinetic energy? about the state of matter?
(a) Particles of ice at 0 °C (a) The force of attraction between the gas particles is
very less.
(b) Particles of water at 0 °C
(b) Plasma consists of super energetic and super
(c) Particles of water at 100 °C
excited particles.
(d) Particles of steam at 100 °C
(c) The plasma glows with a special colour depending
7. During summer water kept in an earthen pot on the nature of the gas.
become cool because of the phenomenon of
(d) Bose-Einstein condensate is formed by heating gas
(a) Evaporation (b) Diffusion of extremely low density.
(c) Osmosis (d) Transpiration 15. When heat is constantly supplied by a burner to
boiling water, then the temperature of the water during
8. On converting 25°C, 30°C and 52°C to Kelvin scale,
vaporization?
the correct sequence of temperature will be
(a) Rises very slowly
(a) 298 K, 303 K, 352K (b) 296K, 303K, 325K
(b) Rises rapidly until steam is produced
(c) 298K, 303K, 325K (d) 289, 303K, 352K
(c) First rises and then becomes constant
(d) Does not rise at all

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16. Which of the following phenomena would increase 17. Which of the following conditions is most favorable
on rising temperature? for converting gas into liquid?
(a) Diffusion, evaporation, compression of gases (a) High pressure, low temperature
(b) Evaporation, compression of gases, solubility (b) Low pressure, low temperature
(c) Evaporation, diffusion, expansion of gases (c) Low pressure, high temperature
(d) Evaporation, solubility, diffusion, compression of (d) High pressure, high temperature
gases

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Chemical classification of matter

Pure substance Elements is made up of only one kind of atoms which

are identical in all respects like size, mass,
A pure substance consists of single type of particles
composition etc.
and all the constituent particles of that substance are
the same in their chemical nature. Examples- Iron, Aluminium, Copper, silver,
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus etc.
A substance or matter which can not be separated
into other kind of matter by any physical process Solid Elements- which are solid in room temperature

Example- Hydrogen gas, Diamond, copper wire, salt, Eg.- Iron, Copper, Silver, Gold, Aluminium etc.
sugar etc.
• Liquid Elements- which are liquid at room
temperature

Eg. – Mercury and Bromine

• Gaseous Elements- gaseous at room

temperature

Eg.- Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine etc.

Elements are further classified into 3 types-

Types of pure substance- 1. Metal

1. Elements- it is defined as the simplest and basic 2. Non- metal

form of a pure substance which can not be broken
3. metalloids
into simpler substances by chemical method.

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Q. Which of the following statements about diamond Reaction with air-

are correct ?
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
1 It is used as a gem in jewellery because of its
Eg.
ability to reflect light
1. 2Cu + O2 → 2CuO (Copper(II) oxide) (black oxide)
2 It is a good conductor of electricity
2. 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 (Aluminium oxide)
3 It is used for cutting glass, marble stones and
other hard materials Different metals show different reactivates towards
oxygen-
4 It is used for drilling of rocks
• Metals such as potassium and sodium react
Select the correct answer using the code given
so vigorously that they catch fire if kept in the
below:
open.
(a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 2,3 and 4
(c) 1,2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4 only • Magnesium, Aluminium, zinc, lead, etc., are
covered with a thin layer of oxide. layer
Metalloids- Materials that possess the properties of
prevents the metal from further oxidation.
both metals and non- metals are known as
metalloids. • Iron does not burn on heating but iron filings
burn vigorously when sprinkled in the flame of
Examples- Boron, germanium, silicon, antimony,
the burner.
arsenic, tellurium and pollanium.
• Copper does not burn, but the hot metal is
Amphoteric oxide- oxides which shows both acidic
coated with a black colored layer of copper(II)
as well as basic behavior to produce salts and water
oxide CuO
are called Amphoteric oxide
• Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even
Eg- ZnO, PbO, Cr2O3, Fe2O3 , Fe3O4 and Al2O3
at high temperatures.
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O

Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 (sodium aluminate) +

H2O

Q. Which of the following is/are amphoteric?

(a) Al(OH)3 ( s) and Fe(OH)3 ( s)
(b) Al(OH)3 ( s) and HCO−
3 (aq)

(c) Ba(OH)2 ( s) and NaOH(aq)

(d) Al(OH)3 (s) only

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS-

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Reaction with water- Q. A Kelvin thermometer and a Fahrenheit
thermometer both give the same reading for a certain
Metal + Water → Metal oxide + Hydrogen
sample. What would be the corresponding reading in
Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide a Celsius thermometer?

Eg.- Na+H2O → Na2O + H2 (exothermic reaction) (a) 574 (b) 301 (c) 273 (d) 232

+heat
Reaction of metal with Hydrogen
Na2O+ H2O → NaOH
Only Na, K, Mg, Ca etc. react with H2 to from metal
• Na and K react violently with cold water hydrides.
(exothermic Rxn)
2Na+ H2 → 2 NaH ( Sodium hydride)
• Ca react less violently, the heat evolved is not
suffient for the hydrogen to catch fire, so it Ca+ H2 → CaH2 (Calcium Hydride)/
starts floating because the bubbles of Hydrolith
hydrogen gas formed stick to the surface of
Q. Aluminium is more reactive than iron but
metal.
aluminium is less easily corroded than iron, because
Ca+ 3H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2 (a) oxygen forms a protective oxide layer

• Mg does not react with cold water it reacts (b) it is a noble metal

with hot water to form magnisium hydroxide (c) iron undergoes reaction easily with water

and hydrogen. it also starts floating because (d) iron forms ions

the bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick to

Q. Which one of the following elements exists in
the surface of metal.
liquid state at room temperature?
• Al, Fe and Zn do not react with either cold or (a) Mercury (b) Lead (c) Sodium (d) Calcium
hot water but react with steam to form the
Q. Which one of the following pairs of elements is
metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
liquid at room temperature and at normal pressure?
• Pb, Cu, Ag and Au do not react with water at (a) Gallium and Bromine (b) Mercury and Bromine
all. (c) Gallium and Mercury (d) Gallium and Caesium

Q. Which one of the following metals does NOT react

Q. Which one among the following metals is more
with cold water to liberate hydrogen gas?
reactive than hydrogen?
(a) Potassium (b) Iron (c) Calcium (d) Sodium
(a) Mercury (b) Copper (c) Silver (d) Tin

Q. Glass is a
Q. Which one among the following is the correct
(a) liquid (b) colloid
order of reactivity of the elements?
(c) non-crystalline amorphous solid (d) crystalline
(a) Cu > Mg > Zn > Na (b) Na > Zn > Mg > Cu
solid
(c) Cu > Zn > Mg > Na (d) Na > Mg > Zn > Cu

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Q. Which one of the following metals floats in cold Cu (s)+2AgNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq)+2 Ag(s)
water?
CuSO4+ Fe → FeSO4 + Cu
(a) Magnesium (b) Calcium
(c) Potassium (d) Copper

Reaction with acid (dil)-

Metal+ dil acid → Salt + Hydrogen

2Na+2HCl → NaCl+H2

Zn+H2SO4 →ZnSO4 + H2

Zn+ 2HCl → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 + Heat

Q. Iron nails are dipped into blue copper sulphate
Note- H2 gas is not evolved when metal reacts with
solution. After some time iron nails are :
Nitric acid because it is a strong oxidising agent and
(a) dissolved and blue colour is discharged.
oxide of H2 gas liberated in H2O and itself get
(b) dissolved but blue colour is not discharged.
reduce to some oxide of N2 like Nitrous oxide, Nitric
(c) not dissolved and blue colour is not discharged.
Oxide.
(d) not dissolved but blue colour is discharged.

Metal+ NHO3 → salt+ NO2/N2O + H2O

Q. Which one of the following metals does NOT react

Exception- Mg and Mn with cold water?

(a) Calcium (Ca) (b) Potassium (K)
Mg/Mn → salt + H2 (c) Magnesium (Mg) (d) Sodium (Na)

4Hg+10HNO3→4Mg(NO3)2+N2O+5H2O Chemical Properties of Non-Metals

Gold and Silver not react with dil acid. 1. Reaction with Water

Aqua Regia (Royal Water) → mixture of HCl and non-metal generally do not react with water to
HNO3 in the ratio of 3:1 produce H2 gas because the non- metal can not
reduce the hydrogen ions of water to H2 gas. Except
It is highly corrosive, fuming liquid and dissolve Gold
highly reactive non- metal
and Silver.
2F2 (g) + 2 H2O → 4HF+ O2
Reaction of metal with solution of other metal
Cl2+H2O⇔ HCl +O2
Reactive metals can displace less reactive metals
from their compounds in solution or molten form. Note- The reactivity of non-metals decreases down
the group due to increases in the number of valence
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A +
shells
Metal B

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2. Reaction with Acids • Since non metals gain electrons to form a
completely filled outermost shell, the reactivity
non-metals does not react with dil. acids because
decreases
they act as electron acceptor and can’t supply to H+
ions of acid to reduce them to hydrogen gas. Among halogen family (i.e. Cl, Br, I and F ) the most
reactive is chlorine (Cl). The order of reactivity is Cl >
But on heating form oxides or salt with conc. acids
𝐵𝑟 > 𝐼. Thus chlorine can displace Br and I from

S(s) + 2H2SO4 (conc.) → 3 SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) solutions of bromides (NaBr) and Iodides (NaI).

3. Reaction with Bases Reaction between metals and non- metals formation
of Ionic bond
Many non-metals react with bases to form salts.
Ionic bond- Ionic bonds occur between metals, losing
4. Reaction with oxygen- electrons, and nonmetals, gaining electrons (Ionic
bonds are formed because of transfer of electrons
Non-metal + O2 → non metalic oxide / Acid oxide
from metal to non-metal). Ions with opposite charges
S + O2 → SO2 will attract one another creating an ionic bond.

SO2+H2O → H2SO3 (sulphurous acid)

C + O → CO2

CO2+ H2O →H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)

Q. Hydrogen is evolved by the action of cold dil

HNO3 on?

(A) Fe (B) Cu (C) Mn (D) Al

Properties of Ionic Compounds
Reactivity of Non- Metal
• Ionic compounds are solid. Ionic bond has a
As we go down a group the reactivity of non-metals greater force of attraction because of which
decrease because- ions attract each other strongly. This makes
ionic compounds solid.
• The number of valence shells increases
• Ionic compounds are brittle.
• The force with which the nucleus holds the
electrons decreases • Ionic compounds have high melting and
boiling points.
• Thus the tendency to lose electrons increases
• Ionic compounds generally dissolve in water.

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• Ionic compounds are generally insoluble in • Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in
organic solvents; like kerosene, petrol, etc. the solid state but conduct electricity in liquid
and molten state

Calcination Roasting

(i) It is done for carbonate ores. (i) It is done for sulphide ores.

(ii) Carbonates ores heated in (ii) Sulphide ores are heated in

absence of oxygen Presence of oxygen.

(iii) The CO2 gas is released (iii) SO2 gas is released and Metal

and Metal oxide is obtained. oxide is obtained.

ZnCO3(s) heat → ZnO(s) + CO2(g) 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) heat → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)

For the metals of middle reactivity

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Reducing agent- carbon , The highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium, aluminium, etc., are used
as reducing agents because they can displace metals of lower reactivity from their compounds

Example- when manganese dioxide is heated with aluminium powder

3MnO2 (s) + 4Al(s) → 3Mn(l) + 2Al 2 O3(s) + Heat

Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(l) + Al 2O3(s) + Heat ( Thermit reaction)

• Metals low in the activity series are very unreactive. The oxides of these metals can be reduced to
metals by heating alone.

Example- cinnabar (HgS) is an ore of mercury. When it is heated in air, it is first converted into mercuric
oxide (HgO). Mercuric oxide is then reduced to mercury on further heating

2HgS(s) + 3O2 (g)→ 2HgO(s) + 2SO2 (g)

2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O2 (g)

• The metals high up in the reactivity series are very reactive. They cannot be obtained from their
compounds by heating with carbon because these metals have more affinity for oxygen than carbon.
These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction

metals are deposited at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode), whereas, chlorine is liberated at the
anode (the positively charged electrode). The reactions are –

At cathode Na+ + e– → Na

At anode 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–

Electrolytic refining of metals-

Anode- impure copper

Cathode- strip of pure copper

Electrolyte- solution of acidified sulphate

On passing the current through electrolyte, the impure metal from anode dissolve into the electrolyte

An equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte is deposited at cathode

The insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of the anode and is called anode mud.

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Refining of Metals 2. Distillation Method- Method used for volatile

metal (which vaporized easily) , Example- Zinc,
The process of purifying the crude metal is called
Cadmium, and Mercury.
refining.
3. Oxidation Method- This method is used for the
1. Liquation Method- the metals which have low
refining of metal in those cases in which the
melting point and fusible easily
impurities have greater tendency to get oxidized than

Example- Tin, Lead and Bismuth. metal itself

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Examples- Fe, Cu and Ag to remove impurities like apparatus and cartridges. Both brass and bronze are
C, P, Si, S etc. copper containing alloys, yet they differ in their
chemical composition for additionally containing :
Thermal decomposition- In this metal is converted
(a) Zine in brass and tin in bronze.
into suitable volatile compound which is decomposed
(b) Chromium in brass and nickel in bronze.
at high temperature to give pure metal.
(c) Nickel in brass and tin in bronze.
60−80℃ 180℃ (d) Iron in brass and nickel in bronze.
Example- Impure Nickle+ 4CO → Ni(CO)4→
Ni + 4CO Q. Metalloids are
(a) alloys of alkali metals with other metals.
Alloys- Homogeneous mixture of two or more metals
(b) colloids of metals.
and non- metals.
(c) elements having some properties of both metals

Types of alloyes- and non-metals.

(d) metals heavier than lead.
1. Ferrous alloyes- Alloys in which Iron is present as
one of the constituent Corrosion- metals get corroded when they are
exposed to moist air for long period of time
Example- manganese steel (Fe- 86%, Mn- 13% and
C- 1%) Example-

Nickel steel (Fe- 96- 97% and Ni- 3-4%) 1. Silver become black when exposed to air, it
reacts to air form a coating of silver sulphide.
Stainless steel- Iron+ Nickel+ chromium
2. Cu reacts with moist CO2 and gains a green
2. Non- Ferrous alloys- alloys which does not coat of cupper carbonate
contain iron
3. Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time
Example- Brass (Cu- 80% and Zn- 20%) acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance
called rust.
Bronze- (Cu- 88% Sn- 12%)

Rusting- 4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O → Fe2O3 (s)+

Solder- (Pb-50% Sn-50%)
2Fe(OH)3 (aq)
3. Amalgam- contain mercury as one of the
Formula of rust- Fe2O3.XH2O
constituent

Prevention- painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising,

Example- Zn amalgam (Zn(Hg))
chrome plating, anodising or making alloys.
Sodium amalgam Na (Hg)
Galvanisation is a method of protecting steel and iron
Q. Bronze is often used to make statues and medals from rusting by coating them with a thin layer of zinc
whereas brass is used in making utensils, scientific

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Q. On exposure to moist air, copper gains a green 5. Which of the following are not ionic compounds?
coat on its surface due to formation of which one of
1. KCl 2. HCl 3. CCl4 4. NaCl
the following compounds?
(a) Copper carbonate (b) Copper oxide Code-

(c) Copper sulphate (d) Copper nitrate (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

Q. Silver ware turns black after a period of time due 6. The highly reactive metals like Sodium, Potasium,
to formation of : Magnesium are extracted by the?

(a) nitrate coating on silver. a) Electrolysis of their molten chloride

(b) sulphide coating on silver.
b) Electrolysis of their molten oxides
(c) chloride coating on silver.
(d) oxide coating on silver. c) Reduction by aluminium

d) Reduction by carbon
Practice questions
7. Oxides of moderately reactive metals like Zinc,
1. Which of the following pairs will give displacement Iron, Nickel, Tin, Copper etc. are reduced by using
reactions?
(a) Aluminium as reducing agent
(a) NaCl solution and copper metal
(b) Sodium as reducing agent

(b) MgCl2 solution and aluminium metal (c) Carbon as reducing agent

(c) FeSO4 solution and silver metal (d) Calcium as reducing agent

8. In thermite welding a mixture of …… and …… is

(d) AgNO3 solution and copper metal.
ignited with a burning magnesium ribbon which
produces molten iron metal as large amount of heat
2. An element reacts with oxygen to give a compound
is evolved.
with a high melting point. This compound is also (a) iron (III) oxide and aluminium powder
soluble in water. The element is likely to be (b) iron (II) oxide and aluminium powder
(c) iron (III) chloride and aluminium powder
(a) calcium (b) carbon (c) silicon (d) iron. (d) iron (III) sulphate and aluminium powder

9. Galvanisation is a method of protecting iron from

3. The poorest conductor of heat among metal is?
rusting by coating with a thin layer of
(a) Galium (b) Aluminium (c) Zinc (d) Silver
(a) Mercury (b) Calcium (c) Sodium (d) lead

4. Which of the following oxide (s) of iron would be

obtained on prolonged reaction of iron with steam?

(a) FeO (b) Fe2O3 (c) Fe3O4

(d) Fe2O3 and Fe2O4

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 19

 CHEMISTRY
Compounds and its types A compound is made up of different elements
combined in a fixed ratio by mass.
Compounds are pure substance that composed of two
or more different elements in fixed proportion by mass A compound is homogeneous in nature.
the properties of a compound are entirely different
from those of the elements from which it is made. The properties of a compound are different from its
constituent elements.
Example- water, Sugar, alcohol, salt etc
A compound is formed by the chemical reaction
Types- between two elements.
Organic Compound- which obtained from living The constituents in a compound cannot be separated
sources (Hydrocarbons and derivatives) eg.- by physical or mechanical means.
Carbohydrates, Proteins, oils, Fat etc
Compounds have fixed melting and boiling point.
Inorganic compounds- which obtained from non- living
Mixture- combination of more than one kind of pure
sources such as rocks and minerals eg.- common
substances in any ratio.
salt, Marbles, washing soda etc
Properties of compound

Types of mixture-

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 20

 CHEMISTRY

Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole. This
happens due to the scattering of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air

Q. Which among the following is NOT true with Depending upon the amount of solute present in a
respect to colloidal solution? solution

(a) Particles are uniformly distributed throughout the The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given amount (mass or volume) of
solution
solution, or the amount of solute dissolved in a given
(b) Colloidal solution is homogenous in nature mass or volume of solvent
(c) They show Tyndal effect Concentration of solution =
(d) They do not settle down when kept undisturbed
Amount of solute/ Amount of solution
Q. Which one of the following is not a solution? (i) Mass by mass percentage of a solution =
(a) Alloy (b) Milk (c) Air (d) Sugar mass of solute
mass of solution
× 100
Q. Which one of the following is a heterogeneous (ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution=
mixture?
mass of solute
(a) Hydrochloric acid (b) Vinegar (c) Milk × 100
volume of solution
(d) Soda water
CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION-
“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 21
 CHEMISTRY
Q. 20 g of common salt is dissolved in 180 g of water. (a) 12.5 (b) 11.5 (c) 12.1 (d) 11.1
What is the mass percentage of the salt in the
Q. 36 g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 100 g of
solution?
water at 293 K so what will be the concentration of
(a) 5% (b) 9% (c) 10% (d) 15%
solution?
Q. A solution contains 40 g of common salt in 320 g of
(a) 36 gm (b) 27.6 gm (c) 26.5 gm (d) 14.5 gm
water. Calculate the concentration in terms of mass by
mass percentage of the solution.?

Separating the Components Separating the Example- salt and water from sea water, Evaporation
Components of a Mixture of a Mixture of water in summer from ponds and lakes
1. Filtration- difference in the physical properties of 6. Crystallization- to obtain a pure solid substance
particles like size from impure substance.
Example- sand and water 7. Distillation- to separate two miscible liquid have
difference in boiling points.
2. Magnetic separation- to separate magnetic
particles with non magnetic particles Example- Acetone and water
Example- sand and Fe filling 8. Fractional Distillation- to separate two miscible
liquid if the difference of boiling point is less
3. Sublimation- to separate sublimatory (voltile) and
non- sublimatory (impurities like salt) particles. Example- Acetone ( 56℃) and Ethanol (78℃)
Example- ammonium chloride, camphor, naphthalene Separation of petrol, diesel, kerosene, heavy oil etc.
and anthracene from the crude oil. xx
4. Separating Funnel- to separate to immiscible 9. Chromatography- to separate solution that can
liquids have difference in densities dissolve in same solvent but solubility difference.
Example- oil and water, kerosene and water Example- separating color component dyes, drug
from blood etc.
5. Evaporation- to separated non volatile and volatile
substance.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 22

 CHEMISTRY
10. Centrifugation- to separate the suspended
particles of a substance from liquid in which the
mixture is rotated at high speed in a centrifuge.
Example- Separation of cream from milk
Composition of blood (Plasma, RBC,WBC, Platelets.
), to dry clothes in washing machine.
Q. Kerosene and petrol mixture can be best
separated by
(a) Sublimation (b) Separating funnel
(c) Fractional distillation
(d) Compressing and cooling
Q. Match List I with List II and select the correct
answer using the code given below the Lists :

Q. Refining of petroleum is carried out using which

one of the following techniques?
(a) Evaporation (b) Fractional distillation
(c) Separating funnel (d) Sublimation

Physical and chemical changes

Note- There is no loss and no gain in mass of reactant (a) Boiling of water
and product in a chemical reaction.
(b) Rusting of Iron
Note- On burning candle, wax melts which is
(c) Mixing of coffee in milk
a physical change. Also, the wax near the flame burns
and gives CO2, sooty light and heat which is a (d) Burning of magnesium ribbon in air
chemical change. Hence, burning of candle is a
physical as well as chemical change. (e) Burning of coal

Q. Which of the following is example of physical (f) Crystallization of copper sulphate

change and which one is chemical change. (g) Boiling of egg.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 23

 CHEMISTRY
Q. Which one of the following is a chemical change? required for this are :
(a) Dissolving sugar in water (b) Melting of ice (a) Sublimation-dissolution-filtrationcrystallization
(b) Dissolution-filtration-crystallizationdistillation
(c) Crystallization (d) Milk turning sour (c) Sublimation-evaporation-dissolutiondecomposition
(d) Dissolution-distillation-decompositionevaporation
Q. Which one of the following is a chemical change?
Q. Which one among the following statements
(a) Cutting of hair (b) Graying of hair naturally
regarding the properties of mixtures and compounds
(c) Swelling of resin in water is not correct?
(d) Cutting of fruit (a) A mixture shows the properties of its constituents
but the properties of a compound are entirely different
Q. Which one of the following mixtures is from its constituents
homogeneous? (b) A mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous
(a) Starch and sugar (b) Methanol and water but a compound is a homogeneous substance
(c) Graphite and charcoal (c) The constituents of a mixture can be separated by
(d) Calcium carbonate and calcium bicarbonate physical methods but those of a compound can not be
separated by physical method
Q. Which among the following is a chemical change? (d) Energy is either absorbed or evolved during the
(a) A wet towel dries in the sun preparation of a mixture but not in the preparation of a
(b) Lemon juice added to tea causing its colour to compound
change
(c) Hot air rises over a radiator Q. Statement I :
(d) 'Coffee is brewed by passing steam through Conversion of blue copper sulphate to black cupric
ground coffee oxide on heating is a physical change.

Q. A mixture containing SiO2 , NaCl and NH4 Cl is taken Statement II :

for separating the constituents. The suitable steps A change in which chemical composition does not
change is called physical change.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 24

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
Acids- the term derived from the Latin word “ acidus” Litmus- Litmus is obtained from lichens. The solution
meaning sour taste. of litmus is purple in color. Litmus paper comes in two
colors- blue and red.
• Sour in taste
An acid turns blue litmus paper red.
• Turn blue litmus to red
A base turns red litmus paper blue.
• Acid corrode metals
Turmeric- Turmeric is yellow in colour.
• According to Arrhenious theory an acid gives
𝐻 + ions in aq. solution Turmeric solution or paper turns reddish brown with
base.
HCl (aq)→ 𝐻 + (aq) + 𝐶𝑙 −
Turmeric does not change color with acid.
Example- lemon, vinegar, H2SO4, HCl, Acetone etc.
Red Cabbage: The juice of red cabbage is originally
Note- Sulphuric acid was the first mineral acid to be
purple in colour.
discovered.
Juice of red cabbage turns reddish with acid and
Basic-
turns greenish with base.
• these are bitter in taste and soapy in touch
2. Olfactory Indicator: Substances which change
• Turn Red litmus to blue their smell when mixed with acid or base are known
as Olfactory Indicators. For example; Onion, vanilla,
• According to Arrhenious theory an base gives
clove oil etc.
𝑂𝐻 − ions in aq. Solution
Onion- Paste or juice of onion loses its smell when
+ −
NaOH (aq)→ Na + OH added with base. It does not change its smell with

Example- NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2 etc acid.

Vanilla- The smell of vanilla vanishes with base, but
Alkali-
its smell does not vanish with an acid.
These are bases which are soluble or dissolve in Clove oil- smell with acid, no smell with base.
water or water soluble bases are called Alkali
3. Synthetic Indicator- Indicators that are
They are soapy to touch, bitter, and corrosive synthesized in the laboratory are known as Synthetic
Indicators. For example; Phenolphthalein, methyl
Example- NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
orange, etc.
Indicators: Indicators are substances which indicate Phenolphthalein is a colorless liquid.
the acidic or basic nature of the solution by the color
It remains colorless with acid but turns into pink with
change.
a base.
1. Natural Indicators: Indicators obtained from Methyl orange is originally orange in color.
natural sources are called Natural Indicators. Litmus,
It turns into the red with acid and turns into yellow
turmeric, red cabbage, China rose, etc., are some
with base.
common natural indicators used widely to show the
acidic or basic character of substances.
“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 25
 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

Q. Bases turn red litmus blue and acids turn blue Types of Acids
litmus red. A student tested a liquid with a red litmus
Mineral acid (Inorganic acid)- the acid usually
paper and it stayed red with no change. This shows
obtained from minerals.
that the liquid
(a) must be pure water. (b) must be an acid Example:
(c) is not a base • Hydrochloric acid (HCl)- uses- textile industry,
(d) is neither a base nor an acid purification of salt
Q. Which one of the following was the first mineral • Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)- uses- car batteries,
acid discovered? fertilizers, dehydrating agent
(a) Sulphuric acid (b) Hydrochloric acid
• Nitric acid (HNO3)- uses- artificial silk,
(c) Nitric acid (d) Phosphoric acid
petroleum refining, explosive, fertilizers
Q. Which one of the following is the correct sequence
• Carbonic acid (H2CO3)- uses- soft drinks and
of change in colours when a turmeric stain on white
fizz
clothes is scrubbed by soap and then washed with
water? • Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) – uses- paint and
(a) Yellow - pink - blue fertilizers.
(b) Yellow - reddish brown - yellow
Note- Boric Acid (H3BO3) are used in eye wash it is
(c) Yellow - reddish brown-blue
aprotic lewis acid
(d) Yellow - blue – pink

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 26

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
• Natural acid (organic acid)- the acid usually 3. Tribasic Acid- the acid on complete ionization
obtained from plants and animals produce three hydronium ion in aqueous solution.

Example- Formic Acid (HCOOH), Tartaric acid, citric Example-

acid, Benzoic acid, acetic acid etc.
H3PO4+3H2O → 3H3O+ +PO43−

1. Mono acidic Base- the base or alkali on

complete ionization produce hydroxyl ion in aqueous
solution.

Example- NaOH → 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑂𝐻 −

2. Diacidic Base- the base or alkali on complete

ionization produce hydroxyl ion in aqueous solution.
Example- Ferrous Hydroxide Fe(OH)2 ,Cu (OH)2,
Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 etc.
Q. Vinegar is also known as
(a) ethanoic acid (b) nitric acid Ca(OH)2 (aq) → Ca2+ + 2OH−

(c) sulphuric acid (d) tartaric acid 3. Tri acidic Bases- the base or alkali on complete

Classification of acid and base- ionization produces three hydroxyl ion in aqueous

On the bases of basicity solution. Example- Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3,

Ferric Hydroxide Fe(OH)3
Basicity of an acid determined by number of
hydronium ions (𝐻3𝑂+ /𝐻 + (aq) produced per Al(OH)3 → Al3+ + 3OH −

molecule of an acid in ionization. Or no of Q. Which one of the following is a tribasic acid?

replaceable H+ ion (a) Hydrochloric acid (b) Nitric acid

1. Monobasic Acids- the acid on complete ionization (c) Sulphuric acid (d) Phosphoric acid

produce one hydronium ion in aqueous solution. Q. Which of the following is a base and not an alkali?

Example- HCl, HBr, HNO3,HCOOH etc (a) Sodium Oxide (b) Copper hydroxide

HCL+H2O → 𝐻3𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − (c) Sodium Hydroxide (d) Calcium Hydroxide

CH3COOH+ H2O → H3O+ + CH3COO − On the bases of strength-

−
HNO3 + H2O → H3O+ +NO3 1. Strong Acid- the acid which goes complete
ionization in aq. Solution is known as strong acids.
2. Dibasic acid - the acid on complete ionization
Examples- Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric
produce two hydronium ion in aqueous solution.
acid, HBr, HI, HClO4.
Example- Sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, oxalic acid
HCl+H2O → H + +Cl−
H2SO4+H2O → H3O+ +HSO4 − (step-1)
H2SO4+H20 → 2H + + SO42−
HSO4 − +H2O → H3O+ +SO4 − (Step- 2)

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 27

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
2. Weak Acid- the acid undergoes partial or NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH − (aq)
incomplete ionization in aq. Solution is known as
4. Weak base- A base which is partially ionized in
weak acid.
water and produces a small amount of hydroxide
Examples- formic acid, oxalic, carbonic acid etc. ions.

CH3COOH + H2O → CH3COO −+ H + Example- NH4OH

3. Strong base- A base which completely ionization NH4OH (aq) → NH4+ + OH −

in water and produces a large amount of hydroxide
Order of acidic strength
ions.
HI>HBr>HCl>HF
Example- NaOH, KOH, all hydroxide of group 1 and
group 2 except Be HClO4> HClO3> HClO2> HClO

Classification on the bases of concentration of Acid 4. Dilute base- In these types of Bases
and Base- concentration of Base is relatively lower in their
aqueous solution.
Concentration Acid- the acid which contains very
small amount of water Example- Dil. NaOH, dil. KOH etc.

Example- HCl, H2SO4 Note- Strength of an acid is not depends upon the
concentration of an acid
Concentrated Base- In these types of Bases
concentration of Base is higher in the solution. 1. The acid used to wash the eyes is?

Example- NaOH, KOH (a) Carbonic acid (b) Boric acid

3. Dilute Acid- Acid which contain more water (c) Benzoic acid (d) Acetic acid

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 28

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
2. Tomato is a natural source of which acid? HCl (acid)+ H2O (base) → H3O+ (con acid)+ Cl− (con
base)
(a) Acetic acid (b) Citric acid
Lewis Acid and Base concept (electron theory)-
(c) Tartaric acid (d) Oxalic acid
• Acids are electron acceptor (All positive
3. Which of the following is not a mineral acid?
charge 0r incomplete octet)
(a) Hydrochloric acid (b) Citric acid
Example- BCl3 , AlCl3, BF6
(c) Sulphuric acid (d) Nitric acid
• Bases are electron donor (All negative charge
4. Which of the following acids is present in red ants? or have lone pair)

a) Malic b) Formic c) Tannic d) Oxalic Example- NH3, H2O

Bronsted- Lowry concept of Acid and Base-

Acid- An acid is any molecule or ion that can donate

a proton (H+)

Base- A base is any molecule or ion that can accept

a proton.
Acid and Bases reaction with metal
HCl → 𝐻 + + Cl−
Acid with Metal-
NH3+ 𝐻 + → NH4
Acid+ metal→ Salt+ H2
HCl + NH3 → NH4+ + Cl−
HCl+ Zn → ZnCl2+H2↑
𝑁𝐻4+ + Cl− → HCl + NH3
H2SO4+Zn → ZnSO4+ H2 ↑
Thus there are two acid base pair in the above
reaction – Base with Metal-

(NH4+ and NH3 OR Cl- and HCl ) this acid base Base+ Metal → Salt+H2
pairs are called conjugated acid base pairs.
2NaOH+ Zn → Na2ZnO2 (s)+ H2
Conjugate Acid Base pairs-
Note- All bases do not react with metal.
Acid – conjugate base + H +
Acids with Carbonates and Metal Hydrogen
+ −
HCl → H + Cl carbonates

CH3C00H (acid) + H2O (base) → CH3COO−( con Acid + Carbonate/ Hydrogen carbonate →
base) + H3O+ salt+ CO2 + H2O

When acid reacts with water hydronium ion are Na2CO3+ 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
produced. H+ ion can not exist by themselves.
NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) → NaCl + H2O +
CO2

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 29

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
On passing the carbon dioxide gas evolved and water are formed.
through lime water Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Ca(OH)2+ CO2 → CaCO3 (milky white ppt)+ H2O HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

On passing excess carbon dioxide the white color will Strength of Acid and Base: Acids in which complete
be disappear dissociation of hydrogen ion takes place are called
Strong Acids. Similarly, bases in which complete
CaCO3 + H2O+ O2 → Ca(HCO)3 (calcium
dissociation of hydroxide ion takes place are called
hydrogen carbonate)
Strong Bases.
Limestone, chalk and marble are different forms of
Universal indicator-
calcium carbonate.
pH Scale- A scale for measuring hydrogen ion
Reaction with metallic oxide-
concentration in a solution, called pH scale. On the
Metal oxide + acid → salt + H2O pH scale we can measure pH generally from 0 (very

(metal oxides are basic in nature) acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).

CaO + HCl → CaCl2 + H2O Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the
pH value. The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values
Non metal oxide + base → Salt + H2O
less than 7 on the pH scale represent an acidic
(Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature) solution. As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it
represents an increase in OH– ion concentration in
NaOH + SO2 → Na2SO4 + H2O
the solution, that is, increase in the strength of alkali
Neutralisation Reaction: An acid neutralizes a base
when they react with each other and respective salt

For water or neutral solutions : pH = 7 Most of the biological reaction taking place in our
For acidic solutions : pH < 7 body are in narrow pH range of 7 to 7.8. even a small
For basic solution : pH > 7 change in pH can hamper the process.

Importance of pH- Blood pH – 7.4 ( if it drops below 7.35 is known as

acidosis, if pH rises above 7.45 it is called alkalosis)
pH in animals and Plant-
Acid Rain- when pH of rain water goes below 5.6

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 30

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
PH of soil- 7 , but due to presence of calcium
superphosphate as fertilizer in soil the pH of soil
became more than 7

pH in our digestive system- Dilute HCl (pH-1.2) helps

in digestion of food (proteins) in our stomach. Excess
acid in stomach causes acidity (indigestion). Antacids
like magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] also known as
milk of magnesia (pH-10) and sodium hydrogen
carbonate (baking soda pH 8.5) are used to
neutralize excess acid.

Tooth decay caused by acids- The bacteria present in

our mouth converts the sugar into acids. When the
pH of acid formed in the mouth falls below 5.5, tooth-
decaying starts.

pH of Saliva - 6.2- 7.6 (6.7 average) Q. The concentration of HCl in acidic a given solution

pH of lemon juice- 2.2 is 10−8 M. what is the value of pH for this solution?

pH of NaOH- 14 (a) 7 (b) More than 7 (c) Less than 7 (d) 14

−3
Note- pH of solution may be defined as the negative Q. Find pH value of 10 M NaOH?
logarithm of the concentration (in mole per liter) of Salt- an ionic compounds formed by neutralization
hydrogen ions which it contains or pH of solution is reaction.
the logarithm of the reciprocal of H+ ion
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
concentration.

1 Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral

pH= log (𝐻+
with pH value of 7. On the other hand, salts of a

Just pH indicates the hydrogen ion concentration the strong acid and weak base are acidic with pH value
pOH represents the hydroxyl ions concentration less than 7 and those of a strong base and weak acid
are basic in nature, with pH value more than 7.
pOH = -log (OH-)
Characteristics of salts-

• Most of the salts are crystalline solid with

ordered packing arrangement called lattice.

• Have high M.P and B.P

• Salts may be transparent or opaque.

• Most of the salts are soluble in water but

some salt like all carbonates (CO3),

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 31

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
hydroxide (OH) and Oxide (o) with exception Chemical properties-
of Na, K, and Ammonium salt,Lead
1. Reaction with H2SO4-
carbonate, sulphate and chloride are also
insoluble salt. H2SO4+ 2NaCl → Na2SO4 + 2HCl

• Solution of the salts conducts electricity in 2. Electrolysis-

their molten state also. 2NaCl + 2 H2O → 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
• The salt may be salty, sour, sweet, bitter
Uses-
• Neutral salts are odorless and brittle.
1. It is use in daily food.
• Salts can be colorless or colored.
2. It is used as preservative.
Types of salt-
3. It is used in manufacture of baking soda,
1) Neutral Salt- Salts produced because of washing by Solvay process, making glass,
reaction between a strong acid and strong pottery, textile dry and soap.
base are neutral in nature. The pH value of
4. It is used in large amounts melt ice and snow
such salts is equal to 7 i.e. neutral salt.
streets highways. It is used as raw material
Example- sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, for production of Cl₂, Metal by electrolysis in
potassium chloride. molten state.

2) Acidic Salts- Salts which are formed after the Sodium Hydroxide- (NaOH) (Caustic soda)
reaction between a strong acid and weak base are
Sodium hydroxide is most important alkali and is
called Acidic salts. The pH value of acidic salt is
made commercially by the electrolysis of saturated
lower than 7.
brine solution (NaCl).
For example Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium
2NaCl (aq) ( brine) + H2O → 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2
chloride, etc.
This process is known as Chlor- alkali process due to
3) Basic Salts: Salts which are formed after the
formation of chlorine and NaOH as the product. The
reaction between a weak acid and strong base are
used apparatus used is called Caster and kellner cell.
called Basic Salts. pH greater than 7
Properties of Sodium Hydroxide-
For example: Sodium carbonate, Sodium acetate,
etc. 1. Highly soluble in water and the solution has a
very corrosive action on animal tissue.
Some Important chemical compound-
2. On prolonged exposure, CO2 is absorbed
Common salt/ Table salt ( Sodium chloride (NaCl))-
resulting in the formation of a layer of
1. Obtained from sea water by the process of Na2CO3 on the surface.
evaporation.
3. deliquescent in nature.
2. Obtained from underground deposits

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 32

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
Water of crystallization- it is fixed no. of water
molecules present in crystalline salt.

Eg;

CuSO4.5H2O- Blue vitriol

FeSO4. 7H2O- green vitriol

ZnSO4.7H2O- white vitriol

Washing Soda ( Na2CO3.10H2O)-
CaSO4.2H2O- Gypsum
It is sodium carbonate containing 10 molecules of
MgSO4.7H2O- Epsom salt
water of crystallization. Sodium carbonate does not
contain any water molecule of crystallization is known Na2SO4.10H2O- Glauber’s Salt
as soda ash (Na2CO3) Baking soda (NaHCO3)- Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Manufacturing- solvay process ( ammonia- soda / sodium bicarbonate

process) NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 → NH4Cl + NaHCO3

Material required- Sodium chloride, ammonia, Uses-

limestone.
1. As Antacid to neutralize the acidity
On exposure to air the crystals of dehydrate lose
2. Used for making baking powder (sodium
water and become white opaque powder of sodium
bicarbonate + Tartaric acid), drinks
carbonate monohydrate (Na2CO3.H2O)
3. Used in fire extinguishers ( solution
Sodium carbonate is used in-
NaHCO3+ H2SO4)
1. the manufacture of glass, soap and paper.
NaHCO3 + H2SO4 → Na2so4 + 2H2O + 2
2. Sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of CO2
sodium compounds such as caustic soda, sodium
Bleaching powder (CaOCl2)- calcium oxychloride
phosphate and borax.
Manufacturing- Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
3. Sodium carbonate is used in the laboratory as
reagent. It is used as a standard base in acid-base It gradually loses its chlorine when left exposed to air.
titrations, to standardize acid solutions.
CaOCl2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + Cl2
4. Sodium carbonate used for removing permanent
Uses-
hardness of water.
1. Disinfection of drinking water
5. Sodium carbonate is used as a domestic cleaning
agent 2. Oxidizing agent

6. Sodium carbonate is used in textile and petroleum 3. Bleaching agent

refining.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 33

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
Plaster of Paris ( CaSO4. ½ H2O)- Calcium sulphate Bleaching powder (CaoCl2)
hemihydrate
Q. Neutral water with pH about 7 becomes slightly
Preparation- acidic when aerated. This is because :
(a) oxygen from air is dissolved in the water which
When Gypsum is heated to 373 k, it loses three
makes the water acidic
fourth of its water of crystallization forming plaster of
(b) dirt, which get contaminated with the water during
paris.
aeration makes the water acidic
CaSO4.H2O → CaSO4.1/2 H2O+ 112 H2O (c) ultraviolet radiation dissociates water molecules

When it is heated at 573k it forms anhydrous calcium and makes water acidic
sulphate which is known as dead plaster. It has no (d) carbon-dioxide from air is dissolved

setting property. It does not convert back to gypsum. Q. Which among the following statements with regard

Q. When aqueous solutions of two salts are mixed, to pH scale is/are correct?

the third salt formed may appear as a solid 1. It is a logarithmic scale

precipitates or a clear solution depending upon the
2. The scale is limited to 0 − 14 because the ionic
solubility of its ions. It is observed that all salts of
product of water is about 10−14
Na, K, NH4 are soluble. All nitrates and bicarbonates
are also soluble. All halides (chlorides, bromides, 3. The lower the value of pH the greater is the acidity
iodides) are soluble except those of Ag, Hg(I) and Pb. of the solution
All sulphates are soluble except those of Ag, Ca, Ba
Select the correct answer using the code given below
and Pb. Which one among the following combinations
:
of solutions will produce a solid precipitate?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 only
(a) Sodium sulphate and barium chloride
(d) 2 only
(b) Magnesium sulphate and barium bicarbonate
(c) Lithium iodide and barium chloride Q. Sometimes, indigestion is caused by the secretion

(d) Ammonium sulphate and potassium bromide of too much hydrochloric acid in the stomach. To
ease the pain caused, a tablet can be taken that
Double salt- the salt which are obtained by the
reacts to reduce the amount of acid present. Which
crystallization of two simple salt, from a mixture of
one among the following would be inappropriate for a
their saturated salt solution.
manufacturer to include as a major reactant in the
K2SO4 + Al2 (SO4)3 + 24 H2O → tablet?
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)2.24H2O (potash alum) (a) CaCO3 (b) MgCO3 (c) NaOH (d) Mg(OH)2

Mohr’s salt- FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O Q. Which one among the following is the correct
order of strength of acids ?
Dolomite- CaCO3.MgCO3
(a) H2 SO4 > H3 PO3 > CH3 COOH
Mixed salt- the salt containing more than one cations (b) H PO > H SO > CH COOH
3 3 2 4 3
or anions other than 𝐻 + or 𝑂𝐻 − ions (c) CH COOH > H PO > H SO
3 3 3 2 4

Eg. Sodium potassium carbonate (NaKCO3) (d) CH3 COOH > H2 SO4 > H3 PO3

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 34

 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
Q. The pH of the solution obtained by dissolving pure Q. Match List I with List II and select the correct
sodium chloride in water is answer using the code given below the Lists :
(a) acidic (b) basic (c) neutral
(d) dependent on the amount of sodium chloride
dissolved in water

Q. Turmeric (Haldi) rapidly becomes colourl on

addition of
(a) Baking soda (b) Vinegar
(c) Lemon juice (d) Alcohol

Q. Statement I :
Code:
Very little hydrogen is produced when sulphuric acid
A B C D
is added to calcium.
(a) 2 3 4 1
Statement II :
(b) 2 4 3 1
The salt that is produced, calcium sulphate, is
(c) 1 4 3 2
insoluble.
(d) 1 3 4 2
Q. The pH value of Milk of Magnesia is approximately
Q. Boric acid is an acid because its molecule:
(a) Zero (b) 7 (c) 10 (d) 14
(a) accepts OH − from water releasing proton
Q. Which one of the following methods can be used (b) combines with proton from water molecule
to separate anthracene from a mixture of salt and (c) contains replaceable H + ion
anthracene? (d) gives up a proton
(a) Distillation (b) Sublimation
Q. Statement I: Metal ions are Lewis acids.
(c) Evaporation (d) Chromatography
Statement II : Metal ions are electron pair acceptors.
Q. What is the number of water molecules present in
Q. Statement I: After cutting an apple or a banana,
a Ferrous Sulphate crystal ?
the colour of the cut surface becomes brown.
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 7
Statement II: Polyphenolic compounds present in
Q. What is the colour of the precipitate obtained by fruits get oxidized in air and show colour
passing CO2 gas through lime water?
(a) Green (b) Blue (c) White (d) Brown

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 35

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
• They are made up of small particles and
Possess kinetic energy

• Produces X- rays when it fall on heavy

metals.

• Does not depends upon the material of

electrodes and nature of gas. the particles are
fundamental and given name this particles to
electron.

CHARGE TO MASS RATIO OF ELECTRONS

Electron- negatively charged particles emitted by Charge to mass ratio of electron= 1.75× 1011C/kg
the cathode towards the anode in a cathode ray (specific charge)

Discovery- J. J. Thomson, in 1897 Charge on electron = 1.6022× 10−19 C

Cathode Ray tube- When sufficiently high voltage is Mass of Electron= 9.1093837 × 10-31 kg
applied across the electrodes, current starts flowing
Note- deviation of cathode rays directly proportional
through a stream of particles moving in the tube from
to electric and magnetic field and charge indirectly
the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive
proportion to mass.
electrode (anode). These were called cathode rays or
cathode ray particles. Proton- The smallest and lightest positive ion was
obtained from hydrogen and was called proton.

Discovery- Goldstein but called them Canal rays

The discovery of proton is credited to Rutherford

These rays were named as positive rays or

anode rays or as canal rays.

Properties of Anode Rays-

Properties of Cathode Rays-
• Positive charged particles
• travel in a straight line.
• They are made up of gaseous ions
• Start from cathode (-) to Anode (+).consist
negative charge particles (negatrones) • Capable of producing physical and chemical
changes
• Rays not visible but we can see visibility
through fluorescent and phosphorescent • Charge/mass ratio of proton is much smaller
than that of electron.(mass of p is greater
• Consist negative charge particles deflected
than e)
toward positive plate in electric field and
magnetic field

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 36

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
• Depends upon the nature of gas so not a 1. What are the essential condition for the production
fundamental particles. of cathode rays?

• Charge and mass ratio- 9.58× 107 C/kg a) High pressure and High voltage

Charge on proton = (+) 1.602 x 10-19 C b) Low pressure and High voltage

Mass of proton = 1.672 x 10-27 kg c) High pressure and low voltage

Note- the smallest and lightest positive ion obtained d) Low pressure and low voltage
from hydrogen gas is called proton. (in case of
2. In nuclear reaction 4Be9+2He4→6c12+X, X will
hydrogen anode rays are made up of proton)
be

a) Proton

b) Electron

c) Alpha particles

d) Neutron

Thomson’s Model of an Atom/ Plum pudding

Neutron- It is a neutral particle. model/watermelon model

• It was discovered by Chadwick (1932). • Atom is made up of sphere

• These particles were discovered by • positive charge is uniformly distributed

bombarding a thin sheet of Beryllium (Be) by through out the sphere and electrons are

an alpha particles. (alpha particles is double embedded

ionized helium ion) • a/c to him atom as a whole is electrically

• that highly penetrating rays consist of neutral neutral the negative and positive charge are

particles which were named neutron equal in magnitude.

• Neutron were not deflected by electric and • An important feature of this model is that the

magnetic field so they are neutral particles mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the atom
9
4Be + 42He → 12 1
6C+ 0n (neutron)
Positive charge= negative charge
27 4 30
13Al + 2He → 15P + 10n
Atomic radius= 1 A (10−10 m)
Charge on Neutron- Zero
Atom is electrically neutral
Mass of Neutron- 1.674927×10−27kg (slightly higher
than proton)

Charge to mass ratio = 0

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 37

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
Deflected by both electric and magnetic field so they
are not the part of electromagnetic spectrum

These are deflected towards negative plate

Beta rays-

Negatively charged rays deflected towards positive

plate

Rays travel with higher velocity compared to alpha

rays

Penetrating power is 100 times more than alpha rays

Gamma rays-

Highly energetic, highest penetrating power, lower

wavelength.

These are neutral rays so these are the part of

Draw back of model
electro magnetic spectrum
• It could not explain the stability of an atom
𝜶–particle scattering experiment/ Rutherford
X-Ray discovery- Roentgen Nuclear model of atom/nuclear model of atom-

• Highest penetrating power • when fast-moving alpha-particles are

bombarded on very thin gold foil ( it had a
• Not defected by electric and magnetic field so
circular fluorescent ZnS screen around it),
they are the part of electromagnetic radiation
following observations were made:
• X-ray are highly energetic radiation and can
• Most of the α-particles passed straight
cause ionization
through the gold foil.
Henri Becqueral (1852-1908) observed that there are
• Some of the α-particles were deflected by the
certain elements which emit radiation on their own
foil by small angles.
and named this phenomenon as radioactivity and the
elements known as radioactive elements. • One out of 20,000 particles returned back.

This field was developed by Marie Curie, Piere Curie,

Rutherford and Fredrick Soddy. It was observed that
three kinds of rays i.e., α, β- and γ-rays are emitted.

Alpha rays-

Doubly ionized helium atom

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 38

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
Conclusions made by Rutherford based on his A charged particle travelling in a circular path would
observations: constantly lose energy and collapse into the nucleus

• Most of the space inside the atom is empty 2. He can not explain discrete spectrum of atom.
because a-particles passed through the gold
Bohr’s Model of Atom
foil.
• Only special orbits known as discrete orbits of
• Very few particles were deflected from their
electrons are allowed inside the
path because +ve charge of the atom
atom.(electron revolves only fixed circular
occupies a very little space and this small
orbit with fixed velocity and fixed energy)
space is termed as nucleus.
• While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons
• A very small fraction of a-particles were
neither gain energy nor loses energy .These
rebounded back, shows all + ve charge and
orbits are called energy levels. energy of shell
mass of the gold atom is concentrated in a
is fixed which is also called stationary energy
very small volume within an atom.
levels.
5
• The radius of the nucleus calculated was 10
• Electron revolves only those circular orbit for
times less than the radius of the atom.
which the angular momentum is integral
• The positive charge is heavy (nucleus) multiple of h/2𝜋 this is the quantization
condition of electron (available in fixed
• Atom is electrically neutral.
ℎ
amount).(L=n ) where n= shell no, h= plank
2𝜋
• Electron revolves in closed circular orbit
constant 6.635× 10−34
around the nucleus. (electrostatic force=
centripetal force) • Orbits or shells are represented by K, L, M, N
or the numbers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4

• Electrostatic force will provide centripetal

force (Fe=FC)

• Electron can gain energy and can loses

energy, excitation and deexcitation of energy.
(E2-E1=hv)

Condition- if an e accept energy it jumps to higher

energy level (higher energy level)
Failure of Rutherford model
If e loses energy it recedes back to lower energy
1. He can not explain the stability of atom.
level
According to Rutherford’s Model, electrons will circle
Electron gain and loses only those energy which are
the positively charged nucleus, which is not expected
equal to difference in two energy level. (accept and
to be stable
loses only quantized energy)

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 39

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
• He also defined discrete line spectrum Properties of Isotopes-

• An isotope of Uranium (U-235)used as fuel in

a nuclear reactor.

• An isotope of Cobalt (Cobalt-60) is used in

the treatment of cancer

• An isotope of Iodine (iodine-130) is used in

the treatment of goiter.

• An isotope of carbon (i.e.carbon-14) is used

in the carbon dating technique

Note- Atomic weight of most of the elements are not

whole number because the elements contain mixture
of isotopes having different atomic weight.

• Maximum number of electrons present in a Whole mass of atom is suppose to be concentrated

at Centre of an atom.
shell is given by 2n2 (n = shell number)
E.g., n = 1 (K shell) 2(1)2 = 2 electron Isobars- Same mass no. but different atomic no.

• The maximum number of electrons that can Different chemical properties but same physical
properties
be accommodated in the outermost orbit is 8.
Eg.- 18Ar40 19K40 20Ca40
• Electrons are not accommodated in a given
shell unless the inner shells are completely Isotones- same no of neutrons

filled. Eg.- 6C14 , 7N15 and 8O16

Q. The number of maximum electrons in N Shell is Isoelectronic- same no. of electron.

(a) 2 (b) 8 (c) 18 (d) 32
Eg.- N3–, O2–, F–, Ne, Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+
Atomic No.(Z)- No. of proton or no of electron
present in a neutral atom. Valency- combining capacity of an atom. The
electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom
No. of Proton = No. of Electron are known as the valence electrons.

Mass No. (A)- No. of proton + No. of Neutron the outermost shell of an atom can accommodate a
(collectively known as nucleous) maximum of 8 electrons

Isotopes- Atom with same atomic no but different Valency = no. of valence electron in atom (if no. of
atomic mass (mass no.) valence e-=1,2,3)

Same chemical properties but different physical Valency= 8- no. of valence electron (if no. of valence
properties. e- = 4,5,6,7,8)

Eg- Protium, Deuterium, Tritium

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 40

 ATOM & STRUCTURE

Octet rule- in order to acquire stability atom can Limitation – molecules which does not obey octet
either loose, gain or share electron so that the rule
valence shell contains eight electrons or to acquire
nearest nobel gas configuration. Molecule with incomplete octet

Exception= Hydrogen (1e) Example – BeCl2, BF3, AlCl3

Helium (2e)

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 41

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
Q. Which one among the following is correct
20 23
regarding Ne, Na+ , 19
F − and 24
Mg 2+ ?
(a) They are isomers of each other
(b) They are isotopes of each other
(c) They are isoelectronic with each other
(d) All of the above

Q. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly

matched?

1 Isotopes : Atoms with same atomic number

but different atomic mass
2. Molecules with expanded octet
2 Isobars : Atoms with same number of
Example- PCl5, H2SO4, Pf5, SF6
neutrons but different atomic number

3 Isotones : Atoms with same mass number but

different atomic number

Select the correct answer using the code given below

:

Code :
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 only

3. Molecules which have odd electrons

Q. The nucleus of a singly ionized carbon atom
Example- NO, NO2 contains
(a) 6 protons and 6 neutrons
(b) 5 protons and 6 neutrons
(c) 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons
(d) 12 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons

Q. Which of the following pairs of physica

4.Octet rule fails to explain to shape and
phenomenon and the discoverer is/are correctly
geometry of a molecule
matched?

1. James Chadwick : Photoelectric effect

2. Albert Einstein : Neutron

3. Marie Curie : Radium

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 42

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
Select the correct answer using the code giver below Q. Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment
: was responsible for the discovery of
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
(a) Atomic Nucleus (b) Electron
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only

(c) Proton (d) Neutron

Q. Neutrons were discovered by
(a) James Chadwick (b) Ernest Rutherford Q. Isotopes of an element have
(c) J. J. Thomson (d) John Dalton
a) the same physical properties
Q. Atomic mass of an element is equal to the sum of
number of b) different chemical properties
(a) electrons and protons only
c) different number of neutrons
(b) protons and neutrons only
(c) electrons and neutrons only d) different atomic numbers.
(d) electrons, protons and neutrons
Q. Number of valence electrons in Cl– ion are:
Q. Which one of the following element's isotope is
used in the treatment of cancer? a) 16 b) 8 c) 17 d) 18

(a) Uranium (b) Cobalt (c) Sodium (d) Iodine

Q. Which one of the following is a correct electronic

Q. Which one of the following conclusions could not configuration of sodium?

be derived from Rutherford's 𝛼-particle scattering

a) 2,8 b) 8,2,1 c) 2,1,8 d) 2,8,1.
experiment?
(a) Most of the space in the atom is empty. Q. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and
(b) The radius of the atom is about 105 times the electrons in 80
35𝐵𝑟 .
radius of the nucleus.
Q. How many gram atoms of hydrogen are present in
(c) Electrons move in a circular path of fixed energy
0.04 mole of cuso4.5h2o?
called orbits.
(d) Nearly all the mass of the atom resides in the
a) 0.04 b) 0.2 c) 0.4 d) 4
nucleus.
Q. An oxide of nitrogen has molecular weight 30. The
Q. For an element with atomic number 35, which one
total number of electrons in one molecule of the
of the following will be the correct number of
compound is ?
electrons in its valence shell based on Bohr's model
of an atom? a) 14 b) 15 c) 22 d) 23
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 7
Q. Elements do emit radiation on their own and this
Q. Which one among the following contains the most property is known as _____
neutrons? a) Radioactivity b) Refraction
(a) 59
26 Fe (b) 61
29 Cu (c) 61
30 Zn (d) 60
30 Zn
2+ c) Absorption d) Adsorption

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 43

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
Q. Which one of the following is the correct weight of an element?
statement? (a) The atomic weight of an element is the sum total
The force binding the nucleons inside the nucleus is : of the number of protons and neutrons present in the
(a) charge dependent atom of the element
(b) strong and highly repulsive (b) Unlike mass number, the atomic weight of an
(c) a central force (d) charge independent element can be a fraction
(c) The atomic weight of an element is a whole
Q. An element 𝐴 has valencies equal to 3 and 5 . It
number
combines with another element 𝐵 having valency
(d) The atomic weight of all the atoms in an element
equal to 2 . What are formulae of the compounds
is the same
thus formed?
(a) 𝐴5 𝐵3 and 𝐴2 𝐵5 (b) 𝐴3 𝐵2 and 𝐴3 𝐵2 Q. The valency of an element depends upon the
(c) 𝐴2 𝐵3 and 𝐴2 𝐵5 (d) 𝐴2 𝐵3 and 𝐴3 𝐵5 (a) total number of protons in an atom
(b) mass number of an atom
Q. The octet rule is not valid for which one of the
(c) total number of neutrons in an atom
following molecules?
(d) total number of electrons in the outer most shell of
(a) CO2 (b) H2 S (c) NH3 (d) BF3 an atom

Q. Protons and neutrons are bound in a nucleus by Q. The species that has the same number of
the 35
electrons as 17 Cl is
(a) short range 'weak interaction' 32 34 40 35
(a) 16 S (b) 16 S+ (c) 18 Ar
+
(d) 16 S2−
(b) short range 'strong interaction'
(c) long range 'electromagnetic interaction' Q. Which one of the following acid is used by
(d) long range 'gravitational interaction' goldsmith for cleaning of gold and silver articles?
(a) Sulphuric acid (b) Nitric acid
27
Q. The number of neutrons in 13 Al is
(c) Hydrochloric acid (d) Phosphoric acid
(a) 40 (b) 27 (c) 14 (d) 13
Q. A liquid is heated up to a certain temperature.
Q. Calcium carbonate is naturally available as
Which one of the following situation would
limestone and can also be synthesized from quick
correspond to the boiling of the liquid?
lime. It is seen that the composition of the elements
(a) When atmospheric pressure becomes equal to
in both the natural and synthetic calcium carbonate
the vapour pressure
are same. The validity of which one among the
(b) When atmospheric pressure becomes less than
following laws is confirmed by this observation?
vapour pressure
(a) Law of conservation of mass
(c) When atmospheric pressure becomes higher than
(b) Law of definite proportion
the vapour pressure
(c) Law of multiple proportion (d) Avogadro's law
(d) When vapour pressure becomes equal to the air

Q. Which one among the following is the most pressure

appropriate statement with respect to the atomic

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 44

 ATOM & STRUCTURE
Q. If the number of protons and neutrons of an Q. What was the source of alpha particles in the
element is 13 and 14 respectively, then what’s the Rutherford scattering experiment?
atomic number(Z) and mass number(A)?
a) Hydrogen nucleus b) Argon nucleus
a) 13, 13 b) 13, 27 c) 14, 13 d) 27, 14

c) Helium nucleus d) None of these

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 45

 ATOMS & MOLECULES
• Antoine L. Lavoisier laid the foundation of CH4(g) + 2O2(g) →CO2 (g) + 2H2O( liq) +heat
chemical sciences by establishing two
(1 vol) + (2 vol) → (1 vol)
important laws of chemical combination.
5. Avogadro’s Law- Avogadro proposed that, equal
1. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
volumes of all gases have same no. of molecules at
Law of conservation of mass states that mass can constant temperature and pressure.
neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical
For example,
reaction.
If we consider the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen
mass of reactant = mass of product to produce water, we see that two volumes of
hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to give
2. LAW OF CONSTANT PROPERTION-
two volumes of water without leaving any unreacted
In a chemical substance the elements are always oxygen.
present in definite proportions by mass
2H2+O2→2H2O
3. Law of Multiple Proportions- if two elements
Q. The proposition 'equal volumes of different gases
combine to form more than one compound, the
contain equal numbers of molecules at the same
masses of one element that combine with a fixed
temperature and pressure' is known as
mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small
(a) Avogadro's hypothesis
whole numbers.
(b) Gay-Lussac's hypothesis
For example (c) Planck's hypothesis

hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two (d) Kirchhoff's theory

compounds, namely, water and hydrogen peroxide. Q. Which one of the following laws explains the

Hydrogen (2g) + Oxygen(16g) → Water (18g) formation of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
from carbon and oxygen?
Hydrogen (2g) + Oxygen (32g) → Hydrogen Peroxide
(a) Law of conservation of mass
(34g)
(b) Law of multiple proportions
Here, the masses of oxygen (i.e., 16 g and 32 g), (c) Law of reciprocal proportions
which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen (2g) (d) Law of definite proportions
bear a simple ratio, i.e., 16:32= 1: 2.
Q. Which of the following is the best example of the
4. Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes- law of conservation of mass?
(a) When 12gm of carbon is heated in vacuum, there
At same temperature and pressure all the gases
is no change in mass
combine or produce in simple ratios of volume.
(b) Weight of platinum wire is the same before and
Example- after heating
(c) A sample of air increases in volume when heated
2H2 (g) + O2 → 2H2O
at constant pressure but mass remains unchanged
(100ml) + (50 ml) → (100ml)

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 46

 ATOMS & MOLECULES
(d) 12gm of carbon combines with 32gm of oxygen to 5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers
give 44gm of carbon dioxide to form compounds.

Law of Reciprocal proportion- when two elements 6. The relative number and kinds of atoms are
combine separately with a fixed mass of third constant in a given compound
elements then the ratio of masses in which they do
Atom- the building block of all matter and the
so bears a small whole no. ratio to the ratio of
Smallest unit of matter.
masses in which they themselves combine.
Atomic radius is measured in nanometers (109 nm).
Q. According to which one of the following laws it is
indicated that when two or more gases react with one THE MODERN DAY SYMBOLS OF ATOMS OF
another, their volumes bear a simple ratio? DIFFERENT ELEMENTS
(a) Law of mass action Symbol of an elements proposed by Dalton-
(b) Law of multiple proportions
(c) Law of reciprocal proportions
(d) Law of combining volumes

Dalton’s atomic theory

Dalton provided the basic theory about the nature of

matter. He took the name for the smallest particles of
matter are atoms.

His theory was based on the laws of chemical

combination. Q. As proposed by Dalton, which of the following
symbol represents phosphorus?
According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter,
whether an element, a compound or a mixture is
composed of small particles called atoms.

Dalton’s atomic theory

1. All matter is made of very tiny particles called

atoms.

2. Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be

created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

3. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and

chemical properties.

4. Atoms of different elements have different masses

and chemical properties.
Atomic mass= mass of one atom of an element is
called atomic mass.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 47

 ATOMS & MOLECULES
1
1 amu = 12 ×mass of C12 atom

1 amu/u= 1.67× 10−24 gm

Carbon 12 isotope was chosen as the standard

Reference for measuring atomic masses

mass of 1 atom of element Q. A sample of oxygen contains two isotopes of

Atomic mass= 1
×mass of 1 atom of C12 isotope
12 oxygen with masses 16u and 18u respectively. The
proportion of these isotopes in the sample is 3: 1.
What will be the average atomic mass of oxygen in
this sample?
(a) 17.5u (b) 17u (c) 16u (d) 16.5u

Molecule- it is the smallest particle of an element or

compound that has independence existence. A
molecule contain one or more than one atoms.

The no. of atoms in a molecules is known as

atomicity of an element.

Monoatomic- Nobel gases

Average Atomic Mass=
Diatomic- O2, N2
the average atomic mass of carbon will be:
Triatomic- O3
(0.98892) (12 u) + (0.01108) (13.00335 u) + (2 ×10–
12) (14.00317 u) = 12.011 u Polyatomic- phoshphorus(P4), sulphur (S8), sulphide

Molecule of an elements- the molecule of an element

contain two or more than two similar atom chemically
(Atomic mass of an isotope1)×% age of isotope
100
+ bounded together
(Atomic mass of an isotope2)×% age of isotope
100 Example- ozone (O3)

Molecule of compound- molecule contain two or

more different types of atoms chemically bounded
together

Example- SO2, CO2

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 48

 ATOMS & MOLECULES

Molecular Mass Example-

Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the
HCl – 36/1=36
elements present in a molecule.
In case of Base-
Molecular mass of methane-
X= Acidity (no. of replacable OH ions)
(CH4) = (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u) = 16.043 u
Eg- NaOH= 40/1=40
Similarly,
In case of Salt-
molecular mass of water (H2O)
X= total positive charge on cation
= 2 × atomic mass of hydrogen + 1× atomic mass of
oxygen Example- Na2CO3= 106/2=53

= 2 (1.008 u) + 16.00 u = 18.02 u Q. Which one among the following is the equivalent
weight of sulphuric acid?
1. Calculate the molecular mass of glucose
(Atomic weight : H = 1, S = 32, O = 16 )
molecule?
(a) 98 (b) 60 (c) 100 (d) 49
2. Calculate the molecular mass of H2SO4?
Q. What is the equivalent weight of H3PO4 in the
Equivalent mass reaction-

molecular weight NaOH + H3PO4 → NaH2PO4 + H2O

Equivalent mass = Valency factor (X)

Q. The molecular weight and equivalent weight of

In case of Acid-
which one of the following is the same? 2008 (1)
X= basicity (replaceable H)
(a) H2SO4 (b) KMnO4 (c) H2C2O4 (d) NaOH

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 49

 ATOMS & MOLECULES
Formula mass= Ionic compounds such as NaCl,
KNO3, Na2C03 etc. do not consist of molecules i.e.,
single entities but exist “as ions closely packed
together in a three dimensional space

Example-

formula mass of NaCl = Atomic mass of sodium +

atomic mass of chlorine
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u.

Mole= it is a simple unit for counting entities at the

microscopic level.

given mass (m)

No. of moles (n)=
molar mass (M)

1 Mole = atomic mass/molecular mass = 6.023× 1023

This number has been experimentally determined

and found to be equal to

6.022137 x 1023(The value is generally called

Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant)
Mass of one atom of C-12 in grams?
Example-
Mass of 1 mole of C-12 = 12 g
1 mole of H2 molecule = 6.022× 1023 molecule = 2
1 mole contain 6.022× 1023 atom
gm (molecular mass of H2)
So, mass of 6.022× 1023 atoms = 12g
23
1 mole of Na atom = 6.022× 10 atom = 23 gm
12
(molecular mass of Na atom) Mass of 1 atom of carbon= 6.022× 1023g = 1.99× 10−23 g

Molar Mass- The mass of one mole of a substance in Q. Weight of one atom of H in gm?
grams is called its molar mass.
(a) 6.023× 10−23 (b) 1.66× 10−24
The molar mass in grams is numerically equal to
(c) 6.62× 10−24 (d) None of these
atomic/molecular/ formula mass in u.
Q. If mass of 1 mole of Na atom is 23 gm calculate
Molar mass of water = 18.02 g/mol
the mass of 0.2 mole 0f Na atom?
Molar mass of sodium chloride = 58.5 g mol–1
Q. Calculate the mass of 0.6 moles of Nitrogen
Molar mass of O2 = 32 g/mole atom?

Given mass
No. of atoms/molecules=molar mass ×Avogadro no.

or

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 50

 ATOMS & MOLECULES
=no. of moles×Avogadro no. eg. Molarity of H+ ion is 2M (2 moles of H+ ions are
present in one liter of solution)
1. Calculate the no of molecules present in .4 moles
of Na? Q. Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution
prepared by dissolving its 40g in enough water to
2. Calculate the no. of atoms present in 6.4 g of
form 250 ml of the solution?
sulphur?
a) 6M b) 4M c) 5M d) 8M
a) 2.4 × 1023 b) 1.2 × 1023
Q. Find the molarity of 4.9 g H2SO4 in 500 cm3 in
c) 1.2× 10−23 d) 2.4× 10−23
solution?
3. Find the no. of atoms present in 2.4g of sodium ?
(a) 0.5 M (b) 0.1M (c) 0.7M (d) 1M
4. Calculate the no. of molecules of sulphur (S8)
Molarity of dilution –
present in 16 gm of solid sulphur?
M1V1=M2V2
Mass % of an element =
1. 0.2 M, of 100 ml H2SO4 solution is diluted with
mass of that element in the compound
× 100
molar mass of the compound 100 ml of water find the new molarity in solution?

Example- (a) 0.2 (b) 0.3 (c) 0.1 (d) 0.5

Molar mass of H2O= 18.02 g/mole Molarity of mixture-

2×1.008 M1V1+M2V2
Mass % of H2 = 18.02
× 100 M= 𝑽𝟏+𝑽𝟐

= 11.18 Q. 0.2M, 100 ml solution of HCL is mixed with 0.1M,

1×16 300 ml of the solution of HCl. Find the molarity of
Mass % of O = 18.02 × 100
mixture?
= 88.79
Molality- It is defined as the number of moles of
1. A solution is prepared by adding 2gm of a solute present in 1 kg of solvent. It is denoted by m
substance to 18 gm of water. What will be the mass No. of moles of solute
Molality (m) = Mass of solvent in kg
percent of that solute?

a)10% b) 20% c) 11.1% d) 10.3% Q. Find the molality of 20 gm of NaOH in 100 gm of

solution?
2. What’s the percent mass of 5g of caustic
soda dissolved in 100g of water? a) 6.25m b) 4m c) 8m d) 20m

(a) 4.7% (b) 5% (c) 2.8% (d) 5.5% Q. What is the formula mass of anhydrous sodium
carbonate? (Given that the atomic masses of sodium,
Molarity-It is defined as the number of moles of
carbon and oxygen are 23u, 12u and 16u
solute present in 1 litre of solution. It is denoted by M
respectively)

Molarity=
No. of moles of solute (a) 286u (b) 106u (c) 83u (d) 53u
volume of solution in litre

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 51

 ATOMS & MOLECULES
Q. How many grams of MgCO3 contain 24.00 g of (c) Law of Definite Proportions
oxygen? (The molar mass of MgCO3 is 84.30 g mol−1
(d) Avogadro’s Law
)
(a) 42 ⋅ 15 g (b) 84.30 g (c) 126.00 g 2. Molecular mass is defined as the:

(d) 154.00 g (a) Mass of one molecule of any substance

compared with the mass of one atom of C – 12
Q. A compound X 2 O3 contains 31.58% oxygen by
(b) Mass of one atom compared with the mass of one
weight. The atomic mass of 𝑋 is
atom of hydrogen
(a) 34.66 g mol−1 (b) 45.01 g mol−1 (c) Mass of one atom compared with the mass of one
−1 −1
(c) 52.00 g mol (d) 104.00 g mol molecule

Q. What is the number of water molecules present in (d) None of the above
a tiny drop of water ( volume 0.0018ml ) at room 3. How many atoms of oxygen are present in 300
temperature? [2008 − II] grams of CaCO3?
17 18
(a) 4.84 × 10 (b) 4.184 × 10
(a) 54.207 × 1023 (b) 6.207 × 1023
(c) 6.023 × 1019 (d) 6.023 × 1023
(c) 12.207 × 1023 (d) 22.2 × 1023
Q. The equivalent weight of oxalic acid in C2 H2 O4 ⋅
2H2 O is 4. What is the mass % of Cu in Cu(NO3)2. (atomic
(a) 45 (b) 63 (c) 90 (d) 126 mass of Cu- 63.5 gm N-14gm and O-16 gm)

1. A sample of NH3 molecule irrespective of source (a) 33.8 (b) 50.6 (c) 67.9 (d) 43.33
contains 82.35% Nitrogen and 17.65% of Hydrogen 5. 200 ml of a 30% NaOH solution is mixed with 300
by mass. This data supports: ml of a 40 % NaOH solution. The concentration of the
(a) Law of Conservation of Mass mixture in terms of mass % is

(b) Las of Multiple Proportions (a) 36% (b) 45% (c) 50% (d) 30%

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 52

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
Bonding in carbon compounds- carbon forms 3. Triple covalent bond- sharing of 3 pair of electron
covalent bonds in its compounds with other atom. In
Eg- N2 , C2H2
each compound the valency of carbon is 4. that is
tetravalent character. Non polar and Polar covalent compounds-
Covalent bond- a chemical bond formed between 1. A covalent bond formed between two atoms of the
two atoms of the same element or two atoms of same element or same electronegativity called Non
different elements by sharing of electron. polar compounds.
Condition of the formation of the covalent bonds- Eg- H2, O2
• The combining atoms should have 2. Covalent bond between the atoms of two element
monometallic character (nonmetal + non having different electro negativities. The shared pair
metal) of electrons lies more towards the atom which is
more electronegative called polar compounds.
• In hydrogen there is only 1 valence electron
but it also forms covalent bond. Eg- HCl, H2O, and NH3
• After sharing the pair of electron each Characteristics of covalent bond and compound-
combining atom should attain stable
electronic configuration like its nearest noble • The covalent compounds are generally gases
gas. and liquids. But compound with high
molecular masses are solid (Eg- urea,
Classification of covalent bond- glucose, napthaene).
1. Single covalent bond- covalent bond is formed • Low M.P and B.P because of the weak
by the sharing of one pair of electron between two intermolecular force. (Exception- diamond
atoms and graphite are solid and have high M.P and
B.P.)
Eg- H-H, Cl-Cl, H-Cl, CH3-CH3.
• Soluble in organic compounds but insoluble in
2. Double covalent bond- sharing of 2 pair of
water.(some polar compounds like ammonia
electron between two combining atoms.
soluble in water)
Eg- O=O, CO2 (O=C=O), H2C=CH2
• Do not conduct electricity

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 53

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND

Allotropes of Carbon Graphite- also Known as black lead.

Allotropy- The phenomenon in which the element
In this, each carbon atom is bonded to three other
exists in two or more different physical states with
similar chemical properties are called Allotropy. carbon. Thus one valence electron of each carbon
atoms is free in every layer of graphite crystal so free
there are 3 allotropes of carbon – electron makes it a good conductor of electricity.
1. Diamond atoms are arranged in hexagonal patterns.
2. Graphite Geometry- trigonal planer (sp2 hybridization) , two
adjacent layer in graphite bounded by weak force.
3. Buckminster fullerene
Properties-
Diamond- it is a crystalline allotrope of carbon.
• Grayish black color, opaque and luster
In this, carbon, an atom is bonded to four other
atoms of carbon forming three-dimensional • High M.P
structures.
• Good conductor of heat and electricity
Geometry- tetrahedral arrangement (sp3
• Insoluble in all common solvent.
hybridization).
Uses- used as lubricant in machines because it has
Properties-
layered
Transparent and coloured solid (reflective index –
Structure.
2.45)
- As neutron moderator in nuclear reactor
High M.P
- For the manufacture of artificial diamond.
Poor conductor of electricity.

Fullerene- It is an allotrope of the carbon-containing

cluster of 60 carbon atoms joined together to form
spherical molecules.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 54

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
Structure- spherical (12 pentagonal faces and 20
hexagonal faces giving it 60 corners), hollow, cage
like structure. (sp2 hybridization)
Properties and uses -
As a Semiconductor and superconductor
Isomerism/isomers- Compounds having the same
As a lubricant and catalyst
molecular formula but different structural formula.
Eg- isomers of butane (C4H10)

Versatile Nature of Carbon: The existence of such a

large number of organic compounds is due to the Isomers of butene- C4H8
following nature of carbon, Isomers of Ethanol- C2H6O
• Catenation
• Tetravalent nature
• Isomerism
• polymerisation.
1. Catenation- The self linking property of an
element. “The property of forming bonds with atoms
of the same element”.
carbon atom has the maximum tendency for
catenation through covalent bonds to form long
straight, branched and rings of different sizes.
This property is due to-
• The small size of the carbon atom.
• The great strength of the carbon-carbon
bond.
2. Tetravalency of Carbon-
• Atomic no. of carbon – 6, valency- 4
• It is capable of bonding with four other atoms
of carbon or some other heteroatoms with
single covalent bond as well as double or
triple bond.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 55

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
Polymerisation- chemical process that combine ethane polyethene
monomers to form a polymer and carbon compounds
HYDROCARBONS-
posses this property
Compounds formed from combination of carbon and
Eg- nCH2=CH2 → [CH2CH2]n
hydrogen.

Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons- Unsaturated hydrocarbons- carbon atom

connected with double and triple bond.
Saturated hydrocarbons- carbon atom connected
with single bond Alkenes (double bond)- general formula- CnH2n
General formula- (CnH2n+2) Eg- ethane (C2H4), Butene (C4H8)
Eg- CH4,C2H6, C3H8…etc Alkynes (triple bond)- general formula- CnH2n-2
Eg- Ethyne (C2H2), propyne (C3H4), Butyne (C4H6)

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 56

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
Aromatic hydrocarbons-
These have at least one benzene ring in their
molecules .
Total covalent bond in benzene= 15 ( 𝜋 = 3 and 𝜎 =
12)
Cycloalkane- cyclic structure
Eg- cyclopropane, cyclobutane etc
Functional group- it may be defined as an atom or a
group of atoms which is responsible for most of the
characteristic chemical properties of an organic
compound

HALO Group- prefix chloro, bromo

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 57

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND

ALCOHOL Group (OH)- suffix ‘ol’

ALDEHYDE Group (CHO)- suffix ‘al’

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 58

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
KETONE Group (C=O) – suffix ‘one’

CARBOXYLIC Group (COOH)- suffix ‘oic’

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 59

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND

Homologues series- A series of organic compound having similar structure and similar chemical properties
in which the successive members differ in their molecular formula by –CH2 group
Characteristics-
1. Common general formula (CnH2n+2), similar chemical properties.
2. Differ by –CH2 group, molecular mass differ by 14 mass unit (CH2=14)

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 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
Chemical properties of carbon compounds-
Combustion- Carbon and hydrocarbon burns in air
to give carbon dioxide along with the release of heat
and light. Certain vegetable oils such as ground nut, mustard
oil contain double bonds are liquid at room
C+O2 → CO2+ Heat + light
temperature, because of the unsaturation vegetable
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light oils undergo hydrogenation and form vanaspati ghee.

CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and vegetable oil (unsaturated oil) + hydrogenation →
light vanaspati ghee (saturated ghee)

Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean Substitution Reaction- reaction which involve the
flame while unsaturated carbon compounds will give direct replacement of an atom or group of atom in an
a yellow flame with lots of black smoke. organic molecule by another atom or group of atom
without any change in rest of the molecule.
Note- Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some
amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them. Their saturated hydrocarbons are quite unreactive
combustion results in the formation of oxides of (because of C-C single bond) being unreactive these
sulphur and nitrogen which are major pollutants in hydrocarbons do not react with any substances.
the environment However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is
added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction.
Note- natural and biogas contain methane, so Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by
burning of biogas and natural gas are also one.
combustion reaction.
Burning LPG (Butane) produce CO2,H2O, heat and
light
Oxidation- Carbon compounds can be easily Properties of Ethanoic Acid (acetic acid)-
oxidized on combustion.
5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar
In complete oxidation of alcohol it is converted into
carboxylic acid. M.P- 290K B.P- 391K
On cooling at 289.6K it turns in ice like crystal, called
glacial acetic acid.
Reactions of ethanoic acid:

some substances are capable of adding oxygen to (i) Esterification reaction- Ethanoic acid reacts
others. These substances are known as oxidising with ethanol in the presence of conc. H2SO4
agents. to form ethyl ethanoate (ester)

Addition Reaction- All unsaturated hydrocarbons

(unsaturated carbon compounds) react with a
molecule like H₂. X, H₂O etc to form another
saturated compounds are called addition reactions. Note- On treating with sodium hydroxide, which is an
alkali, the ester is converted back to alcohol and
Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen, in the
sodium salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is known
presence of catalysts, such as nickel or palladium to
as saponification because it is used in the
give saturated hydrocarbons, also known as
preparation of soap. Soaps are sodium or potassium
hydrogenation reaction.
salts of long chain carboxylic acid.
Note: Catalysts are substance that cause a reaction
Saponification reaction-
to occur or proceed at a different rate without the
reaction itself being affected. CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH → CH3COONa (sodium
ethanoate) + C2H5OH

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 61

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
Reaction with base- Soap is basic in nature so turns red litmus to blue.
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa (Sodium Preparation-
acetate) + H2O
It is prepared by heating animal fat or vegetable oils
Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates- (olive, palm and castor) with NaOH or KOH
(Saponification)
Oil or Fat + NaOH → Soap + glycerol

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS- Structure-

Soap- it is the salt of sodium and potassium of a long Hydrocarbon chain is non polar (hydrophobic) and
chain fatty acids (carboxylic acid or glycerol) other part is polar (hydrophilic), Hydrophilic part
makes the soap soluble in water and hydrophobic
part make soap insoluble in water.
The magnesium and calcium salt present in
hard water react with soap molecule to form insoluble
product called scum this create difficulty in cleaning
action
Soap in the form of a micelle is able to clean since
the oily dirt gets collected in the centre of the micelle.
It forms a colloidal solution

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 62

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
Permanent hardness of water is due to dissolved Q. Which one of the following is the correct reactivity
salts of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and series with water?
magnesium which can be removed by adding sodium (a) Zinc > Iron > Lead > Copper
carbonate (Na2CO3) (b) Copper > Lead > Zinc > Iron
(c) Copper > Zinc > Iron > Lead
Q. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils using nickel
(d) Zinc > Copper > Iron > Lead
catalyst is an example of
(a) Substitution reaction. (b) Elimination reaction. Q. Which one of the following solutions is not
(c) Addition reaction. capable of conducting electricity?
(d) Free-radical polymerization. (a) Copper sulphate (b) Sodium chloride
(c) Sugar (d) Sodium hydroxide
Q. Which one of the following materials is not an
allotrope of carbon? Q. Which one of the following salts does not possess
(a) Diamond (b) Graphene (c) Fly ash (d) Fullerene water of crystallization?
(a) Potassium permanganate (b) Blue vitriol
Q. Which one of the following statements about the
(c) Washing soda (d) Mohr's salt
cleansing action of soap is not true?
(a) The oil and dirt gets collected in the centre of the Q. The number of structural isomers of pentane is
micelle. (a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 3
(b) Soap micelles scatter light.
Q. Liquid vegetable oils are converted to solid
(c) Soaps are ammonium salts of long chain
margarine by the use of
carboxylic acids.
(a) hydrogen gas (b) chlorine gas
(d) Soap forms insoluble precipitates with the calcium
(c) carbon dioxide gas (d) oxygen gas
and magnesium ions in hard water.
Q. C4 H8 belongs to the homologous series of
Q. Which one of the following is the chemical formula
(a) alkanes (b) alkenes
of Plaster of Paris?
1
(c) alkynes (d) cycloalkanes
(a) CaSO4 ⋅ 2 H2 O (b) CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2 O
Q. Which of the hydrocarbons are arranged as per
(c) CaSO4 ⋅ 5H2 O (d) CaSO4 ⋅ 4H2 O
the increasing order of their boiling points?
Q. Which one of the following allotropes of carbon is (a) Methane, Butane, Propane, Heptane
isomorphous with crystalline silicon? (b) Propane, Butane, Pentane, Octane
(a) Coke (b) Diamond (c) Graphite (d) Coal (c) Propane, Butane, Heptane, Methane

Q. Which one of the following statements is not (d) Octane, Ethane, Methane, Propane

correct? Q. Browning of the chopped apple can be minimized

(a) Most carbon compounds are good conductors of by :
electricity. (a) using table sugar. (b) preserving in a container.
(b) Bonding in organic compounds is covalent. (c) using lemon juice. (d) using milk of magnesia.
(c) Graphite is used as a lubricant.
Q. Among the following, which is not the correct
(d) Diamond is an allotrope of carbon.
method for keeping the curd?

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 63

 CARBON & ITS COMPOUND
(a) Keeping in stainless steel vessel Q. Which one of the following statements is NOT
(b) Keeping in copper vessel correct?
(c) Keeping in plastic vessel (a) Buckminsterfullerene is an allotrope of carbon
(d) Keeping in glass vessel (b) Diamond is a good conductor of electricity
(c) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity
Q. Toothpaste prevents tooth decay by :
(d) In graphite, each carbon atom is linked to three
(a) neutralizing the excess acidity.
other carbon atoms
(b) means of emulsification.
(c) the action of fluoride. Q. How many covalent bonds are present in a
(d) making a coat of calcium over the teeth surface. Chloropropane molecule having molecular formula,
Q. Which among the following statements is not C3 H7 Cl ?
correct with respect to allotropes of Carbon? (a) 6 (b) 8 (c) 9 (d) 10
(a) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
Q. Which one of the following is the largest
(b) Diamond is the hardest substance known.
composition in biogas?
(c) Fullerene is one of the allotropes of carbon.
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Methane (c) Hydrogen (d)
(d) Next to diamond, graphite is the second hardest
Hydrogen sulphide
known substance.
Q. Graphite is a much better conductor of heat and
Q. Number of molecules of water of crystallization in
electricity than diamond. This is due to the fact that
copper sulphate, sodium carbonate and Gypsum are
each carbon atom in graphite:
(a) 5, 10 and 2 respectively
(a) undergoes sp2 hybridization and forms three
(b) 10,2 and 5 respectively
sigma bonds with three neighbouring carbon atoms
(c) 5, 2 and 10 respectively
(b) undergoes sp3 hybridization
(d) 2, 5 and 10 respectively
(c) is tetrahedrally bonded
Q. The cleaning action of soap and detergent in (d) is free from van der Waals force
water is due to the formation of
Q. Permanent hardness of water is due to the
(a) Micelle (b) Salt (c) Base (d) Acid
presence of
Q. Why is Graphite used in electrolytic cells? (a) sulphates of sodium and potassium
(a) Graphite is soft and can be easily moulded into (b) sulphates of magnesium and calcium
electrodes (c) carbonates of sodium and magnesium
(b) Graphite is made of layers of carbon atoms which (d) bicarbonates of magnesium and calcium
can slide
Q. The reaction that takes place in soap making is
(c) Graphite is inert to most of the chemicals and
called saponification. Basically soap is sodium or
remains intact in electrolytic cells
potassium salts of
(d) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity
(a) long chain monocarboxylic acids (b) glycerol
Q. Washing Soda is the common name for (c) long chain dicarboxylic acids
(a) Calcium Carbonate (b) Magnesium Carbonate (d) long chain tricarboxylic acid
(c) Sodium Carbonate (d) Potassium Carbonate

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 64

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
More than 138 elements are known till date. All 2. Newlands Law of octaves-
elements are differ in their properties due to the
When element are arranged in the increasing atomic
presence of different kind of atom in them. elements
masses every eighth element had properties similar
combine to form millions of compound.
to first element.
Classification of elements-
H, Li, Be, B, C, N, O
1. Dobereiner’ Triads- grouping 3 elements which
F, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S
have same properties.
Cl, K, Ca
Principle- he arranged the elements in a group of
three elements and in a manner that the atomic mass • First time elements were arranged in
of middle element was roughly the average of the increasing atomic masses
atomic masses of the other two elements of the triad. • Lighter elements like Li, Na, K , Be, Mg, Ca

Example- Li, Na and K were grouped togather

Atomic mass – 7, 23 and 39 • He explain periodicity (if elements are

arranged in an order, the properties of
Average= 7+39/2 = 23
elements would repeat after some period or
Example- Ca, Sr and Ba fixed interval)

Atomic mass- 40, 87.5, 137 Limitation-

Average- 40+ 137/2 = 88.5 • It was applicable to the element upto calcium
only he did not arrange heavier element than
properties of these compounds-
Ca
• +2 valency
• No Nobel gas discovery.
• All are metallic
3. Mendeleev’s periodic table-
• Basic hydroxide
Identified 63 elements, elements are arranged
Example- Cl, Br and I ( 35.5, 80, 127) increasing order of their atomic mass and also on the

properties of these compounds- similar chemical properties.

Valency=-1 After fixed intervals we observe element with similar

properties.
Non metallic
Mendeleev’s periodic Law-
Acidic oxide
the arrangement of element was based on the
Short coming-
physical and chemical properties of the element after
Satisfactory for limited number of elements, even in a fixed interval. " The properties are a periodic
the same group function of their atomic mass."

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 65

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Mendeleev’s periodic table-

Features- Grouping of dissimilar elements Eg- Cu, Ag, Au with

Na, K , Li
1. The elements were arranged into 7 horizontal
rows known as periods and 8 vertical columns Separated similar elements like Au and Pt, Cu and
known as groups. Hg

2. These 8 groups were labelled by roman Isotope should be placed separately (because of
numbers and subdivided into groups A and B different atomic mass) but no separate place was
based on their similarities. given to them

3. Group 8 consists of 9 elements arranged in Position of hydrogen (non-metal with metal)

triads.
Anomalous pair of certain elements. Eg- cobalt
4. There were many gaps left blank on the (58.95) before nickel (58.70) and argon (39.9) before
periodic table for new elements which were potassium (39)
later discovered and placed there
Modern periodic table- (Henry Moseley + Bohr)
5. Noble gasses were placed in a separate
All physical and chemical properties of the elements
group called the zero group, without
are determined by atomic number instead of atomic
disturbing the main periodic table.
mass.
Limitation-
When elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number then elements with similar properties

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 66

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
are repeated after fixed intervals or increase and Total group= 18
decrease in same intervals.
Total period= 7
Long form of periodic table-

Description of group- general electronic configuration of the atoms.

(ii) The elements in a group are separated by definite
Group 1 to 2= S block
gaps of atomic numbers (2, 8, 8,18, 18,32).
Group 3 to 12= d block (transition element) (iii) The atomic sizes of the elements in group

Group 13 to 18 = p block increase down the group due to increase the number
of shells.
Group 3- lanthanoid (58-71) and actinoid (90-103)= F
(iv) The physical properties of the elements such as
block (inner transition elements)
m.p., b.p. density, solubility etc., follow a systematic
Note- group 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16 ,17 = Representative pattern.( the b.p of g1 and g2 decrease as we move
elements down the group)
(v) The elements in each group have generally
Group 1 (Alkali metal)
similar chemical properties.
Group 2 ( Alkali earth metal)
Characteristics of periods-
th
Group 18 ( zero group/ nobel gases/ inert gases) 1. In all the elements present in a period, the
electrons are filled in the same valence shell.
Characteristics of groups:
2. The atomic sizes generally decrease from left to
(i) All the elements present in a group have same
right.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 67

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
3. As the no. of electron in valence shell change the 3. They mostly form colored ions, exhibit variable
chemical properties of the elements present in a valence (oxidation states).
period also changed. 4. They are used as catalysts.

4. Atomic radii of the elements in a period decrease Characterstics of f-Block Elements-

from left to right
1. These two series of elements are called Inner
5. Along a period reducing character of the element Transition Elements (f-Block Elements).
decrease and oxidizing character increases. 2. They are all metals. Within each series, the
properties of the elements are quite similar.
s-Block Elements-
3. Most of the elements of the actioned series are
1. All the elements are soft metals. radio-active in nature.

2. They have low melting and boiling points. Properties of Elements-

3. They are highly reactive. 1. Atomic Radii, Density, no. of shell, metallic

4. Most of them impart colours to the flame. character, Basic oxide character – Increase
as we move down to group, decrease left to
5. They generally form ionic compounds.
right in period. [no of shells remain same in a
6. They are good conductors of heat and period]
electricity
2. Ionization energy, electronegativity, M.P, B.P,
Characteristics of p-block elements- electron affinity, acidic character, Non-
metallic character decrease as we move
1. The compounds of these elements are mostly
down to group and increase as we move left
covalent in nature.
to right in a period.
2. They show variable oxidation states.
3. Valence electron, valency remain same as we
3. In moving from left to right in a period, the non- move down to group but increase left to right
metallic character of the elements increases. in a period (valency first increase than
4. The reactivity of elements in a group generally decrease)
decreases downwards.
Valency – combining capacity of an elements
5. At the end of each period is a noble gas element
with a closed valence shell ns2 np6 configuration. Group- same valence shell electronic configuration
6. Metallic character increases as we go down the of their atom (same valency).
group
Nobel gas- zero valency
Characteristics of d-block elements-
Period- moving across the period from left to right
1. They are all metals with high melting and boiling
the valency of elements with respect to H2 or Cl
points.
increase from 1 t 4 and than decreases and with
2. The compounds of the elements are generally respect to O2 increases 1 to 7.
paramagnetic (unpaired e- ) in nature.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 68

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Atomic Radii- the distance from the center of the zinc has electrons that can be easily lost or
nucleus to the outer most shell. given by.

Group- increase • Also copper metal is able to delocalize its

outer electron more easily than that zinc
Period- decrease
which makes copper stronger than zinc.
Metallic character- due to electron releasing
Ionisation energy- energy required to remove an
tendency
electron completely from an isolated gaseous atom of
Group- increase an element.

Period- decrease Na(g) + I.E → Na+ + e-

Non Metallic character- due to electron accepting Group- decrease

tendency.
Period- increase
Group- decrease
Note- Ionization energy of H2 atom- 13.6 eV
Period- increase
Q. Which of the following will have the lowest
• Note- The electron releasing tendency of zinc ionization energy?
is more than that of copper. (A) Calcium (B) Strontium

• It is because of the nature of zinc, it is more (C) Beryllium (D) Barium

oxidized than that copper which means that

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 69

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Electronegativity- electronegativity of an element is Q. The element which has the highest
the tendency of its atom to attract the shared pair of electronegativity is?
electron towards itself in a covalent bond.
(A) I (B) Br (C) Cl (D) F

Properties of some elements- Uses-

Hydrogen- Hydrogen is a unique element of the Used to prepare ammonia (NH3) by Haber process
periodic table due to its resemblance to alkali metals and it is used in fertilizer production
and the halogens.
To prepare methanol (H2+CO) (syngas)
Physical properties of Hydrogen-
Phosphorus-
The hydrogen gas is colourless, odourless and
There are four forms of phosphorus usually used
tasteless in nature
these days: white, black, red, and violet
It is lighter than air and insoluble in water.
Translucent white waxy solid.
It is inert at room temperature due to high H-H bond
White phosphorus emits a faint glow when exposed
dissociation enthalpy.
to oxygen because of slow oxidation
It has an atomic mass of 1.008 amu and an ionization
Poisonous in nature
enthalpy of 1312 kJ mol-1.
The main function of phosphorus is in the formation
Note- the 2H isotope of hydrogen deuterium (heavy
of bones and teeth
water) is used in nuclear reaction for slowing down
neutrons in heavy water moderated fission reactors. Red Phosphorus is in the striking surface of
matchbox.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 70

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Helium- low B.P, low density, low solubility, high Sand, the common form of silica, is easily available in
thermal conductivity and inertness. nature. It is the main component of glass making
along with the chief component silicon dioxide
Helium was first gas used for filling balloons and
(SiO2).
dirigibles balloons.
Types of glasses-
Phosphate (PO43- ) Uses
Soda Glass- It is produced by combining silica,
It is used in toothpaste as a polishing agent.
calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate.(Soda-lime
Tricalcium phosphate aused in the toothpaste as a glass is produced on a large scale and used
conditioning agent which helps the paste flow freely for bottles, drinking glasses, and windows).
out of the tube.
Potash Glass- It is manufactured by mixing silica,
It is used in fire extinguishers. potassium carbonate, and calcium carbonate.(To

Note- the foam base fire extinguisher contains make glass fire resistant)

Aluminium Sulphate and sodium bicarbonate. Lexan Glass- bulletproof glass

Superphosphate- it contains phosphorus and calcium Pyrex Glass- It is created by combining barium
phosphate Ca3(PO4)2. silicate with sodium silicate. also known as

The superphosphate of lime is Ca(H2PO4)2, H2O Borosillicate. (Pyrex glass is used in making

and CaSO4. laboratory apparatus because it has a higher

coefficient of thermal expansion and is heat
Sulfur- It is non-metal and is obtained as a byproduct
resistant.)
after the production of natural gas.
Xena Glass- It is created by combining zinc and
Color- yellow (odour rotten egg)
barium borosilicate. (It is used in manufacturing the
Sulfur is used as a fungicide and in black gunpowder containers of chemicals and scientific equipment.)
for the vulcanisation of natural rubber (hardness of
Flint Glass- made up of sand, red lead and
rubber).
potassium carbonate.
It is used for making car batteries, fertilizer, oil
Gunpowder- mixture of potassium nitrate, powdered
refining, water processing, and mineral extraction.
charcoal and sulphur called gunpowder (black
Glass- amorphous solid powder)

Properties of Glass Gunpowder is actually a mixutre of three different

components.
• It is a material made of natural products.
It consists of –
• It is an inorganic solid material.
Potassium nitrate (75% ), Charcoal (10%), and Sulfur
• Glass can withstand high temperatures.
(5%)
• It is 100% recyclable.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 71

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Potassium nitrate, also known as 'saltpetre', or • A dielectric material is a material that has the
'saltpetre', decomposes at high temperatures to ability to store an electrical charge but has a
provide oxygen for the reaction poor electrical conductivity

Water- water has a higher specific heat, thermal • The dielectric constant of a substance is
conductivity, surface tension, dipole moment, etc. defined as the ratio of the permittivity of the
substance to the permittivity of the free space
Water is an excellent solvent , the dipole moment
property of water makes it a good solvent. It is simply • The dielectric constant of water is 78.39.
the measure of net polarity in a molecule. (polar because of this high dielectric constant, water
molecules exhibit a large difference in electrical can dissolve ionic compounds or polar
charge) compounds in it

Zeolites are suitable for water purification, zeolites Photography developer- Sodium thiosulphate and
are natural or synthetic minera have a porous Ammonium thiosulfate are used as a fixer/developer
structure. in photography.

Chemical properties of water- Silver bromide (pale yellow water soluble) is used in
black and white photography
1. Amphoteric nature- Water can act as both acid
and base, which means that it is amphoteric in AgBr + hv → 2Ag + Br2
nature.
Q. Soaps clean surfaces on the principle based on
Example-
a. Viscosity b. Floatation
H2O + NH3 → NH4+ + OH-
c. Elasticity d. Surface Tension
H2O + H2S → H3O+ +HS-
Q. Which one of the following represents the correct
2. Redox reactions- Electropositive elements reduce order of electron releasing tendency of metals?
water to hydrogen molecule. Thus, water is a great
a. Zn>Cu>Ag b. Ag>Cu>Zn
source of hydrogen.
c. Cu>Zn>Ag d. Cu>Ag>Zn
H2O + 2Na → 2NaOH + H2
Q. Which one of the following statements regarding
3. Hydrolysis reaction- Water has a very strong
cathode rays is not correct?
hydrating tendency due to its dielectric constant. It
dissolves many ionic compounds. Some covalent a. Cathode rays particles are electrons

and ionic compounds can be hydrolyzed in water. b. Cathode ray particles start from anode and move

Note- towards cathode.

Dielectric constant c. In the absence of electrical & magnetic fields,

cathode rays travel in straight lines.

d. Television picture tubes are cathode ray tubes.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 72

 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Q. The temperature of a place on one sunny day is (b) Water has a high boiling point.
113 in Fahrenheit scale. The Kelvin scale reading of (c) Water has a high heat of fusion.
this temperature will be (d) Water is a non-polar molecule.

a. 318K b. 45K c. 62.8 K d. 335.8 K Q. In electrolytic refining of copper, the electrolyte is

a solution of
Q. Which one of the following is a non-metallic
(a) acidified copper chloride.
mineral?
(b) acidified copper sulphate.
(a) Iron (b) Mica (c) Copper (d) Bauxite
(c) potassium chloride. (d) sodium sulphate.
Q. Which one of the following statements about glass
Q. Which one of the following statements about
is not correct?
dihydrogen (H2 ) is not correct?
(a) Glass is often said to be a supercooled liquid.
(a) H2 is lighter than air and insoluble in water.
(b) Glass has no definite melting point.
(b) H2 is inert at room temperature due to high H − H
(c) Soda glass is harder than pyrex glass.
bond dissociation enthalpy.
(d) Boron is present in pyrex glass.
(c) H2 reacts with alkali metals at high temperature to
Q. Which one of the following statements about yield metal hydrides.
diamond and graphite is not correct? (d) A mixture of NO2 and H2 is known as Syngas.
(a) Diamond has a tetrahedral structure, whereas
Q. Common salt (NaCl) is not used as a raw material
graphite has a hexagonal planar structure.
for preparation of which one of the following
(b) Both physical and chemical properties of diamond compounds?
and graphite are different. (a) Bleaching powder (b) Baking soda
(c) Graphite is soft but diamond is hard. (c) Plaster of Paris (d) Washing soda

(d) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity while Q. Which one of the following compounds is used in
'black and white' photography?
diamond is not.
(a) AgF (b) AgBr (c) AgCl (d) Ag 2 SO4
Q. Which one of the following is not used as a raw Q. What is the maximum number of electrons in the
material in the manufacture of glass? M-Shell?
(a) Soda (b) Alumina (c) Borax (d) Gypsum (a) 6 (b) 8 (c) 18 (d) 32

Q. Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms of

Q. Which of the following sets of elements has the
masses 35u and 37u in the ratio of 3: 1 respectively.
same valency? What is the average atomic mass of the Chlorine
(a) Na, Mg, Ca (b) Na, Mg, Al atom?
(a) 36 ⋅ 1u (b) 35 ⋅ 5u (c) 36.5u (d) 35 ⋅ 1u
(c) Mg, Ca, K (d) Mg, Ca, Ba
Q. Which one of the following ions is not iso-
Q. A sample of 'soft soap' contains electronic with F − ?
(a) Caesium (b) Potassium (a) O2− (b) Na+ (c) Ne (d) N −
(c) Calcium (d) Magnesium Q. What is the total number of covalent bonds in
methanol?
Q. Which one of the following statements about water (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6
is not true?
(a) Hydrogen bonds are present in liquid water.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 73

 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A process in which the chemical properties of a Change in temperature-
substance is changed and new product is formed is
Exothermic reaction- reaction in which energy is
called chemical reaction.
released.
In chemical reaction only rearrangement of atoms
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) ↑
takes place.
Endothermic reaction- reactions in which heat/
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL REACTION
energy is absorbed.
(a) evolution of a gas
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s)+CO2(g)
(b) Formation of a precipitate
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS-
(c) Change in colour
Combination Reaction- Reactions in which two or
(d) change in temperature more reactants combine to form one product are called
Combination Reactions.
(e) change in state
A + B → AB
Evolution of gas- The chemical reaction between zinc
When magnesium is burnt in the air (oxygen),
and dilute sulphuric acid is characterised by the
magnesium oxide is formed. In this reaction,
evolution of hydrogen gas.
magnesium is combined with oxygen.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) ↑
Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Change in Colour- Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide

1. The chemical reaction between citric acid and Decomposition Reaction- Reactions in which one
purple coloured potassium permanganate solution is compound decomposes in two or more compounds or
characterised by a change in colour from purple to elements are known as Decomposition Reaction. A
colourless. decomposition reaction is just the opposite of

2. FeS (Black) + H2SO4 → FeSO4 (green) + H2S combination reaction.

Change in state of substance- The combustion AB → A + B

reaction of candle wax is characterized by a change in Examples:

state from solid to liquid and gas (because the wax is a
When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into
solid, water formed by the combustion of wax is a
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
liquid at room temperature whereas, carbon dioxide
produced by the combustion of wax is a gas). CaCO3(s) heat−→− CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Formation of precipitate- The chemical reaction Thermal Decomposition- Decomposition reactions

between sulphuric acid and barium chloride solution is which take place by absorption of heat.
characterised by the formation of a white precipitate of
Example:
barium sulphate.
BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (ppt) + 2HCl(aq) 1) When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes
into calcium oxide and CO2.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 74

 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s)+CO2(g) 2NaBr + Cl2 → 2 NaCl + Br2

2) 2 HgO → 2Hg aO2 3. Some reactive metals displace non-metals from its
compounds.
3) NH4Cl → NH3 + HCl
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Photochemical decomposition or Photolysis-
Decomposition reaction which take place on Double Displacement Reaction- Reactions in which
absorption of light. ions are exchanged between two reactants forming
new compounds are called Double Displacement
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
Reactions.
2AgBr → 2 Ag + Br2 AB + CD → AC + BD

2 AgCl → 2Ag + Cl2 Examples:

When the solution of barium chloride reacts with the
both reactions colour of AgBr & AgCl changes to grey
solution of sodium sulphate, white precipitate of barium
due to the formation of silver metal. The decomposition
sulphate is formed along with sodium chloride.
of silver bromide is occured by light. This light may be
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (Precipitate) +
sunlight or bulb light.
2NaCl(aq)
Electrical decomposition- Decomposition by electricity.
Note- Double Displacement Reaction, in which
(i) When electric current is passed through acidified precipitate is formed, is also known as precipitation
water, it decomposes into H2 AND O2 reaction. Neutralisation reactions are also examples of
double displacement reaction.
2H2O → 2H2 + O2
Precipitation Reaction- The reaction in which
Note- the digestion of food is the example of
precipitate is formed by the mixing of the aqueous
decomposition reaction.
solution of two salts is called Precipitation Reaction.
Displacement Reaction- The reaction in which more
AgNO3 + KCl → AgCl + KNO3
reactive element displace the less reactive element
from its salt solution. Q. Which one of the following reactions is an example
of decomposition reaction?
AB+C → AC + B
(a) CH4 (g) +2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) +2H2 O(g)
In general, a more reactive element displace a less 𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
(b) 2AgCl (s) → 2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)
reactive element from its compound. Thus, 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
(c) CuO + H2 → Cu + H2 O
Displacement reactions are exothermic in nature.
(d) Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
1. A more reactive metal displace a less reactive metal
Oxidation- Addition of oxygen or non-metallic element
from its compound.
or any other electronegative elements, or removal of
CuSO4 + Mg → MgSO4 + Cu hydrogen or metallic element or electropositive
2. Some reactive Non-metals displace less reactive element from a compound is known as Oxidation.
non-metals from its compound.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 75

 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Reduction- Addition of hydrogen or metallic element
or removal of oxygen or non-metallic element from a
compound is called Reduction.

Oxidizing agent or oxidant-It is a substance which

gives oxygen or any other electronegative element or
which remove hydrogen or any electropositive element
from a substance is called an oxidizing agent.

Reducing agent or reductant - It is substance which

gives hydrogen or any other electropositive element, or
remove oxygen or any other electronegative element
from a substance is called a reducing agent

Redox Reactions- Reaction in which oxidation and

reduction reaction occur simultaneously

Oxidation is a process is which one or more electrons

are lost.

Na → 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑒 −

Reducing agent (R.A) is a substance which can donate KMnO4, K2Cr2O7, HNO3 are common oxidizing
one or more electrons. ( Help in reduction) agents other than that halogens ( Cl, F, I), Oxygen,
H2O2, H2SO4 are the common oxidizing agents.
Reduction is a process in which one or more electron
are gained. Examples of substances that are common reducing
agents include the alkali metals, formic acid, oxalic
+ −
𝑁𝑎 + 𝑒 → Na
acid, and sulfite compounds.
Oxidising agent (OA) is substance which gain or more
A System of Rules that governs the Assignment of
electrons.( help in oxidation)
Oxidation States

• All atoms in the elemental or molecular state

have 'zero‘ oxidation state. (ex- O2, S8, I2)

• The oxidation state of oxygen is -2. However, in

peroxides such as Na2O2 and H2O2, it has an
oxidation state of -1.

• Hydrogen, too, has a +1. However, it has a

negative value in metal hydrides such as NaH,
LiH, and others.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 76

 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Halogens generally have ′−1′ oxidation state. NH3= -3
Except for fluorine, other halogens may have
H2N-NH2= -2
positive oxidation states in their oxides and
inter halogen compounds (Flurione always NH2OH = -1
has ′−1′ state). N2= 0
• Elements of group 1 and 2 in the periodic table N2O= +1
always have ′+1′ and ′+2′ oxidation states
NO= 2
respectively.
N2O3= 3
Arrange the following in increasing order of oxidation
states of iodine : NO2= 4

I2 , HI, HIO4, ICl HNO3= 5

Oxidation number of Cr in K2Cr2O7 and Cr2O3? Nitrogen form only 4 bond (3 bond covalent 1
coordinate bond)
Q. The oxidation state of nitrogen varies from:
(A) -3 to +5 (B) 0 to +5
(C) -3 to 1 (D) +3 to +5

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 77

 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Q. Which one of the following is not an example of a Which of the following statements about the given
redox reaction? reaction is NOT correct?
(a) AlCl3 + 3H2 O → Al(OH)3 + 3HCl (a) It is an example of displacement reaction
(b) 2NaH → 2Na + H2 (b) It is highly endothermic reaction
(c) 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2 O3 (c) Fe2 O3 acts as oxidizing agent
(d) CuSO4 + Zn → Cu + ZnSO4 (d) This reaction is applicable to joining of railway
tracks
Q. Which one of the following is an oxidation-reduction
reaction? Nuclear reaction- processes in which one or more
(a) NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2 O nuclides are produced from the collisions between two
(b) CaO + H2 O → Ca(OH)2 atomic nuclei or one atomic nucleus and a subatomic
(c) 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO particle. The nuclides produced from nuclear reactions
(d) Na2 SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl are different from the reacting nuclei (commonly
referred to as the parent nuclei).
Q. Which one of the following is a reduction reaction?
(a) 2Mg(s) + O2 ( g) → 2MgO (s)
(b) S(s) + O2 ( g) → SO2 ( g) Note- In nuclear reaction the mass of the atom is not
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
(c) 2HgO(s) → 2Hg(𝑙) + O2 ( g) conserved in this reactions some mass disappears.
(d) Mg(s) + S(s) → MgS(s)
in nuclear reaction mass of reactant is greater than
Q. Consider the following reaction : mass of product (E=mc 2 )

Fe2 O3 ( s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(s) + Al2 O3 ( s)

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 78

 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

The splitting of the uranium-235 nucleus when it is bombarded with neutrons is an important example of
nuclear fission. On the other hand, it happens when two atoms combine and release energy. The name for this
energy-producing process is nuclear fusion. This is how the Sun and other stars emit energy.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 79

 GREEN CHEMISTRY
Green chemistry is the design of chemical products Types-
and processes that reduce or eliminate the use or
1. Nitrogen Fertilizers- Nitrogen fertilizers contain
generation of hazardous substances.
nitrogen necessary for the development of crops.
12 principle’s of green chemistry- Nitrogen, a key constituent of chlorophyll, helps main
balance in the process of photosynthesis. It is also a
1. Prevent waste
part of amino acids in plants and contains protein.
2. Maximize atom economy Helpful in the nitrogen- fixing microorganism in soil.

3. Design less hazardous chemical syntheses Urea contains maximum percentage of nitrogen

4. Design safer chemicals and products among various fertilizer used. It can be prepared by
action of ammonia and CO2 under higher pressure
5. Use safer solvents and reaction conditions
and temperature
6. Increase energy efficiency
Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) is an important
7. Use renewable feedstock fertilizer of nitrogen because it a slow supplier of
Nitrogen.
8. Avoid chemical derivatives
Ammonium-based fertilizers are the major
9. Use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents
contributors to soil acidification, especially if the
10. Design chemicals and products to degrade after nitrogen is leached rather than taken up by plants.
use
Phosphorus Fertiliser- The protoplasm of the cell
11. Analyze in real time to prevent pollution contains phosphorus, which is crucial for cell growth
and proliferation. The growth of the plants’ roots is
12. Minimize the potential for accidents
aided by the phosphorus fertiliser.
Fertilizers-
Important fertilizers-
A natural or artificial material which is added to the
Nitrolim (mixture of CaCN2 + Graphite)
soil or plants to promote growth and productivity of the
plant and soil is called Fertilizers. Example: urea, Ammonium Phosphate
anhydrous ammonia, etc.
Ammonium Sulphate
Types Of Fertilizers-
Ammonium nitrate (It is used as both fertilizer as well
1. Organic Fertilizers- derived from plants and as explosive).
animals. These are obtained from agriculture waste,
Potash fertilizer- Potash is a mixture of potassium
livestock manure etc
minerals which ensures proper maturation in a plant
Note- Muriate (Chlorides) of Potash directly by improving overall health, root strength, disease
assimilated by the plant. resistance, and yield rates.

2. Inorganic Fertilizers- fertilizers generated by Q. A fertilizer contains 20% nitrogen by mass. To

chemical techniques. provide a fruit tree with an equivalent of 1 kg of

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 80

 GREEN CHEMISTRY
nitrogen, the quantity of fertilizer required is • It increases the temperature of earth which is
(a) 20 kg (b) 0.20 kg (c) 0.05 kg (d) 5 kg also known as global warming

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT Green House gases-

• Green house effect is the process by which carbon dioxide (major components), methane, ozone,
radiation from the sun are absorbed by the nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and water vapor
green house gases and not reflected back into
CFC- used in aerosol cans, jet fuel, refrigerants in air
space.
conditioner and refrigerator, fire extinguishers etc.
• Green house effect helpful in keeping the
earth warm.

Global warming- Change in sea levels

It is believed that increase in the concentration of Effect on range of species

greenhouse gases result rise of atmospheric
Cement- Portland cement is the basic ingredient of
temperature
concrete. Concrete is formed when Portland cement.
Effect- Water and cement initially form a cement paste that
begins to react and harden (set). This paste binds the
On atmosphere
aggregate particles through the chemical process of
Effect on weather and climate hydration.

“SSBGUIDE DEFENCE ACADEMY” 81

 GREEN CHEMISTRY
Bricklayer Joshph made Portland cement for the first Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
time by burning powdered limestone and clay.
(a) Iron is the reducing agent
the difference between cement vs concrete is that (b) The solution turns green in colour after the
Cement is a binding agent made from limestone and reaction
clay, whereas concrete is a building material created (c) Copper is a more reactive metal than iron
through the proper mixing of cement, water, sand, and (d) The reaction is an example of a redox reaction
rock.
Q. Dinitrogen (N2 ) and dioxygen (O2 ) are the main
Composition of Portland cement- constituents of air but they do not react with each
other to form oxides of nitrogen because
Limestone / Calcium oxide CaO (70%)
(a) the reaction requires initiation by a catalyst
Silica (20%) (b) oxides of nitrogen are unstable

Iron (3%) (c) the reaction is cndothermic and requires very high
temperature
Gypsum is added in calculated quantity in order to
(d) the stoichiometry of N2 and O2 in air is not ideal for
adjust the rate of setting of cement.
the reaction to take place
Note- white cement does not contain iron
Q. Which one of the following minerals is used as a
Q. The raw materials used for the manufacture of fuel in nuclear power stations?
Portland cement are (a) Bauxite (b) Quartz (c) Feldspar (d) Pitchblende
(a) Lime, silica and sulphur dioxide
Q. Which one of the following is not used as fertilizer?
(b) Lime, silica and carbon dioxide
(a) Ammonium nitrate (b) Ammonium sulphide
(c) Lime, silica and alumina
(c) Ammonium phosphate (d) Ammonium sulphate
(d) Lime, silica and boric acid
Paints- paints are stable mechanical mixture of one
Q. Which one of the following is the colour of
or more pigments. The main function of the pigments
hydrogen gas?
to impart desirable colour and to protect the film from
(a) Light yellow (b) Orange (c) Black (d) Colourless
penetrating radiation live UV.
Q. Which one of the following statements about
Blinders are basically polymers which are used in
fertilizers is not correct?
paints so that it remains stuck to the surface on which
(a) Urea is a phosphorus-containing fertilizer.
it is applied, all paints contain blinders that keep it
(b) Application of fertilizer to the soil increases fertility
dries
of the soil.
(c) Urea can be prepared by action of ammonia and Common blinder- Phthalocyanine, Acrylic resins,

carbon dioxide under high pressure and at high latex (venyl polymer), epoxy resins, phenolic resins.

temperature. Constituents of paint:

(d) Urea contains more nitrogen than other fertilizers.
1. Pigment: It is an essential constituent of paint.
Q. Which one of the following statements is NOT It provides color and opacity, in addition to that
correct for the given reaction? imparting strength and aesthetic appeal to the
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paint. E.g- White lead, Red lead, Zinc oxide, 3)They prevent the polymerization and condensation
Iron oxide, etc 4)They provide elasticity to the film and minimize its
cracking
2. Vehicle or drying oils: It is a liquid that binds
the pigment to the surface and protects Q. Turpentine oil in paints is used as a
pigment from decay e.g. linseed oil, (a) pigment (b) film-forming material
dehydrated castor oil, etc. E.g- Linseed oil, (c) thinner (d) drier
Tung oil, Poppy oil, Nut oil,etc
Q. Reaction of quick lime (CaO) with water to produce
3. Extenders or fillers: The function of addition slaked lime (Ca(OH)2 ) is an example of
of filler in paint is that it improves the (a) Displacement reaction.
properties of the paint and mainly to reduce (b) Endothermic reaction.
the cost. The main purpose is (c) Decomposition reaction.
to increase pigment volume concentration. (d) Exothermic reaction.
E.g- Gypsum, Calcium carbonate, Aluminium
Q. The following equation is an example of a redox
silicate, Magnesium silicate, Talc, Diatomite,
reaction, in which Cl2 is the oxidizing agent and FeBr3
etc
is the reducing agent :
4. Thinners or solvents: It is a volatile solvent, which
2FeBr3 (aq) + 3Cl2 ( g) = 2FeCl3 (aq) + 3Br2 (l)
is often added to paint which helps to adjust the
consistency of the paint. Solvents of oil paints are Q. Which one among the following statements is
used to thin the paints and increase the spread. incorrect for this redox reaction?
E.g- Turpentine, White spirit, Naptha, Benzine, (a) Oxidizing agents are themselves reduced
Petroleum, etc (b) Reducing agents gain or appear to gain electrons
(c) Reducing agents are themselves oxidized
5. Drier: The main function of a drier is to increase the
(d) Oxidizing agents oxidize other substances
drying power of the vehicle (absorbing moisture).
They act as oxygen-carrying catalysts. E.g- Litharge, Q. Which one among the following is a double salt?
Red lead, Sulphate of manganese, etc (a) K 4 [Fe(CN)6 ] (b) K 2 SO4 ⋅ Al2 (SO4 )3 ⋅ 24H2 O
(c) CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2 O (d) NaCl
6. Plasticizer: They remain permanently in paints and
varnishes. They improve the elasticity of the paint film Q. Three elements Na, S and O combine to form a
which prevents cracking of the film. compound Na2 SO3 . What is the valency of S in this
compound?
7. Anti-skinning agents: These are chemicals added
(a) 2 + (b) 4+ (c) 6+ (d) 8+
to paints to prevent gelling and skinning of the film is
called plasticizers. Q. In KMnO4 molecule, the oxidation states of the
elements Potassium (K), Manganese (Mn) and
Q. What is the purpose of adding plasticizers in paint
Oxygen (O) are respectively
manufacturing process?
(a) +1, +5, −2 (b) +1, +7, −2
1) They act as a film-forming constituent (c) 0,0,0 (d) +1, +7,0
2) They reduce the viscosity

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 GREEN CHEMISTRY
Q. The process of nuclear fusion in the sun requires
(a) very high temperature and very high pressure
(b) low temperature and high pressure
(c) high temperature and low pressure
(d) very high temperature and no pressure

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