CIT /CSC 101

UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1. . WHAT IS COMPUTER?
 The word “computer” is comes from the word “TO COMPUTE”
means to calculate.
 A computer is normally considered to be a calculation device which
can perform the arithmetic operations very speedily.
 A computer may be defined as a device which operates upon the data.
 Data can be in the form of numbers, letters, symbols, size etc. And
it comes in various shapes & sizes depending upon the type of
computer application.
 A computer can store, process & retrieve data as and when we desired.
 The fact that computer process data is so fundamental that many
people have started calling as “Data Processor”.
 A computer first it gets the Data, does Process on it and then
produces Information.

DATA PROCESS INFORMATION

 DEFINATION OF COMPUTER
o A computer is an electronic device which takes input from
the user, processes it and gives the output as per user’s
requirement.
o So the main tasks of performed by the computer are:
 Input
 Process
 Output
2. . WRITE DOWN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Some important characteristics of the computer are as follow:
 Automatic:
o Computers are automatic machines because it works by
itself without human intervention.
o Once it started on a job they carry on until the job is finished.
o Computer cannot start themselves.
 o They can works from the instructions which are stored inside the
system in the form of programs which specify how a particular
job is to be done.
 Accuracy:
o The accuracy of a computer is very high.
o The degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its
design.
o Errors can occur by the computer. But these are due to human
weakness, due to incorrect data, but not due to the
technological weakness.
 Speed:
o Computer is a very fact device. It can perform the amount of
work in few seconds for which a human can take an entire year.
o While talking about computer speed we do not talk in terms of
seconds and milliseconds but in microseconds.
o A powerful computer is capable of performing several billion
(109) simple arithmetic operations per second.
 Diligence:
o Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness & lack of concentration.
o It can continuously work for hours without creating any error
& without grumbling.
o If you give ten million calculations to performed, it will
perform with exactly the same accuracy & speed as the first
one.
 Versatility:
o It is one of the most wonderful features about the computer.
o One moment it is preparing the results of a particular
examination, the next moment it is busy with preparing
electricity bills and in between it may be helping an office
secretary to trace an important letter in seconds.
 Power of remembering:
o Computer can store and recall any amount of data because
of its high storage capacity of its storage devices.
o Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired
by the user and can be recalled as and when required.
o Even after several years, if the information recalled, it will be as
accurate as on the day when it was filled to the computers.
 No I.Q.
o A computer is not a magical device; it processes no intelligence of
 its own.
o Its I.Q. is zero.
 o It has to be told what to do & in what sequence.
o It cannot take its own decision.

 No Fallings:
o A Computer has no feelings because they are machines.
o Based on our feelings, task, knowledge and experience we
often make certain judgments in our day today life.
o But Computer goes exactly the way which we have given the
instructions.
3. . EXPLAIN THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
OF COMPUTER.
 The computer Data Processing is any process that a computer program
does to
enter data & summarise, analyse or convert data into useable
information.
 The process may be automated & run on a computer.
 It involves recording, analysing, storing, summarising & storing data.
 Because data are most useful when it is well presented &
informative. The Data Processing Cycle:
 Data Processing cycle described all activities which are
common to all data processing systems from manual to
electronic systems.
 These activities can be grouped in four functional categories, viz.,
data input, data processing, data output and storage, constituting
what is known as a data processing cycle.
 The main aim of data processing cycle is to convert the data into
meaningful information.
 Data processing system are often referred to as Information System.
 The Information System typically take raw Data as Input to produce
Information as Output.

INPUT OUTPUT
DATA PROCESS INFORMATION

STORAGE

 The data processing cycle contains main four functions:

o Data input
 o Data process
o Data storage
o Data output
 DATA INPUT
o The term input refers to the activities required to record data.
o It’s a process to entered data in to computer system.
o So before we input any data, it is necessary to check or
verify the data context.
 DATA PROCESSING
o The term processing includes the activities like
classifying, storing, calculating, comparing or
summarising the data.
o The processing means to use techniques to convert the
data into meaningful information.
 DATA OUTPUT
o It’s a communication function which transmits the
information to the outside world.
o After completed the process the data are converted into the
meaningful in
o Sometimes the output also includes the decoding activity
which converts the electronically generated information into
human readable form.
 DATA STORAGE
o It involves the filling of data & information for future use.
4. . EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER BY
DATA PROCESSED
The computers are divided mainly three types on the based on data
processed:
1. Analog computers
2. Digital computers
3. Hybrid
computers Analog
computers:
 In Analog Computers, data is represented as continuously varying
voltage and operate essentially by measuring rather counting.
 As the data is continuously variable, the results obtained are
estimated and not exactly repeatable.
 It can able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously and also
capable to work effectively with the irrational number. E.g. 1/8 =
0.125 and 1/6=0.1666
  Voltage, temperature and pressure are measured using analog
devices like voltmeters, thermometers and barometers.
Digital Computers
 The digit computer is a machine based on digital technology which
represents information by numerical digit.
 In Digital Computers data is represented as discrete units of electrical
pulses. The data is measured in quantities represented as either the
‘on’ or ‘off’ state.
 Therefore, the results obtained from a digital computer are accurate.
 Virtually all of today’s computers are based on digital
computers. Hybrid Computers
 It combines the good features of both analog & digital computers.
 It has a speed of analog computer & accuracy of digital computer.
 Hybrid Computers accept data in analog form and present
output also in digitally.
 The data however is processed digitally.
 Therefore, hybrid computers require analog-to-digital and digital-
to-analog converters for output.
5. . EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER BY
DATA PROCESSING:
The computers are classified in four types on the based on data
processing.
 Micro computer
 Mini computer
 Mainframe computer
 Super
computer Micro
Computer:
 Micro computers are the computers with having a
microprocessor chip as it central processing unit.
 Originated in late 1970s.
 First micro computer was built with 8 bit processor.
 Microcomputer is known as personal computer.
 Designed to use by individual whether in the form of pc’s,
workstation or notebook computers.
 Small in size and affordable for general people.
 Ex: IBM PC, IBM PC/XT, IBM PC/AT
Micro Computer:
 Mini computers are originated in 1960s.
 Small mainframes that perform limited tasks.
 Less expensive than mainframe computer.
 Mini computers are Lower mainframe in the terms of processing
capabilities.
 Capable of supporting 10 to 100 users simultaneously.
 In 1970s it contains 8 bit or 12 bit processor.
 Gradually the architecture requirement is grown and 16 and 32 bit.
 Minicomputers are invented which are known as supermini
computers.
 Ex: IBM
AS400 Mainframe
Computer:
 A very powerful computer which capable of supporting
thousands of user simultaneously.
 It contains powerful data processing system.
 It is capable to run multiple operating systems.
 It is capable to process 100 million instructions per second.
 Mainframes are very large & expensive computers with having
larger internal storage capacity & high processing speed.
 Mainframes are used in the organization that need to process large
number of transaction online & required a computer system having
massive storage & processing capabilities.
 Mainly used to handle bulk of data & information for processing.
 Mainframe system is housed in a central location with several
user terminal connected to it.
 Much bigger in size & needs a large rooms with closely
humidity & temperature.
 IBM & DEC are major vendors of mainframes.
 Ex : MEDHA, SPERRY, IBM, DEC,
HP, HCL Super Computer:
 Most powerful & most expensive computer.
 Used for complex scientific application that requires huge processing
power.
 Used multiprocessor technology to perform the calculation very
speedy.
 They are special purpose computers that are designed to
perform some specific task.
  The cost of the super computer is depended on its processing
capabilities & configuration.
 The speed of modern computer is measured in gigaflops,
teraflops and petaflops.
o Gigaflops= 109 arithmetic operation per second.
o Teraflops=1012 arithmetic operation per second.
o Petaflops=1015 arithmetic operation per second.
 Ex: PARAM , EKA, BLUE GENE/P

6. . EXPLAIN THE GENERATION OF THE COMPUTERS.

In Computer language, “Generation” is a set of Technology. It provides a
framework for the growth of the computer technology. There are totally Five
Computer Generations till today. Discussed as following.
First Generation:
 Duration: 1942-1955
 Technology: vacuum tube
o Used as a calculating device.
o Performed calculations in milliseconds.
o To bulky in size & complex design.
o Required large room to place it.
o Generates too much heat & burnt.
o Required continuously hardware maintenance.
o Generates much heat so must air-conditioner rooms are required.
o Commercial production is difficult & costly.
o Difficult to configure.
o Limited commercial use.
o ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC are example of 1st generation computer.

Second Generation:
 Duration: 1955-1964
 Technology: transistor
o 10 times Smaller in size than 1st generation system.
o Less heat than 1st generation computers.
o Consumed less power than 1st generation system.
o Computers were done calculations in microseconds.
o Air-conditioner is also required.
o Easy to configure than 1st generation computers.
 o More reliable in information.
o Wider commercial use.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 1st generation
computers.

Third Generation:
 Duration: 1965-1975
 Technology: IC chip
o Smaller in size than 1st & 2nd generation computers.
o Perform more fast calculations than 2nd generation systems.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 2nd generation
computers.
o Air –conditioner is required.
o Widely used for commercial applications.
o General purpose computers.
o High level languages like COBOL & FORTAN are allowed to write
programs.
o Generate less heat & consumed less power than 2nd generation
computer.

Fourth Generation:
 Duration: 1975-1989
 Technology: Microprocessor chip
o Based on LSI & VLSI microprocessor chip.
o Smaller in size.
o Much faster than previous generations.
o Minimum hardware maintenance is required.
o Very reliable as computer to previous generation computers.
o Totally general purpose computer.
o Easy to configure.
o Possible to use network concept to connect the computer together.
o NO requirement of air-conditioners.
o Cheapest in price.

Fifth Generation:
 Duration: 1989 to Present
 Technology: ULSI microprocessor chip
o Much smaller & handy.
o Based on the ULSI chip which contains 100 million electronic
components.
o The speed of the operations is increased.
o Consumed less power.
o Air-conditioner is not required.
o More user friendly interface with multi-media features.
o High level languages are allowed to write programs.
o Larger & faster primary/secondary storage than previous generations.
 o Notebook computers are the example of 5th generation computers.

7. . EXPLAIN THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER OR

EXPLAIN THE SIMPLE MODEL COMPUTER.
A simple computer system comprises the basic components like Input
Devices, CPU (Central Processing Unit) and Output Devices as under:


 Input Devices:
o The devices which are used to entered data in the computer
systems are known as input devices.
o Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mike, light pen etc are example of
input devices.
o FUNCTION OF INPUT DEVICES
o Accept the data from the outside worlds.
o Convert that data into computer coded information.
o Supply this data to CPU for further processing.
 Output Devices:
o The devices which display the result generated by the computer are
known as output devices.
o Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker etc are the example of output
devices.
FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT DEVICES
o Accept the result form the CPU.
o Convert that result into human readable form.
o Display the result on the output device.

 Memory Unit:
o The data & instruction have to store inside the computer before
the actual processing start.
o Same way the result of the computer must be stored before
passed to the output devices. This tasks performed by memory
unit.

FUNCTIONS OF MEMORY UNIT

o Store data & instruction received from input devices.
o Store the intermediate results generated by CPU.
o Store the final result generated by CPU.

 Arithmetical & Logical Unit:

o The ALU is the place where actual data & instruction are processed.
o All the calculations are performed & all comparisons are made in ALU.
o Performs all arithmetical & logical operations.
o An arithmetic operation contains basic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division.
o Logical operations contains comparison such as less than,
greater than, less than equal to, greater than equal to, equal to, not
equal to.

 Control Unit:
o It controls the movement of data and program instructions into
and out of the CPU, and to control the operations of the ALU.
o In sort, its main function is to manage all the activities within the
computer system.
o Controls the internal parts as well as the external parts related
with the computer.
 CPU:
o The Unit where all the processing is done is called as Central
Processing Unit.
o It contains many other units under it.
o Main of them are:- Control Unit And ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit)
 UNIT: 2 INPUT DEVICES

1. . WHAT IS INPUT DEVICES ?

 The Input devices are the devices which are used to enter the
data in the computer system.
 Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone are the example of
input devices. FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES:
o Accept the data from the outside worlds.
o Convert that data into computer coded information.
o Supply this data to Central Processing Unit for further processing.

CLASIFICATION OF INPUT DEVICES:

2. EXPLAIN STANDARD INPUT DEVICE: KEYBOARD.

 Keyboard is most commonly used input device.
 It is similar like a type writer which is used to enter data in the computer.
 It contains sets of keys such as alphabets, number & special signs.
 There are two types of keyboard.
o General purpose keyboard
o Special purpose keyboard
GENERAL PURPOSE KEYBOARD:
 Standard keyboard which are used in personal computers.
 It contains enough keys which are used in all types of applications
so they are known as general purpose keyboard.
 Most popular general purpose keyboard contains 101 keys.
 The general purpose keyboard are divided into
following parts: 
 ALPHANUMERAIC KEYPAD
 The centred part of the keyboard is known as alphanumeric keypad.
 It contains alphabets, numbers & special signs such as *,!, @, #,
$, %,* etc.
 NUMERAIC KEYPAD
 The right most part of the keyboard is known as numeric keypad.
 It contains 0 to 9 numbers & mathematical signs such as +, *, -, /.
 Mainly used for fast data entry in mathematical
applications.
 ARROW KEYS
 Set of four keys up, down, left & right.
 Used to move the cursor at left & right or up and down on the screen.
 They are referred as “cursor-control” or “cursor-
movement” keys. 
 FUNCTION KEYS
 The first line of the keyboard contains a Set of 12 keys with name
f1 to f2 are known as function keys.
 Used to generate short-cuts in different software
package. 
 SPECIAL KEYS
 There are lots of keys that are used for some specific task describes
follows:
 TAB: used for gives multiple spaces or move the cursor to next defined
position.
 ENTER: used for generate the output of any command.
 SPACE: used to make one blank space between two words.
 BACKSPACE: used to remove the left-most character at cursor position.
 DELETE: used to remove the right-most character at cursor position.
 HOME: moves the cursor at the beginning of the line.
 END: moves cursor at the end of the line.
 PAGE UP: moves or scroll the screen up or previous page of the current
page.
 PAGE DOWN: moves the screen to the next page from the currently
displayed page.
 PRINT SCREEN: used to print what is currently displayed on the screen.
 INSERT: used to enter text between two characters.
  ESC: used to negate current command or terminate the
execution of the program.
 ALT: used to expand the functionality of keyboard. Basically used
to generate shortcuts in different application.
 CTRL: used to expand the functionality of keyboard. Basically used
to generate shortcuts in different application.
 NUMLOCK: used to on or off the numeric keypad.
 CAPSLOCK: used to type the all inputted text capitally.
SPECIAL PURPOSE KEYBOARD
 Special purpose keyboard is used for special purpose applications
which required faster data entry and rapid interaction with the
computer system.
 For example ATM used in banks used special purpose keyboard
which contains a few keys.
3. . EXPLAIN POINTING DEVICES.
1. . MOUSE
 Mouse is Small hand-hold device Input device which is
generally used for drawing purpose.
 It’s a Pointing device.
 It contains two or three buttons
 Left button is used to point out or select any item by clicking.
 Right to generate context menu.
 When user moves mouse across flat surface, the graphic cursor moves
on screen.
 Graphic cursor contains verity of symbols such as arrow, wrist,
pointing finger etc.
 Depending on application text & graphic cursors are changed.
 The following 5 techniques are used to carry out various operations:
 POINT:
o To move the mouse on top of icon
 C LICK:
o To press & release the left button of mouse at once.
o Used to open any currently selected icon, menu.
 DOUBLE CLICK:
o To press & release the left button of mouse twice.
o Used to open any application or program.

 SIMULTANEOUS-CLICK:
o Press & release left & right button to gather.
 o Used in some software package to added some functionality.
 DRAG:
o Press the left button down & moved the mouse on screen.
o Used to move the graphics on screen.
 Many types of mouse are available such as mechanical mouse,
optical mouse, serial mouse, wireless mouse which are used for
different purpose.

2. . TRACK BALL

 Trackball is a pointing device which is similar to a mouse.

 A ball is placed on the track ball device which is used to move the
graphic cursor on the screen.
 It also contains buttons which are used to select a particular item on the
screen.
 To move the graphic cursor on screen, the ball is rolled with the
fingers or thumb.
 It needs not to move the whole device to move the cursor so it is
often attached with some keyboards.
 Track balls come in various shapes with same functionality.
 Commonly three shapes are used: ABALL, A SQUARE, and A SQUARE.
 In case of ball we need to move it with the help of finger.
 In case of button pushed with finger in desired direction of
the cursor movement.
 In case of button press finger to up or down & left or right to
move cursor. Advantages of track ball
 Takes less desk space.
  Takes less arm movements than mouse.
 Doesn’t require any mouse pad & large area to move the mouse.
 Less strain on the wrist.
 Finger trip control which may offer more accuracy than mouse.

3. . JOYSTICK

 Joystick is a pointing device which is works on the same principle of

track ball.
 It contains a stick which is placed on the spherical ball.
 The stick is used to move the cursor at desired position left or right
or backward or forward.
 It also contain button that is clicked to make selection of currently
pointed item.
 A joystick is similar to a mouse, except that with a mouse the
cursor stops moving as soon as you stop moving the mouse.
 With a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the direction the
joystick is pointing.
 To stop the pointer, you must return the joystick to its upright position.
 Some of the systems using joysticks are
o Aircrafts, UAVs for flight control
o Motorized Wheelchairs as input device
o Microscopes
o Submarines
o Security Systems
o Video Games
 Joysticks are widely used for video games
 Advantages of joystick
 It is very easy to learn to use.
  Very simple design so they can be inexpensive.
 It has a big analogue stick in the middle so it’s easier to control.

4. . LIGHT PEN

 Light pen is a pointing device which is used to draw directly draw on the
screen.
 It is called light pen because it is similar to a pen & senses light.
 It’s an input device in the form of light-sensitive stick used in
conjunction with a CRT display.
 The light pen allows the user to point out or draw any object on the
screen.
 The user brings the pen to the desired point on screen and
presses the pen button to make contact.
 It has a switch on its top which allows the user to make contact with
screen.
 It is useful for drawing or graphics in the program such as CAD
(computer aided design).
 An engineer, architect or fashion designer can draw directly on screen.
 Used in application such as gaming, graphic arts, healthcare
applications etc.
 Light pen cannot scratch or damage a screen.
Advantages of light pen;
o Less expensive than touch screen.
o give the user the full range of mouse capabilities, without the
use of a pad or any horizontal surface
o Cannot scratch or damage screen.
o Works on any size screen.

5. . TOUCH SCREEN
 Touch screen is a pointing device.
 It is most simple & easiest to learn of all input devices.
 It allows the user to choose from available options by simply
touching with their figure to the desired icon or menu item displayed
on the computer screen.
 A touch screen is an electronic visual display that can detect the
presence and location of a touch within the display area.
 The term generally refers to touching the display of the device with
a finger or hand.
 Touch screens are common in devices such as computers, tablet
computers & Smartphone.
 The touch screen has two main attributes::
o First, it enables one to interact directly with what is displayed.
o Secondly, it lets one do so without requiring any intermediate
device that would need to be held in the hand
 It’s a very easy to operate device which users can use the system
without any formal training.
 Uses optical sensors that detect the touch of the finger on screen.
 Sensors communicate the position of touch to the computer which
interprets the input made by the users.
 It contains pressure sensitive monitors which are placed inside
the base of computer screen.
 Pressure sensitive monitors contain sensors to measure the
monitor’s weight at many points.
 When user touches the screen, the changes on weights & forces
transferred down to sensor which allows the device to detect the
location of the touch.
 This type of monitors required little pressure to transmit the desired
input.
 Touch screen are commonly used in following places.
o An airport or railway station.
o Large departmental stores.
o In large museums or zoos to guide visitors to the locations
of various attractions.
o Self service check out
o In ATM machines
o In I-phones or PDA’s
o Computer based training
 Any type of touch screen contains Three main
components: A touch screen sensor panel:
 o Which sits above the display & generate appropriate voltage
according to where precisely it is touched?
A touch screen controller:
o Processes the signal received from the sensor & translates this
touch event data & passed to pc’s processor via serial or USB
interface.
A soft ware driver:
o Provides an interface to the pc’s operating system & which
translates the touch event data into mouse event.
6. . DIGITIZER

 An input device.
 Used for converting pictures, map & drawing into digital form.
 Allows one to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the way
one draws images with a pencil and paper.
 Also be used to capture data or handwritten signatures.
 The device consists of a flat surface upon which the user may
"draw" an image using an attached stylus, a pen-like drawing tool.
 These devices are usually connected via a Serial port.
 Placed on the desk n connected with the computer.
 Digitizer consists of graphic tablets which are associated with a stylus.
 The stylus is like a pen with a button.
 Stylus connected with a tablet and can press down at a point on
the tablet to input (x, y) co-ordinates of point.
 It contains hundreds of copper wires forming a grid that receives electric
pulsed.
 When stylus moves on tables the cursor on screen moves
simultaneously.
 Allows the user to draw sketches directly.
 Commonly used in CAD by architects & engineers.
  Used in GIS (geographical information system) for digitizing maps.

7. . MICROPHONE
 It’s an input device.
 Used to stores the voice data into the computer system.
 Microphones are a type of transducer - a device which converts
energy from one form to another.
 Microphones convert sound waves into electrical energy.
 Different types of microphone have different ways of converting energy.

 All the microphones share one common thing: The diaphragm.

 Thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminium) which
vibrates when it is struck by sound waves.
 When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the
microphone to vibrate.
 These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which
becomes the audio signal.
 The microphones are divided in mainly
two types The type of conversion technology
they use
o This refers to the technical method the mike uses to convert
sound into electricity.
o The most common technologies are dynamic, condenser,
ribbon and crystal.
The type of application they are designed for
o Some mikes are designed for general use and others are much
specialised purpose.
8. . WEB CAMERA
 It’s an input device.
 Used to feeds the image to a computer or computer network often
via USB or Wi-Fi.
  Web camera is a hardware camera connected to a computer
that allows everyone to connect to internet to view either
pictures or motion video.
 Most Web cameras are embedded to display with laptop computer or
connected with USB or Wi-Fi with a computer.
 Simple web cam. Consists a digital camera attached to your
computer typically through USB.
 The camera part of web camera is just a digital camera.
 Web camera comes with software which preset interval & transfer it
to another location of viewing.
 Web camera system allows you to using video also for that you have
web camera with high frame rate.
 Web camera is a digital camera which taking picture over & over &
again one after another.
 These images are stored image into the physical memory of camera in
built in.
 After capture image & stored in memory it reduced the amount of
data need to transmit.
 Web camera software takes image & converts data in jpeg (compressing
format).

9. . EXPLAIN SCANNER & ITS TYPES.

 Scanners are input devices.
 They are capable of entering information directly into the computer.
 The main advantage of direct entry of information is that users do
not have to key the information.
 And another advantage is that through Scanners you can input
Graphical Data into the computer. This
 Provides faster and more accurate data entry. 
Important types of scanners
Image scanner:
 It’s an input device, which translates paper documents into an
electronic format which can b stored in a computer.
 The input document may be typed text, pictures, graphics or even
handwritten material.
 There are two types of image
scanner: Flatbed scanner
 o It’s like a zerox machine which consist of box having a glass
plate on its top and a lid to covers the glass plate.
o The document placed inside the glass plate & light source is
situated blow glass plate which moves horizontally from left to
write & scanning document line by line.
Handheld scanner
o It contains a set of light emitting diodes encased in small case
which can be conveniently held in hand.
o To scan a document the scanner is slowly dragged on the
document.
o The scanner has to be dragged carefully & steadily
otherwise the document cannot scan properly.
o Used when higher accuracy is not required.

10 . EXPLAIN THE OPTICAL SCANNERS

OMR (OPTICAL MARK READER)

 OMR is a device that is capable of recognised pre-specified type of

mark made by pencil or pen.
 The Optical Mark Reader is a device which can detect the presence or
absence of a mark on a paper.
 The OMR recognise the marks by focusing a light on the paper being
scanned & detect the reflected light pattern from mark.
 The present mark is detected due to intensity of light being reflected from
the mark.
 Pencil marks made with soft lead pencil reflect the light which allowing
the OMR to determine which response are mark.
 OMR is used in reading answers sheets,
questionnaires.
 ADVANTAGES
 Speedy and accurate to generate result.
 Cheap incost.
DISADVANTAGES
 Cannot able to read characters.
 Erasing or cancellation is not possible.
 Good quality expensive paper is required.
 OCR (OPTICAL CHARACTER READER) DEVICE
 OCR capable of recognizing alphabets & numbers printed on paper.
 It can also capable of recognise shape & identify character directly
from source document.
 It is always used with character recognized software.
 It converts bitmap images of character to equivalent ASCII code.
 First it create bitmap image of document & OCR software translate into
ASCII code which computer interprets letter, symbol or number.
 The type of document must be type using OCR fonts.
 The software design to recognised the standard OCR-A(American
standard) & OCR- B(European standard)
ADVANTAGES
 Speedy entered data.
 Accept wide range of font using ordinary
mark. DISADVANTAGE
 Expensive
 Scanned properly only if the characters are standard size.
 Dusty paper cant scanned properly.

MICR (MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION)

 MICR systems use special ink which can be magnetized, to print
characters that can then be read and decoded by special magnetic
devices.
 The common E13B font is used to write these special kinds of cheques.
 E13B font contains 0-9 numbers & 4 symbols.
 Detection of characters is a two step process.
 First MICR Reader-Sorter reads the data on cheques & sorts the
cheques for distribution for further processing.
 The reading station is used to sense and identify the magnetic
characters as they pass through.
 Magnetized characters are read by the head. E.g. MICR is used in Banks
to cheques the MICR systems use special ink which can be magnetized,
to print characters cheques.
ADVANTAGES
 Speedy data entry.
 Accurate output.
 Folded or roughly handled cheques are also scanned with
same accuracy. DISADVANTAGE
 MICR software is required.
 Limited fonts are used so used in banking industries only.
BCR (BAR CODE READER) DEVICE
 Data can be coded in the form of small lines which are known as Bar
Codes.
 Bar codes represent the alphanumeric data by combination of vertical
lines which contains different width & spacing between them.
 Bar Code Reader is a device which are used to recognized bar code data.
 It scanned the barcode image & converted into alphanumeric
value & fed to computer.
 It uses laser-beam technology. Laser stroke across the pattern of bar
which sensed by light sensitive decoder & their reflection of light
pattern are converted into electrical pulse which converted it into
alphanumeric value.
 Various barcodes are available for different use.
 Most common is UPC (UNIVERSAL PRODUCT CODE).
It contain 10 digit first 5 identify the manufacturer name & remaining identify a
specific product.
 UNIT: 3 OUTPUT DEVICES
1. . WHAT IS OUTPUT DEVICE.
 The output devices are the devices which are used to display
the result generated by the computer system.
 Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker are the example of output
devices. FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES:
o Accept the result from the CPU.
o Convert that result into human readable form.
o Supply this result to output device.
2. . EXPLAIN THE VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT
OR
EXPLAIN CRT (CATHOD RAY TUBE) MONITER.
 The monitor is the common output device mostly used It is a
softcopy output device.
 It can be thought of as a high resolution TV set.
 The monitor can also determine if the display will be colour, black
and white, or include graphical objects (pictures).
 Two types of monitors are used.
o CRT monitors.
o Non CRT monitors.
 Most computer monitors are based on Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
technology.
 The basic operation of these tubes is similar to that in television sets.
  
 In CRT display CRT is a specialised vacuum tube in which images
are produced when electron beam strikes a phosphor surface.
 CRT monitor contains cathode, control grid, acceleration anode,
deflection plates & phosphor coated screen.
 Cathode: the cathode is heated by filament and produced high
speed & large amount of electrons.
 Control Grid: used to control the brightness of the screen. It controls
the number of electrons.
 Accelerating anodes: they are with focusing lens are applied
with positive electrons.
 Horizontal deflection plate: moves electron side by side.
 Vertical deflection: moves electrons up & down.
 Screen: contains millions of tiny red, green, blue phosphor dot that
glow when struck by electron beam that travels across screen to
create a visible image.
ADVANTAGES OF CRT DISPLAY
 Produce more colours.
 Price is lower than LCD & Plasma.
 High contrast ratio.
 Can easily increase brightness of monitor by reflecting
the light. DISADVANTAGES OF CRT DISPLAY
 High power consumed.
 Heavy to pick up and carry.
 Large space required.

3. . EXPLAIN THE NON CRT DISPLAY.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

 In LCD, a liquid crystalline material is sandwiched between two glass
or a plastic plates.
 The front plate is transparent and the back plate is reflective.
 There is a coating of thin film on the front plate.
 The coating is transparent and conductive. Its sections
(segments) are in the shape of desired characters.
 LCDs do not emit their own light. Therefore, a light source is to be used.
 LCDs simply change the reflection of available light. Today, most
LCDs used are of the type that produces dark images on a silver
background.
Advantages:
 Light weight as compare to CRT.
 Perfectly flat screen.
 Consumed low electricity power.
 Able to generate higher brightness in
images. Disadvantages:
 Fixed resolution that cannot be changed.
 Expensive than CRT display.
 Limited viewing angle.
 Short life.

PDP (Plasma Displays Panel)

 In Plasma Displays, ionized gas is sandwiched between two glass plates.
 A number of parallel wires run horizontally as well as vertically.
 A small amount of current is passed through one horizontal and one
vertical wire to cause the gas to glow at a spot at the intersection of
the wires.
 The IBM 581 display employs 960 horizontal and 768 vertical pixel as
compared to IBM-PC colour graphic adapter which is provided with
320 X 200 pixels in medium resolution and 640 X 200 in high
resolution.
Advantages:
 Large viewing angle.
 Thinner in width.
 Free standing or can be easily mounted on wall.
 Clear image, brighter viewing angle, better colour quality & high
contrast ratio. Disadvantages:
 The plasma displays screens are costly.
 These are available on the selected models of portable computers.
 More electricity than LCD.
 
 As your plasma get older the brightness get dimmer.

4. . WHAT IS PRINTER? EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF PRINTER.

Printer
 The printer is a most commonly used output device.
 It is used to producing the hard copy output.
 It prints characters, symbols & graphics on the paper.
 Printer can be categorised according to the technology used in
printer, speed, and approach of printing, colours, language & the
quality of printing.
 Mainly printer can be classified in two types:
o Impact printer
o Non impact
printer
IMPACT PRINTER:
 It works on the same mechanism of type-writer.
 It forms a character or image by striking mechanism such as
hammer or wheel against to ink ribbon, leaving an image on paper.
 It is oldest technology and still is in used.
 It can capable to print single character or line at the same time.
 Commonly types of impact printers are dot matrix, daisy wheel,
chain, drum printer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPACT PRINTER:
o Physical contact with paper to produce output.
o Low cost
o Very noisy
o Very slow in printing
o Low quality print out
o Stand with dusty or extreme
environment NON IMPACT PRINTER:
 Non impact printer forms characters & images on paper without
actually striking the paper.
 Paper & print head come in contact & hence the text or image is formed.
 Ink jet & laser printer are example of non impact
printer. CHARACTERISTICS OF NON IMPACT
PRINTER
o Faster than impact printer.
 o Ability to change type face automatically.
o High quality output.
o Support transparency.
o More expensive than impact printer.
o Less maintenance than impact printer.
5. . EXPLAIN IMPACT PRINTERS.
Dot matrix printer:
 Character printer.
 Capable to print single character at the same time.
 Forms characters & images as a pattern of dots.
 Contains a print head which moves horizontally across paper.
 Uses 5 × 7 matrix to form a character.
 Print by hammering the pins on inked ribbon to leave ink
impressions on the paper.
 Able to print 30 to 600 characters per second.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost & easily available.
o Cheap in cost.
o Can make carbon copy of print out.
o Low maintenance cost.
o Work with any type of environment.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slow in speed.
o Very noisy.
o Cannot work perfectly in graphics.

DAISY WHEEL PRINTER:

 Character printer.
 Able to print a single character at the same time.
 Contain a metal wheel on which the characters & numbers are raised
on the each petal.
 The wheel is rotated very fast when the desired characters arrives
at correct position a print hammer strike to produce output.
 Different type of font face can be used by replacing the daisy wheel.
 Able to print bold letter by striking on specific characters twice or thrice.
 Capable to print 10 to 50 characters per second.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost.
o Can make carbon copy of print out.
o Low maintenance cost.
o Printing quality is similar to a type writer.
o Able to print bold characters.
o Allows using different font-face in same document.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Very slow in speed.
o Very noisy.
o Cannot print
graphics.
DRUM PRINTER:
 It’s a line printer.
 Able to print a line at the same time.
 Consist of a solid cylindrical drum with characters embossed on
it in circular band.
 Each band consists of character set which contains 96 characters.
 Drum rotates fastly when desired characters arrives an
appropriate hammer stike on ribbon & character is print on paper.
 Capable to print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost than non impact printer.
o Can make carbon copy of print out.
o Low maintenance cost.
o Faster than other impact printer.
o Printing quality is similar to a type writer.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Very slow in speed.
o Very noisy.
o Large & heavy.
o Cannot print graphics.
Only prints predefined set of characters.
CHANIN PRINTER:
 It’s a line printer.
  
 Able to print a line at the same time.
 Consist of a metallic chain on which all characters of character set are
embossed.
 Character set contains 48, 64 or 96 characters.
 Characters are embossed several times.
 Chain rotates at high speed when the desired characters in correct
position the hammer strikes & the characters are print on paper.
 Capable to print 400 to 2500 lines per minutes.

 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost than non impact printer.
o Can make carbon copy of print out.
o Chain can be easily changed.
o Allowed to print different type font.
o Printing quality is similar to a type writer.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slower than non impact printer.
o Very noisy.
o Large & heavy.
o Cannot print graphics.
o Only prints predefined set of characters.
7. . EXPALAIN NON -IMPACT PRINTERS.
INK-JET PRINTER:
 It’s non-impact printer.
 It’s a character printer.
 Forms characters and all kinds of images by spraying drops of
ink on to the paper.
 Print head contains 64 tiny nozzles.
 To print a character the printer the printer selectively heats the
appropriate set of nozzle as the print head moves horizontally.
 Inkjet printer can either colour or monochrome.
 Capable to print 30 to 400 characters per minutes.
 ADVANTAGES:
o High quality output.
o Silent during the operation.
o Able to print graphics.
o Able to print any characters & graphics.
 o Able to generate colour & monochrome output.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slower than dot matrix printer.
o Cannot make carbon copy of print out.
Expensive than impact printer.

LASER PRINTER:
 It’s non-impact printer.
 It’s a page printer.
 Three main components laser beam, a multi-sided mirror, a
photoconductive drum & toner.
 To print page laser beam is focused on drum by spinning multisided
mirror.
 Drum is electric charged.
 Toner which is composed of oppositely charged ink particles, stick to
the drum.
 Then toner focused on the paper with heat & pressure to generate
output.
 Low speed laser printer can print 4 to 12 page per minute while high
speed laser printer Capable to print 500 to 1000 pages per minutes.
 ADVANTAGES:
o High quality output.
o Very faster in speed.
o Silent during the operation.
o Able to print graphics.
o Able to print any characters & graphics.
o Able to generate colour & monochrome output.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Very expensive.
o Cannot make carbon copy of print out.

8. . WRITE DOWN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPACT &

NON -IMPACT PRINTER .
Impact printer Non impact printer
Printing character by striking hammer Printing characters or graphics by
against ink ribbon to produce output spraying ink on paper.
Slow in speed Faster than impact printer
Work with any environment Can’t work with all environment
Less expensive than non impact More expensive than impact printer
printer
Noisy during printing Silent during printing
Able to produced carbon copy output Cant able to produced carbon copy
output
e.g.: e.g.:
daisy wheel, drum, chain, dot matrix inkjet, laser

9. . WHAT IS PLOTTER? EXPLAIN ITS TYPE.

Plotter:
 Plotter is an output device which is capable to producing
hardcopy output of graphics.
 Used to producing wide format printing.
 It is an ideal output device for architects, engineers, city planners and
other who need to generate hardcopy output of widely varying in
sizes.
 Woks on the same mechanism of human holding pen & moving on
paper.
 Contains multiple pens & pencil which can be easily changed out
in order to create drawing of different colours.
 Normally generate output very slowly.
 Mainly two types of plotters are used:
o Drum plotter
o Flatbed

Drum plotter:
 In the case design has to be made is placed over a drum.
 It consist one or more than penholders which are mounted to the drum
surface.
 The drum plotter both the paper and the pen move.
 The paper is contained on two rollers and passes over a drum.
 The pen is driven along fixed arm set across the length of the drum.
 It is especially useful for plotting continuous line graph.
 The accuracy of the drum type depends on the paper transport
mechanism, which in turn is dependent on the width of the paper
and it can also produce larger drawings.

Flatbed Plotter
 The Flatbed Plotter is generally more expensive and can produce
very detailed and accurate drawings.
 The paper is mounted on a stationary flatbed.
32
 The pen is mounted on a moveable arm.
 Colour drawing can be produced by some plotters through
interchangeable pens.
 Able to draw output in small size as A4 size or can able to generate
very large size can be up to 20ft by 50ft.
 Specially used in the design of cars, ships, aircrafts, buildings, highways
etc.

9. . WRITE A BRIEF NOTE ON SPEAKER.

 The speaker is output device which is connected to computer’s
soundcard.
 The speaker output the sound generated by the sound card.
 Audio data is generated by computer is send to audio card which
is located inside extension slot.
 It can translate data into audio signal which are sending to speaker.
 The speaker can able to produced series of different tones.
UNIT: 4 INTERNAL/EXTERNAL PARTS
WITH COMPUTER CABINATE
1. EXPLAIN TYPES OF PROCESSORS.
DUAL CORE


 Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution
cores per physical processor.
 It has combined two processors and their caches and cache
controllers onto a single integrated circuit (silicon chip )
 Multi-core is similar to dual-core in that it is an expansion to the
dual-core technology which allows for more than two separate
processors.
 Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution
cores per physical processor.
 It combines two processors and their caches and cache controllers
onto a single integrated circuit (silicon chip).













 It is basically two processors, in most cases, rsesiding reside side-
by-side on the same die.
 Dual-core processors are well-suited for multitasking
environments because there are two complete execution cores
instead of one.
 Each with an independent interface to the front side bus.
 Since each core has its own cache, the operating system has
sufficient resources to handle most compute intensive tasks in
parallel.

ADVANTAGES:
 Performance is faster than single-core processors.
 Able to divide information for processing by multiple units.
 Core processor uses slightly less power than two coupled single-core
processors
 Multi-core chips also allow higher performance at lower energy.

CORE 2 DUO
 Core 2 Duo is the name given by Intel to its second batch of dual core
processors.
 Desktop PCs with the Intel® Core™2 processor family deliver faster
performance, greater energy efficiency, and more responsive
multitasking.
 Intel’s dual core processors were simply 2 Pentium 3
processors that were fabricated in a single chip.
 As they refined their product more, they decided to differentiate their
second set of processors from the Core Duo and decided to call it
Core 2 Duo.
 The difference between dual core processors and the Core 2 Duo
processors is just in the semantics as Core 2 Duo is simply a name
given to a more recent family of dual core processors.
 If we translate this to the single core processors, we can say that
Core Duo is Pentium 1 while Core 2 Duo is Pentium 2. But all these
are still single core processors.
 We can therefore say that Core 2 Duo is simply a subset of all the
dual core processors that are out in the market today.

Features and benefits

 With an Intel® Core™2 Duo processor you will get performance-rich
technologies,
 Intel® multi-core processing provides greater multitasking
performance by combining two independent processor cores in
one physical package.
 Execution improves execution time and energy efficiency with more
instructions per clock cycle.
 Power Capability enables smarter, more energy-efficient performance.
 Intel® Smart Memory Access improves system performance by
optimizing the use of the available data bandwidth
 Intel® Advanced Smart Cache enables higher performance and
more efficient cache subsystem by optimizing for multi-core
processors.
 
2. EXPLAIN PRIMORY STORAGE DEVICE.
 It’s a temporary storage.
 It consists of some chips.
 The data & instruction are resided in this memory when the CPU
executing programs.
 This memory can capable to store & retrieved data very quickly.
 Primary memory is only the memory that is directly access to the CPU.
35
 RAM
 The complete name of RAM is random access memory which is
also known as Primary memory.
 It is called read/write memory because data can be read as well as write
in RAM.
 It is called random access because you can directly access any data
from RAM if you know row & column cell.
 The RAM chip is fixed on the mother board & the mother board is
designed in such a way that its memory capacity can be enhanced by
adding more RAM chip.
 RAM is a VOLETILE memory.
 RAM chips are of two types:
DRAM:
 Dynamic Random Access Memory is a volatile memory that allows
fast access to data and is ideal for use as the primary store of
computer systems.
 However, the information is stored as electrical charges and the
charges need to be constantly refreshed in order for the data to be
maintained.

SRAM:
 Static Random Access Memory is also a volatile memory.
 Once data is written into the chip, it is maintained as long as power is
supplied to it; it does not need refreshing.
 However, SRAM is slower than DRAM and it is also more expensive.
ROM
 The complete name of ROM is read only memory.
 The data stored permanently & can’t be altered by the programmer.
 Data stored in RAM chip can be read & used but cannot be changed.
 This memory also known a field storage permanent storage or dead
storage.
 It is basically used to store manufacturer programmed & user program.
 Most of the basic operations are carried out by electronic circuits
which are known as micro programs.
 These programs are stored in ROM. For ex. System Boot Loader.
PROM
 Programmable Read Only Memory is a non-volatile memory which
allows the user to program the chip with a PROM writer.
 The chip can be programmed once, thereafter, it cannot be altered.
EPROM & EEPROM
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory and Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory chips can be
electrically programmed.
 Unlike ROM and PROM chips, EPROM chips can be erased and
reprogrammed.
3. .
EXPLAIN FOLLOWING PORTS
SERIAL PORT
 Known as asynchronous port or RS-232-C port.
 This type of port is sends & receives data using only two line.
 Therefore this type of port is ideal for connection to the phone
circuits which uses 2 data lines.
 The communication process of data transfer is slower.
 Due to this reason it is not used for printer.
 It has high signal travelling capacity.

PARALLEL PORT
 Known as centronics or printer port.
 It’s a type of socket found on personal computer for connecting
various types of computer devices.
 Normally it is reserved for printer.
 They carry 8 bits at the same time so that communication becomes very
faster.
 Due to the faster data communication capability it is used in input
& output devices.
 The signal travel capacity is less than serial port.
 
USB PORT
 It’s a new interface technology which are used to connect computer
peripherals such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, joysticks, printer,
web camera etc.
 USB operate at two speeds 1.5 mbps & 12 mbps.
 The speed is depending upon the devices which are attached with the
port.
 For example the devices such as mouse, keyboard Use the law band
while digital camera use high speed channel/
 Main advantage is that when devices are attached the appropriate
drivers are loaded automatically.
PS/2 PORT
 Developed by IBM for connecting mouse or keyboard to PC.
 It supports the plug that contains 6 pins.
 Also called mouse port.

4. EXPLAIN FOLLOWING CABLES
Serial Cable
  Serial Cables are typically used for RS-232 communication.
 A serial cable is a cable that can be used to transfer information
between two devices using serial communication.
 The form of connectors depends on the particular serial port used.
 The maximum working length of a cable varies depending on the
characteristics of the transmitters and receivers.
 This cable has short transmission distance because of noise limiting
the transmission of high numbers of bits per second when the cable
is more than 15 meters long.
 It is cheap to purchase and is simple to join and connect.
 It is suitable for unbalanced data standards.
 Only one device can be connected to the cable.

Parallel Cable

 On many legacy peripherals, the parallel cable utilized both the 25

pin Sub-D connector and the 36 pin Centronics connector.
 This was a common printer interface and is still in service in great
numbers.
 With the advent of "intelligent" laser and ink jet printers, the
IEEE-1284 bi- directional printer cable was introduced.
 This parallel interface allows for bi-directional communication
resulting in speeds up to 10 times faster than conventional cables.

USB Cable

 To Connecting a USB device to a computer is simple -- you find

the USB connector on the back of your machine and plug the
USB connector into it.
 If it's a new device, the operating system auto-detects it and asks for
the driver disk.
 If the device has already been installed, the computer activates it
and starts talking to it.
 USB devices can be connected and disconnected at any time.

5. .SHORT NOTE: GRAPHIC CARDS.

 A graphics card is the component in your computer that handles
generating the signals that are sent to the monitor or "graphics".
 It is responsible for generating all the text and pictures that are
displayed on your screen.
 The images you see on your monitor are made of tiny dots called pixels.
 At most common resolution settings, a screen displays over a million
pixels, and the computer has to decide what to do with everyone in
order to create an image.
 To do this, it needs a translator -- something to take binary data
from the CPU and turn it into a picture you can see.
 This task is performed by Graphic Card which is built into motherboard.
 A graphics card's job is complex, but its principles and components
are easy to understand.
 The CPU, working in conjunction with software applications, sends
information about the image to the graphics card.
 The graphics card decides how to use the pixels on the screen to
create the image.
 It then sends that information to the monitor through a cable.
 To make a 3-D image, the graphics card first creates a wire frame out
of straight lines. Then, it rasterizes the image.
 It also adds lighting, texture and colour.
 The graphics card accomplishes this task using four main components:
o A motherboard connection for data and power
o A processor to decide what to do with each pixel on the screen
o Memory to hold information about each pixel and to
temporarily store completed pictures
o A monitor connection so you can see the final result
 UNIT: 5 DATA STORAGE
1. NOTE ON MAGNETIC TAPE
 Sequentially access storage device.
 Most popular storage medium for storage large data.
 Its plastic ribbon which is ½ or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet long.
 It is coated with a magnetisable recording material.
 In a magnetic tape data are recorded serially. 
 Information is recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible
magnetized and non magnetized spots.
 The tape ribbon is itself stored in reels or small cassette.
 Whenever we stored new data on the tape that contains old data the
old data are automatically erased and new data are recorded in the
same area.
 In older tape contains 7 tracks and they used 6-bit BCD code
format for data recording.
 Morden magnetic tape contains 9 tracks & used 8-bit EBCDIC code
format for data recording.
 There are various types of magnetic tape are used. Most commonly are:
o ½ inch tape reel
o ½ inch tape cartridge
o ¼ inch streamer tape
o 4 mm digital audio tape

Advantages:
 Large or unlimited storage capacity. 
 Low cost.
  Light weight and compact in size.
 Copying of data is easy and fast.
 Possible to erase older data n store new data.
Disadvantages:
 Cannot be accessed directly because it’s a Sequential access device.
 Must be located in dust free environment otherwise it cause errors.
 Data are stored in coded form so cannot interpret or verify directly. 

2. . WRITE A NOTE ON MAGNETIC TAPE

 Directly access storage device.
 It’s a thin circular plate that is made up with plastic material.
 Plate is coated both side with magnetic material such as iron oxide.
 Information is recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible
magnetized and non magnetized spots.
 8-bit EBCDIC code is used for data recording.
 Like magnetic tapes, magnetic disks are also erased & reuse.
 The disk is divided into number of circles called tracks.
 The tracks are further divided into sectors.
 A sector typically contains 512 bytes.

storage capacity of disk =number of recording surface * number of track per

surface * number of sector per tracks * number of bytes per sectors

TRACK





 




 Two common types of magnetic disks are used widely.
o Floppy disks
o Hard disks

3. SHORT NOTE: FLOPPY DISK

 Floppy disks were introduced by IBM in 1972.
 floppy disk is a round, flat piece of flexible plastic which is
coated with magnetic oxide.
 It is encased in square plastic cover that gives protection to the disk.
 They are also referred as diskettes.
 The data is read and write in floppy disk is using a device called
FLOPPY DISC DRIVE.
 The long lit is provided for the read / writes head to access the disk.
 A hub in the centre is used for mounting the disk drive.
 A hole is used to sense index marking.
 The floppy disks are available in two sizes.
o 5 ¼ inch (1.2 MB)
o 3 ½ inch (1.44 MB)

Advantages:
 Cheap in cost.
 Convenient offline storage for small
computer users. 
Disadvantages;
 Low storage capacity.
 A floppy disk drive device is required to use read/write data.

A DETAIL NOTE ON HARD DISK

 Hard disks are most popular secondary storage device.
 It supports the direct access of the data.
 It’s a thin magnetic plate which is made of metal n both side
coated with magnetic material.
 The disk is divided in many tracks & the data is store in both side of the
disk.
 The disk pack consists of multiple disk plates.
 The disk drive pack has a separate read/write head for each disk surface.
 The disk drive consists of motor to rotate the disk pack about its axis
at a speed of about 5400 revolution per minute.
  The drive also has a set of magnetic heads mounted on arms.
 The arm assembly is capable of moving in & out in radial direction.
 The hard disk drive has become the most indispensable secondary
storage device in micro-computers.
 It is fast and speeds of less than 10 (ms) milliseconds are achievable.
 Storage capacity is large and it is not uncommon for micro-computers.

4. . SHORT NOTE : CD-ROM

 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) is a non-erasable
backing store which can hold large amounts of data.
 It’s a shiny silver colour metal disk of 5 ¼ inch and the storage
capacity about 650 megabytes.
 Large volume production is achieved by automated processes
similar to that of audio compact disks.
 Many of today’s micro-computers come with CD-ROM readers and
as a result, CD-ROM is popularly used for distribution of software,
digitized graphic images as well as Multi-Media material.
 Information is written on the disk surface by shining a laser beam.
 As a disk rotates the laser beam traces out a continuous spiral.
 It’s known as WORM (Write Once Read Many) disk technology.
 The data can be read time and again but, once the data is stored, it
cannot be erased or changed.
Advantages:
 Cost per bit is Low.
 Need not have any mechanical read/write heads to read/write data.
 Compact in size.
 Light
weight
Disadvantag
es:
 Read only storage medium.
 Slower access speed than magnetic disk.

5. . EXPLAIN IN BRIEF: DVD

 DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) is optical disk storage.
 Basically it is used for storing large amount of data including
movies with high video & sound quality.
 Work on the same principle of CDROM.
 Data is recorded on each layer so that the storage capacity is become
large.
 Total capacity of DVD is
8.5 GB Advantages
  Larger capacity than
CD. Disadvantages:
 Expensive than CD.
 Damaged if not handled properly.

6. .EXPLAIN IN BRIEF: ZIP DISK

 It’s a high capacity, removable magnetic disk which can be read or

write by ZIP drive.
 It is similar to floppy disk except that much faster & larger capacity.
 Zip disks are available in two size namely 100 megabytes & 250
megabytes. 

Advantages:
 Easy to use and carry 
 Large capacity than floppy disk.
 Faster than floppy disk

Disadvantages:
 Expensive
 Data transfer between drive & computer is slow.

7. SHORT NOTE:PEN DRIVE

 It consists of a small printed circuit board encased in a robust
plastic or metal casing.
 It is easy to carry in pocket.
 It uses standard-A type connection which allows it to directly
connect with the computer.
 It contains following components:
o Male type-A USB connector-provides an interface to computer.
o USB mass storage controller- provides liner interface to
block oriented serial flash device.
o NAND flash memory chip- stores data.
o Crystal oscillator- controls device
data.
ADVANTAGES:
 Portable in size.
 Can easily work with all new operating system.
 More reliable than floppy
disk 
DISADVANTAGES:
 Expensive than optical disk
 Do not provide protect mechanism.
8. . SHORT NOTE: BLUE RAY DISK

 Blue-Ray disk is an optical disc storage media format.

 It was developed by blue-ray disc associations.
 It is mainly used to store high definition video and data.
 It has same dimensions as CD or DVD.
 The violet coloured laser is used to read and write the data.
 Because of its shorter wavelength more data can be stored than DVD
format.
 Its storage capacity is 50 GB.
 UNIT: 6 NUMBER SYSTEM
Introduction
 All digital computers store numbers, letters, and other
characters in coded form.
 The code used to represent characters is the Binary Code – i.e. a
code made up of bits called Binary Digits.
 Every character is represented by a string of “0s” and “1s” – the
only digits found in the binary numbering system.
“0” or “1” = bit (Binary
Digit) 8 bits = 1 Byte (1
Character) 1024 Bytes = 1
KB (Kilo Bytes) 1024 KB
= 1 MB (Mega Byte) 1024
MB = 1 GB (Giga Byte)
1024 GB= 1 TB (Terra
Byte)
 When data is typed into a computer, the key board converts each
key stroke into a binary character code. This code is then
transmitted to the computer.
 When the computer transmits the data to the any device, each
individual character is communicated in binary code. It is then
converted back to the specific character while displaying or
printing the data.
Number Systems
 Numbers earlier consisted of symbols like I for 1, II for 2, III for 3 etc.
Each
 Symbol represented the same value irrespective of its position in the
number.
 This approach is called an additive approach. As time passed
positional numbering systems were developed. In such a system
the number of symbols is few and they represent different values
depending on the position they occupy.
 Now we know that numbers can be represented by arranging
symbols in various positions.
Decimal Number System (Base 10)
 In the decimal system the successive positions to the left of the
decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands etc. For
example if we consider
 The number 7762, the digit 2 represents the number of units, 6
represents the number of tens, 7 the number of hundreds and 7 the
 number of thousands.
(7 x 1000) + (7 x 100) + (6 x 10) + (2 x 1) = 7762
 Thus as we move one position to the left, the value of the digit
increases by ten times. We can see that the position of the
number affects its value.
  These kinds of number systems are therefore called
positional number systems.
 In other words the number of symbols used to represent numbers
in the system is called the base of that system. In short we can say
that the value of each digit in the number system is determined by:
 The digit itself
 The position of the digit in the number itself
 The base of the system.
 The Roman numbering system uses symbols like I, II, III,
IV, V etc. To represent the decimal numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
 As we can see this follows an additive approach and hence is not
conductive to arithmetic.
Binary Number System (Base 2)
 We now come to a different number system – the Binary number
system.
 This binary number system has a base of two, and the symbols
used are “0” And “1”.
 In this number system, as we move to the left the value of the
digit will be two times greater than its predecessor. Thus the
values of the places are: 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Converting Decimal To Binary
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the
steps to be followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of 2.
o Note the remainder in one column and divide the quotient
again with the base. Repeat this process until the quotient is
reduced to a zero.
Example:
2 65 1
2 32 0
2 16 0
2 8 0
2 4 0
2 2 0
1
 The decimal number is 65
 The binary number of 65 is 1000001
Converting Binary To Decimal
The decimal number of 100001 is
= (1*26)+(0*25)+(0*24)+(0*23)+(0*22)+(0*21)+(1*20)
= (1*64) + (0*32) + (0*16) + (0*8) + (0*4) + (0*2) + (1 * 1)
 = 64 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1
= 65
 The decimal number of 1000001
is 65 Octal Number System (Base 8)
 A commonly used positional system is the Octal System. The octal
system has a base of 8.
 The values increase from left to right as 1, 8, 64, 512, 4096,….

Converting Decimal To Octal

 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the
steps to be followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of the 8.
Example:
 The decimal number is 224
8 224 0
8 28 4
8 3 3

 The octal number of 224 is 340

Converting Octal To Decimal
 The octal number is 340
 = (3*82)+(4*81)+(0*80)
 = (3*64) + (4*8) + (0*1)
 = 192 + 32 + 0
 = 224
 The decimal number of 340 is 224
Converting Binary Octal
000 0

001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5

110 6
111 7
Converting from Binary to Octal
  The binary number must be divided into groups of three from the
octal point
– to the right in case of the fractional portion and to the left in case of
the integer portion. Each group can then be replaced with their octal
equivalent.
 Example
 Binary 101010101010100
101 010 101 010 100
5 2 5 2 4
 So, 52524 is the Octal equivalent of binary 101010101010100
Converting Octal to Binary
 Each octal digit is replaced with the appropriate ‘triple’ of binary
digits.
e.g. 65
6 5
110 101
 The binary equivalent of the Octal number 65 is
110101 Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16)
 There is another commonly used positional system, hexadecimal
system.
 The hexadecimal system has a base of 16, so the value increases
from left to right as 1, 16, 256, 65536,. . . .
 We need to keep a simple table in mind before we attempt any
conversion from hexadecimal or vice-versa.
Converting Decimal To HexaDecimal
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the
steps to be followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of 16.
Example:
 The decimal number is 370
16 370 2
16 23 7
16 1 1
0
 The hexadecimal number of 370 is 172
Converting Hexadecimal To Decimal
The hexadecimal number 172
= (1*162) + (7*161) + (2*160)
= (1*256) + (7*16) + (2*1)
 = 256+112+2
= 370
 The decimal number of 172 is 370
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
 Each hexadecimal digit is represented by 4
binary digits. Binary Hexadecimal
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F
 To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent we
split the quantity into groups of four onwards, as before.
 Each of this group of four is directly converted into their
hexadecimal equivalent.
 We may add zeros to the left of the number if necessary.
 example
Binary 10101011000010
0010 1010 1100 0010
2 A C 2
 So, the hexadecimal equivalent of binary 10101011000010 will be
2AC2
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
 The conversion from hexadecimal to binary consists of writing off the
binary
 E .
q  e.g.
u Hexadecimal 1901A0412C
i
0001 1001 0000 0001 1010 0000 0100 0001 0010 1100
v
a 1 9 0 1 A 0 4 1 2 C
l  Thus the required binary number
e can be written as:
n 110010000000110100000010000010
t 0101100
o
f
e
Converting Hexadecimal to Octal
a
c  Write 4 digit binary numbers for each hexadecimal.
h  Arrange the entire number sequence into group of 3 bit
h section.
e  If any bit is missing add 0 on leftmost section.
x  Now write down octal equivalent of each 3 bit section.
a
 Example:
d
e  The hexadecimal
c number is 2A35. 2
i A3 5
m 0010 1010 0011 0101
a 000 010 101 000 110 101
l
0 2 5 0 6 5
d
i  The octal number is 25065
g
Converting Octal to Hexadecimal
i
 Write 3 digit binary number for each octal.
t
i  Arrange the entire number sequence into group of 4 bit
n section.
g  If any bit is missing add 0 on leftmost section.
r  Now write down hexadecimal equivalent of each 4 bit
o section.
u  Example:
p
s  The octal
o number is
f 25065. 2 5 0 6
f 5
o 010 101 000 110 101
u
0010 1010 0011 0101
r
2 A 3 5
Binary
Arithmetic 


 All the arithmetic operations are possible in binary numbering
system like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division All
the Arithmetic operations are done in binary number system are
Additio
explained as under:
n

 For binary addition the following rules of binary addition

are to be considered:
o 0+0=0
o 0+1=1
o 1+0=1
o 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1 to the next column to the left)
o 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (carry 1 to the next column)
 e.g. 1 Add two binary numbers 11011 and 111
 Carry 1111
10111
+111
1 0 0 0 1 0 (Answer)
Subtraction
 Though there are other methods of performing subtraction, we will
consider the method of subtraction know as complementary
subtraction.
 This is a more efficient method of subtraction while using
electronic circuits. We will be following three steps to perform
subtraction:
o Find the complement of the number you are subtracting.
o To the complement of the number we obtained in step 1, we
add the number we are subtracting from.
o If there is a carry of 1 add the carry to the result of the
addition else re complement the sum and attach a negative
sign.
 How do we find the complement of a binary number ? We have to
invert all the bits. e.g. Number Complement
 10001101 01110010
00101010 11010101
 Consider the following example of subtraction:
e.g. 1
1010101 – 1001100
 Step-1. Find the complement of
1001100 0110011
  Step-2. Add the number you are
subtracting from Carry 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1010101
+0110011

0001000
+ 1 (Continue since there is a carry of 1)

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 (Answer)
e.g. 2
101100 – 11100101
 Step-1. Find the complement of
11100101 00011010
 Step-2. Add the number you are
subtracting from Carry 0 1 1 1
00101100
+00011010
0 1000110
 Step-3. Since there is no carry we are complement
the result 10111001
attach a negative sign
 - 10111001
(Answer) Multiplication
 Multiplication
 Multiplication in binary follows the same rules that are
followed in the decimal system. The table to be remembered
is:
 0x0=0
 0x1=0
 1x0=0
 1x1=1
 e.g.
1010 * 1001
1010
x 1001
 1010
0000
0000
1010

101101 0
 The answer is (1011010)

Divisio
n  Table for binary division is given as under:
 0/1=1
 1/1=1
 The steps for binary division are:
o Start from the left of the dividend.
o Perform subtraction in which the divisor is subtracted
from the dividend
o If subtraction is possible put a 1 in the quotient and subtract
the divisor from the corresponding digits of the dividend else
put a 0 in the quotient
o Bring down the next digit to the right of the remainder.
o Execute step 2 till there are no more digits left to strating
down from the dividend.
 e.g.
 10000 / 110
1 (quotient)
0101
110 100001
110
110
1000
100
110
1001
110
11 (reminder)
Unit Of Information (Codes)
 Most computers do not represent characters as pure binary numbers.
 They use a coded version of true binary to represent letters and
special symbols as well as decimal numbers.
 Coding of characters has been standardized to enable transfer of
data between computers.
 Codes used are:
- BCD
- ASCII
- EBCDIC
BCD
 BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal.
 BCD code is one of the early computer codes.
 It is based on the idea of converting each digit of a decimal
number into its binary equivalent rather than converting the entire
decimal into binary form.
 All decimal digits are represented in BCD by 4 bit.
 Each decimal digit is independently converted into a 4 bit binary
number & so the conversion process is very easy.
 4 bit BCD can be used to represents only decimal numbers
because 4 bits are insufficient to represent various characters.
 By using 4 bit BCD only 16 possible characters are represented.
 So the BCD code was extended from 6-bit code and it is possible to
represent 64 characters.

ASCII

 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

 In this form of representation, each character (which includes
alphabets, digits and symbols) is assigned a particular pattern of
bits.
 For example, A is represented as binary 1000012, B as 10000102 and so
on.
 The standard ASCII character set uses 7 bits and can be used to
represent 128 different characters.
 It uses one extra parity bit for parity check.
 Other forms of ASCII codes use an extra bit to extend the
representation to 256 characters.
 However, characters represented from binary are not universally agreed
upon.
 The most popular form is the set used by IBM.
 ASCII is commonly used to exchange data between data
processing and communication systems.

EBCDIC

 EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.

 It uses 8 bits and can represent 256 distinct characters.
 It also uses one extra parity bit for parity check.
 The EBCDIC code is used in IBM mainframe models and other similar
machines.
 Electronic Circuits are available to transform characters from
ASCII to EBCDIC and vice-versa and can also be achieved using
computer programs.

UNICODE
 With the onset of globalization through Internet, there emerged a
need to Cater for data interchange of the more common
languages of the different nationalities like Chinese, Korea and
Japanese.
 ASCII, EBCDIC and other forms of representation proved insufficient.
 The Unicode/ISO 10646 standard was devised to overcome this problem.
 The 16 bits used by Unicode can represent 65536 symbols, one extra
parity bit for parity check, which is more than enough to represent
all the worlds written characters.
 Although Unicode solves the problem of multi-language data
representation, it is not the perfect solution as there remain issues to
be addressed.
 Problems include the wastage of storage space, time
needed for data transmission and the lack of support of
current operating systems.
 Furthermore, Unicode does not guarantee a particular sort order.

Parity Check

 A parity check is a technique to detect the correctness of characters

transmitted.
 For each character transmitted, a bit knows as the parity bit is added.
 In an Even Parity System, a parity bit is added such that the total
number of ‘1’s, inclusive of the parity bit, is even.
 In an Odd Parity System, the total number of ‘1’ bits transmitted must be
 odd.
 The parity check is not fool proof. It will fail when an even number of
bits were incorrectly received.
 This cannot be recognized by this system. That if they are incorrectly
received or not.

UNIT:7 LANGUAGES, OPERATING

SYSTEM & SOFTWARE
PACKAGES
Introduction
 A computer can only do what a programmer asks it to do.
 To perform a particular task programmer writes a sequence, called the
program.
 An instruction command given to the computer to perform a certain
specified operation on the given data.
 Now as we know only human languages and computer knows only
machine language, we need some media through which we can
communicate with the computer.
 So we can complete our desired task. That media is Language.
 Languages are tools human can use to communicate with the
hardware of a computer system.
 Each language has a systematic method of using symbols of that
language.
 In English, this method is given by the rules of grammar.
 Similarly, the symbols of particular one computer language must also
be used as per set of rules which are known as the “Syntax” of that
language, the language which you are using.
 Computer Languages can be classified into three broad categories:
 LANGUAGES

MACHINE ASSEMBLY HIGH-LEVEL

LANGUA LANGUAGES LANGUAGES
GE

1. .WHAT IS MACHINE LANGUAGE?

 Computer programs are written using many different computer
Languages but the language which is understood by the computer
without translating program is called machine language.
 Machine language is normally written as string of binary 1s and 0s.
 A machine language instruction has two part format.
 OPCODE OPERAN
(OPERATION D
CODE) (ADDRES
S)

 The 1st part is the operation code which tells the computer what
function to be performed.
 The 2nd part is the operand which tells the computer where to find &
store data to be manipulated.
 So each instruction tells the computer what operation to perform &
the length & location of the data field which are involved in the
operation.
Advantages
 Programs can be executed immediately upon completion because
it doesn’t require any translation.
 Now extra storage space is needed.
 Programmer has complete control over the performance of the
hardware. Disadvantage
 Tedious to program
 Difficult to program
 Difficult to modify
 Time consuming to code
 Error prone
 Operation codes have to be memorised
 Assignment of memory is done by programmer
 Time consuming for development
 Programs development are machine dependent
 Preparation of programs was slow and costly.

2. .EXPLAIN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE.

 Assembly language is a language which allows instruction & storage

location to be represented by letters & symbols, instead of number.
 A program written in an assembly language is called assembly
language program or symbolic program.
 Assembly language was introduced in 1952.
 Machine language was tedious to code and errors were expected to arise
in bulk.
 To solve these problems mnemonic codes and symbolic
addresses were developed.
 It allows using alphanumeric mnemonic codes instead of numeric
code for the instructions in instruction set. For example using ADD
instead of 1110 or 14 to add.
  The storage locations are to be represented in the form of
alphanumeric addresses instead of numeric address.
 Format of assembly language is similar to machine language:

MNEMONIC CODE SYMBOLIC ADDRESS

Example of Assembly language instruction:

 This instruction adds value of NUM1 to the AX (Accumulator Register).
 The symbolic language made program writing so much easier for the
Programmers but it must be translated into machine code before
being used for operation.
 The translation is actually done by a special translating
program. Assembler
 Assembler is a special program (translator) which translates
symbolic operation codes into machine codes, and symbolic address
is addressed into an actual machine address.
Advantage
 Easier to use, code and understand.
 Easier to correct error.
 Easier to modify.
 No worry about addresses.
 Easily relocatable.
 Efficiency of machine language.
 Can use Macros (Macro is a bunch of instruction referred as a single
name)
Disadvantage
 Machine depended.
 Programs have to be translated before execution.
 Translation of programs takes up time.
 Knowledge of hardware is required.
 Additional storage area needed for the source programs and object
code.
Examples of Assembly Language
 Microsoft Assembly Language (MASM), Turbo Assembler

3. .WRITE A NOTE ON HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE.

 The machine language & assembly language requires a good
knowledge of internal structure of computer.
 The both languages are machine dependent & it is difficult to solve error.
 To remove this limitation the high level language are introduced.

 The high level languages machine independent so it can be

easily ported & executed on any computer.
  The high level language programs do not require any knowledge of
internal structure of computer so the programmer concentrate on
the logic of problem rather than internal structure of computer.
 It enables the programmer to write instructions using English words
& familiar mathematical symbols & expression so the program
makes easier to code & understand.
 It requires a translator program to convert high level program
into machine language.

Compiler
 Compiler is a special program (translator) which translates high
level programs into machine codes.

Advantages:
 Machine independent.
 Easier to learn, use and understand.
 Easier to correct error.
 Easier to maintain.
 Less time & efforts.
 Easily relocatable.
 Program preparation cost is low.
Few errors. 
Disadvantages:
 Less flexible.
 Lower efficiency.
 Require more time & storage space.
4. .SHORT NOTE: ASSEMBLER
 A computer can directly execute only machine language
programs so the assembly language program must be converted
into its equivalent machine language program before can be
executed.
 This translation is done with the help of a translator program which
is known as assembler.
 Assembler is a special program (translator) which translates
symbolic operation codes into machine codes, and symbolic address
is addressed into an actual machine address.

ASSEMBLY
LANGUAGE
PROGRAM
Input output M
ASS A
EMB C
LER H
I
N
E
L
A
N
G
U
A
G
E
P
R
O
G
R
A
M
 (Source Program) ONE TO ONE CORRESPONDENCE (Object Program)



 As shown in figure that the input to assembler is the assembly
language program (source program) and the output is the machine
language program (object program).
 Assembler translates each assembly language instruction into
equivalent machine language instruction.
 There is one to one correspondence between the assembly language
instructions of source program & the machine language instruction of
its equivalent object program.
 In case of assembly language program the computer not only has
to run the program but also must first run assembler program to
translate the original assembly language program into machine
language program.
 So the computer has to spend more time in getting desired answer.

5. WRITE A NOTE ON COMPILER

 A computer can directly execute only machine language programs.
 So the high level language program must be converted into its
equivalent machine language program before can be executed.
 This translation is done with the help of a translator program which
is known as compiler.
 A compiler is a translator program which translates a high
level language program into equivalent machine language
program.
 The process of translating is shown in below figure:


COMPIL
High level language ER
output machine language
Inpu
t

Program program

(Source Program) ONE TO MANY CORRESPONDENCE (Object Program)

 As shown in figure that the input to compiler is the high level

language program (source program) and the output is the machine
language program (object program).
 High level language instructions are macro instructions.
 The compiler translates each high level language instruction into set
of machine language instructions rather than a single machine
 language instruction.
 There is one to many correspondence between high level language
instructions of source program into equivalent object program.
 During the translation the source program is only translates not
executed.
  A compiler can translates only those source programs which have
written in the language for which compiler is designed.
 A compiler can also detect & indicates the syntax errors during the
compilation process but cannot able to detect logical errors.

6. WRITE A NOTE ON INTERPRETER.

 An interpreter is another type of translator which is used for

translating program written using high level languages.
 It takes one statement of high level language, translates into
machine language & immediately executes the resulting machine
language instructions.
 The main difference between compiler & interpreter is that
compiler can translates the entire code but not involve in
execution.

High level language INTERPRET output Result of program

ER
Inpu (Translates & execution
t Program executes statement
by statement)
  As shown in figure that the input to an interpreter is a source
program & the output is the result of an execution program.
 Interpreter translates & executes a high level language program
statement-by- statement.
 A program statement is reinterpreted every time it is
encountered during program execution.
 The main advantage of interpreter is that interpreter makes it easier &
faster to correct programs.
 The main disadvantage is that interpreter is slower than compilers
when running a finished program.







7. . WHAT IS O PERATING SYSTEM?

 An operating system is a software program that provides an
interface between user & the computer and manages thousands of
applications.
 It’s a collection of system software that co-ordinates between the
hardware, provides a platform for software to run on.
 An operating system is an integrated set of programs that the
resources (the CPU, memory, I/O devices etc) of computer system
& provides an interface to the user to run the machine.

 The main two primary objective of operating system are:
Making a computer system convenient to use
Managing the resources of a computer system

FUNCTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1) PROCESS MANAGEMENT
o The process management of OS taking care about the creation
& deletion of user & system process, providing mechanism for
process synchronization & process communication.
2) MEMORY MANAGEMENT
o The memory management of OS taking care about the
allocation & deallocation of memory space to the various
programs in need of this resource.
 3) FILE MANAGEMENT
o The file management of OS is taking care about the file related
activities such as creation, storing, retrieving, naming, sharing
& organization of files.
4) SECURITY
o The security model of OS protects the resources &
information of a computer system against destruction &
unauthorized access.
5) COMMAND INTERPRETATION
o This model taking care of interpreting user commands &
directing the system resources to handle the requests.

8. WHAT IS BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM.

 In Batch operating system, data is collected over a period of

time and the processing of the data is deferred to a later time.
 This approach was used very commonly in the past when punch cards
served as data storage media and is used as input into the computer
system for processing.
 In batch processing, the data have first to be captured, normally as
a form of source documents, like time cards, or alternatively, by
RJE (Remote Job Entry) where data is gathered through remote
terminals.
 The data will then be transmitted to the computer or the source
document will be physically transported to the data centre where
transcription (conversion of source document data into machine
readable form) is performed.
 The data is processed by the computer and the resulting output is
given to the users.
 Batch processing is suitable in application where there are large
amounts of data and when the turnaround times are not critical.

 As data are transcribed into machine readable form before submitting

for processing, the speed of processing is therefore determined by the
computer and not by the operator.
 Payroll processing is suitable for batch processing as it is only
performed on a regular basis. ( for example every month)

ADVANTAGES:
 Less complicated.
 After input process is over, while processing is going on, user can
attend other jobs.



DISADVANTAGES:
 Long turnaround time.
 Access to one is not possible.
 Difficult to provide priority scheduling.
 Not convenient for program development.

9. EXPLAIN REALTIME OPERATIN SYSTEM.

 Real-Time systems are always on-line but on-line systems need not
be real-time systems.
 However, further constraints are placed in terms of response
time and availability of the system.
 By definition, a real time system receive data and process it quickly
enough to produce output which can be used to control or affect the
outcome of an ongoing activity of process.
 In general, real-time systems handle small volumes of data at any
one time and the turnaround time is critical.
 Feedback is essential in real-time systems so that processing can
keep pace with external factors.
 Most real-time systems are used in mission critical application like
process control and therefore, reliability and availability is of
paramount importance.
 Missile guidance systems are examples of real-time systems.
 Control signals are sent to the fins of the missile to correct any
deviations. 

Advantages
Error messages are immediate
Source documents are available at the time the error occurs.
Faster than on-line systems. 

Disadvantages
 Direct access devices have to be used.
 Elaborate controls and backup procedures to guard against
unwarranted access to the system.
 Control checks are difficult since updating occurs at the time of
processing.
10 EXPLAIN TIME SHARING OPERATING SYSTEM
 Time-sharing is a mechanism that allows the many users to use a
computer system in such a way that each user is given the
impression that they use their own system.
 It has many user terminals simultaneously connected to the same
computer.
 Using these terminals multiple users can simultaneously work on the
system.
 The multiprogramming feature allows multiple programs to
simultaneously reside in the memory.
 The special scheduling algorithm used in a time-sharing system.
 In this very short period of CPU time allocates to each user process.
 When the CPU is allocated to user process, the process will use
CPU until the allocate time slice is expires or the execution process
is over during this time period.
Features:
o The processing time is divided among various programs in time
slices.
o Each program is given control of CPU only for time slice
turn by turn. Advantages:
o Reduce CPU idle time
o Provides advantages of quick response time.
o Offers good computing facility to small users.

11 . MULTIPROGRAMMING OPERATING SYSTEM

 Multiprogramming is the name given to the interleaved execution of two
or
more different & independent programs by the same computer.
 In this more than one program in main memory at a same time.
 In multiprogramming operating system two or more programs are
resides in the main memory and it execute them concurrently.
 In this operating system the CPU can allocate time to several
programs instead of remaining idle when one program is busy with I/O
operations the another program is ready to utilize the CPU.
ADVANTAGES:
 Many programs can run simultaneously.
 Time is not wasted.
 Maximum use of
resources.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Required large memory.
 Required memory protection.
  Job of resources management & memory management increases.

12 . EXPLAIN: MULTIPROCESSING OPERATING SYSTEM

 It is the type of operating system that makes the use of more than one
CPU.
 The term multiprocessing describe interconnected two or more
CPUs that have an ability to execute several programs
simultaneously.
 In such system, instruction from different independent
programs can be processed at same instant of time by
different CPU.

ADVANTAGES:
 It improves the performance of computer.
 Less turnaround time.
 In case of failure of one CPU other can take over without any loss.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Large main memory required.
 Expensive
 Design of the system makes time consuming process.
13 . EXPLAIN TYPES OF SOFTWARE PACKAGES
 The software is set of programs, procedure and associated
documents which describe the programs and how they are used.
 On the base of task performed by software it can be divided in following
tasks.
 WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE :
o It enables you to make use of computer system for creating,
editing, and viewing, formatting, storing, retrieving & printing
documents.
 SPREAD SHEET SOFTWARE:
o Spreadsheet software is a numeric data analysis tool, which
allows us to create kinds of computerised ledger.
o Provides a predefined sheet which contains rows and columns.
 DATABASE SOFTWARE
o A database is a collection of related data stored & treated as
a unit for information retrieval purpose.
o Database software is a set of one or more programs which
enables us to create a database, maintain it, and organize it.
 GRAPHICS SOFTWARE:
o Graphic software enables you to use a computer system for
creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and printing
designs, drawings, pictures, graphs.
 PERSONAL ASSITANCE SOFTWARE:
 o It allows you to use personal computers for storing &
retrieving your personal information & planning &
managing schedules, contacts, inventory & important
items.
 PRESENTATION SOFTWARE:
o It allows you to provide the tools which help you to develop a
presentation on specific subject.
 ANIMATION/VIDEO/SOUND PACKAGE:
o Provides the different kinds of application that allows you to
generate animation, watching or creating videos, playing or
producing sound data.

14 . EXPLAIN: ONLINE OPERATING SYSTEM

 In an On-Line system, the terminal used by the operator is connected
to the main computer so that the operator can interact with the
computer in a conversational mode.
 It is used in applications requiring fast response from the computer.
 There are some benefits by allowing users to communicate with the
computer on-line.
 Error checking can be performed by the computer when data entry is
carried out.
 The operator can be informed of the error so that immediate
correction can be made.
 On-Line queries can be performed to allow immediate retrieval of
information.
 The nature of on-line systems allows centralization of information,
fast data retrieval immediate file updates and improved customer
services.
 Limited validation checks at the terminal increases the accuracy of
input.
 However, the cost of implementation such a system is much more
than the batch system.
 Furthermore, as the terminals may be located remotely from the main
computer site, security aspects of implementation must receive
special considerations.
 Aspects which should be incorporated are
o Security of access to facilities
o Security of data files
o Audit trial – maintaining a record of all actions that have been
carried out to any data
 UNIT:8 TECHNOLOGIES AND VIRUS

Introduction
 Emerging technologies are contemporary advances and
innovation in various fields of technology.
 Various converging technologies have emerged in the technological
convergence of different systems evolving towards similar goals.
 Convergence can refer to previously separate technologies such as
voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications)
and video that now share resources and interact with each other,
creating new efficiencies.
 Emerging technologies are those technical innovations which
represent progressive developments within a field for
competitive advantage

1. . SHORT NOTE: GIS

 A GIS (Geographic Information System) is a tool that uses for the
answer of the geographic question
 A GIS integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing,
managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically
referenced information.
 GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize
data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in
the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts.
 A GIS helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at
your data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared.
 GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise
information system framework.
 By using GIS tool, user can arrange and display the data about
places on the earth in variety of ways including maps, charts and
tables.
 We can store, analyze and manage the data about places on the
earth with the help of GIS tool.
 User can zoom in and out of maps, charts and tables freely and study in
details.
 By using GIS tool, we can create maps, charts and tables and also
we can solve the complicated problems and develop the effective
solutions.
  GIS allows automatic determination of the relationships between
maps & can create a new map of those relationships.
 GIS allows the relating of multiple data bases using common
geographic locations and allows powerful analyses of widely
disparate data.

COMPONENTS OF GIS
There are 5 types components of a GIS like
o Hardware
o Software
o Data
o People
o Method

GIS IS USED FOR

 Allows to find the geographical locations
 Maintain an up-to-date planning & environmental inventory.
 Create a library of regional & community infrastructure resources.
 Plan major facilities and services
 Facilities management.
 Define natural resource areas.

GIS used in:

o In Agriculture
o In Business
o In Electric-Gas
o In Environment
o In Forestry
o In Military
o In Land Planning
o In Site Planning
o In Water Industry
2. . SHORT NOTE: GPS
 GPS means Global Positioning System and it is a satellite based
navigation system.
 GIS is a system that can provide a position at any point on the
Earth’s surface to a very high degree of accuracy.
 GPS provides the position information of the earth.
 GPS is a system that measures the distances from the satellites that
are in path around the Earth.
  By knowing the distance from the satellites, it is possible to
calculate the position on the Earth’s surface.
 The satellite sends all the timing and position information to the
receiver so the receiver knows when the message was sent and also
the receiver is able
 To calculate the distance from the satellite about their position.
 The satellite contains an atomic clock so that the satellite sends
the timing information to the receiver that is very accurate.
 The satellite uses their own power through their solar panels and
these extend to about 17 feet and it provides 700 watts power.
 Each satellite is in circular orbit around the earth and it sends the
data on two frequencies like L1 (1600 MHz) and L2 (1300 MHz).
 A GPS (Global Positioning System) is the satellite-based system
that provides accurate information about position, speed and time
of the earth.
 There are 24 satellites in GPS that orbits the earth at a height of
about 12000 miles.
 Each of this satellite are constantly moving and making two
complete orbits in less than 24 hours.
 The speed of satellite is 7000 miles per hour.
 A GPS contains 3 types of segments like User, Control and Space.
 User segment changes according to the requirements of application but
 Control and Space segments do not change for all applications.

GPS APPLICATIONS:
o Navigation
o Agriculture
o Space Shuttle
o Tourism
o Air Traffic Control
o Surveying and mapping
o Remote sensing
o military

3. . SHORT NOTE: CDMA

 CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Accesses.
 CDMA is a spread spectrum technology that allows many users to
occupy the same time & frequency allocations in a given space.
 CDMA assigns unique codes to each user to differentiate it from
other in the same spectrum.
 Its platform on which 2G & 3G advanced services are built.
  The foremost application of CDMA technology is digital
cellular phone technology operating in 800MHz and 1.9HZ
PCS bands.
 After the speech the codec converts voice into digital, CDMA
spread the voice stream over the full 1.25MHz bandwidth of the
CDMA channel, coding each stream separately so it can be
decoded at the receiving end.’
 The rape of spreading signal is known as the ‘chip rate’ as
each bit in the spreading single is known as ‘chip’.
 All voice conversations use the full bandwidth at the same time.
 One bit from each conversation is multiplied into 128 bits by the
spreading techniques.

STANDARD OF CDMA:
 There are number of standards that employs CDMA for instance,
IS-95A, IS- 95B,CDMA-1 etc.
 CDMA-1 describes a complete wireless system.
 It represents the end-to-end wireless system and all the necessary
specifications that administer its operation.
 CDMA provides a collection of related services including fixed
wired, wireless local loop and cellular within the personal
communication services family

ADVANTAGES:
 Provides good quality & low power consumption
 Avoid interceptions.
 Require fewer cell sites than GSM
 This technology provides good resistance to fading problems.
4. GSM
 GSM stands for Global System For Mobile communication.
 GSM is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world.
 Its promoter, the GSM association, estimates that 80% of the
global mobile market uses the standard.
 GSM is used by over 3 billion people across more than 212 countries.
 Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between
mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in
many parts of the world.
 GSM differs from its predecessors in both signalling & speech
channels are digital & thus it is considered as 2G mobile phone
system.
 The GSM standard has been an advantage to the both
consumers and also network operators.
 GSM pioneered a low cost alternative to voice calls, the short
message service(SMS) which is now supported on other
 mobile standard as well.
 Another advantage of GSM is that the standard includes one
worldwide emergency telephone number, 112.
 This makes it easier for international travellers to connect to
emergency services without knowing the local emergency numbers.
 There are 5 different cell sizes in a GSM network: macro, micro, pico,
femto and umbrella cells.
 The coverage area of each cell varies according to the
implementation environment.
5. NOTE ON FOLLOWING COMMUNICATION DEVICES:

MODEM
 Converting digital signal into analog is called modulation and the
reverse process that is converting analog signal into digital signals is
called demodulation.
 The word “MODEM” comes from the term modulation-demodulation
 Computer can store & transmit data digitally while our telephone
lines can transmit data in analog signals.
 When an analog facility is used for data communication between
two digital devices, two modems are required, one near each
digital device.
 The analog signal is transmitted through the telephone line which is
converted into digital by modem.
 To connect a computer network that are at distant location by using
telephone line then modems must be used at both ends to do the
modulation & demodulations.
 The modem is an essential piece of hardware for any application in
which two digital devices want to communicate over an analog
transmission channel.
 Different capacity modems are available according to different
data transfer rate.

INFRARED
 Infrared are widely used for short-range communications.
 Distance is about to only 1 meters range.
 Remote controls used on television, VCRs and stereos all used
in infrared communications.
 They are directional, cheap and easy to build but do not pass
through solid objects.
 Infrared is used for indoor wireless LANs.
 Two types of infrared given below:

o Point to point
  Point to point systems requires direct alignment between
devices.
 Many laptop systems and PDAS use point-to-point
transmission.
o Broadcast
 Broadcast infrared transmissions use a spread signal.
 One broadcast in all directions instead of a direct beam.
 This help to reduce the problems of proper
alignment & obstructions.
 It allows multiple receivers of a signal.
BLUETOOTH
 Bluetooth is the technology using short range radio links, intended to
replace the cables connecting portable/fixed electronic devices.
 By using Bluetooth the users can have all mobile and fixed computer
devices can be totally coordinated.
 The standard defines a uniform structure for a wide range of
devices to communicate with each other and minimal user
efforts.
 This technology offers wireless access to LANs, PSTN, the mobile
phone network and the internet.
 Bluetooth technology use license-free 2.4GHz frequency band.
 You can connect wireless device up to 10 meter.
 The main advantage of Bluetooth is it can able to simultaneously
handle both data & voice transmissions.
 Bluetooth is a radio based wireless technology which allows
devices to share information over a maximum range of 10 meters.
 It enables computers, phones and the other peripherals to
communicate with one another without cables.
 Provides more security, flexibility and less power consumptions.

ADVANTAGES:
 Less power consumptions.
 Enhances user’s experience.
 Voice conferencing & video clips on cell phone is possible.
 Connect devices without using cable.

WI -FI
 Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity.
 It is used to define any of the wireless technology in the IEEE 802.11.
 It is useful to get internet access.
 It’s a wireless way to handle networking.
 It is also known as 802.11 networking or wireless networking.
  It provides the facility to connect computers anywhere in your
home office without need of physical connection.
 Wi-Fi allows connecting the computers within up to 100 feet area.
 Wi-Fi network uses radio technologies called IEEE 802.11 which
provides fast, secure & reliable wireless connectivity.
 Wi-Fi setup contains one or more access points & one or more clients.
 The Wi-Fi standard leaves connection criteria & roaming totally
open to the client.
 Wi-Fi transmit in the air, it has some properties as a non-
switched wired Ethernet network therefore collisions can
occur.
 Wi-Fi cannot do collision detection.
 Wi-Fi network can be used to connect computer to each other to the
internet & wired networks.
 Wi-Fi networks operate in the unlicensed 2.4 and 5 GHZ radio bands.

ADVANTAGES:
 Allows LANs to be deployed without cabling.
 Allows you to connect any place within up to 100feet area.
 Contains one more access points and connect with one or more clients.
 Wi-Fi products are widely available in market.

 DISADVANTAGES:
 Limited range.
 Power consumption is higher than Bluetooth.
 Wi-Fi devices do not have channels to avoid interference.

6. COMPUTER VIRUS AND TYPES OF VIRUS

 A computer virus is a program that can copy itself & infect a

computer without permission or knowledge of the user.
 It’s a small piece of software that damages the real programs.
 A virus can only spread from one computer to another when it host
is taken to the uninfected computer by internet or removable
medium such as CD or USB.
 In computers virus is a program that replicates to another program,
computer boot sector or document.
 Virus can be transmitted as attachments to an e-mail or downloaded
file or be present on CD.
 The virus is classified in main five types.
 FILE INFECTORS
o It infects program files.
 o Normally infect executable files such as .COM or .EXT files.
o Some virus can infect any program when the program is
requested for execution such as .SYS, .OVL, .PRG and .MNU
files.
o Many of this virus are memory resident.
 BOOT SECTOR VIRUS
o This virus infects executable code found in certain system areas
on a disk.
o They attached to the DOS boot sector or the master boot
record on hard disks.
o Boot sector virus attaches themselves to the boot record
information and activate when user attempt to start up form
disk.
o This virus are always memory resident.
 MULTI-PARTITE VIRUSES:
o Known as polypartite.
o They infect both boot records and program files.
o This virus is difficult to repair.
o If the boot area is cleaned, but the files are not than boot area
infected again.
 MACRO VIRUSES:
o These are the most common virus and they tend to do the least
damage.
o These types of virus infect data files such as it can infect
your word document and insert unwanted words or
phrases.
o Ex. W97M, Melissa
 STEALTH VIRUSES:
o These viruses use certain techniques to avoid detection.
o They may either redirect disk head to read another sector
instead of the one which they are reside or alter the reading of
infected files.

7. PROTECTION FROM VIRUS.

 You can protect system against virus with a few simple steps.
o Write protected your floppy when suing them on the other
computer.
o Remove floppy while booting.
o Install software from original write- protected disks.
o Use secure operating system like UNIX
o Do not install pirated software.
o Scans files downloaded from the internet.
o Scan your system regularly if you continue using internet.
o Use good antivirus program to scan removable devices as well as
 system.
o Do not open attachments who contains an executable files.
o Do not open spam or junk mails
o Prepare a reuse disk with critical system files. Probably it should
bootable.
Computer Software
Dr. O. D. NINAN
Computing Science
Bowen University, Iwo.
November, 2023

Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 1

Overview of Computer Software
• Computer software is the instructions, procedures and programs that can be
executed on a computer system. Software gives life to hardware.
• Computer Software is broadly divided into three:
1. Systems Software (e.g. Operating Systems, Compilers, Assemblers, etc.)
2. Application Software (e.g. Word-processors, Spread-sheet, Database
Managers, Graphics Packages, Entertainment Software, etc.)
3. Utilities (e.g. Anti-virus, Diagnostic software, etc.)

Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 2

• System Software
• This includes programs that manage and support a computer system. It
executes the application programs of end-users.
• The Operating System is the most important systems software and it manages
all the hardware resources of the computer system: the files stored in the
system and tasks or jobs that the computer is being used for. It usually renders
some support services as well, just like utility software. Examples of Operating
Systems are: Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), MS-Window, UNIX,
XENIX…etc. Operating System helps the user to manage computer hardware,
for example, it helps to:
• List the contents of a diskette or hard disc
• Write or read from a diskette or a hard disc
• Communicates with computer peripheral, e.g. printers, scanners, plotters, etc

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The Operating System(OS)
• This is one of the most important system software packages.
• It manages the input, processing, output and storage operations of a
computer system. It controls the entire computer components and makes sure
that everything gets along well.
• Operating system controls the operations of a computer by communicating
with end-users, managing hardware resources and files, supervising the
accomplishment of tasks, and providing other support services.
• It comes with the computer when one buys it.
• Examples of operating systems are MS-DOS, Windows, PC-DOS, OS/2, UNIX,
Network Operating System and Linux

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• Functions of Operating System
• Scheduling and loading of processes (Jobs) in order to provide for continuous
processing.
• Control, selection and operation of Input/Output devices and file handling.
• Calling into main memory of programs as and when required.
• Passing of control from one program (job) to another under a system of priority
when more than one application program is in main memory.
• Provision of error correction routines.
• Keeps complete record (Log) of all that happens during processing of various jobs.
• Communication with the computer operator and users via the visual display unit.
• The reading/writing records to file, and where necessary, blocking and deblocking.
• Peripheral control, advancing or rewinding of magnetic tape reel, advancing paper
in the printer.
• Opening and closing files, i.e. checking file labels, etc.

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• Programming Languages
• A programming language is an artificial language designed for use by people in
instructing machines. Its characteristics are a structure and syntax that
prevents ambiguous constructions. With respect to a particular computer
system, a programming language is often termed a source language;
• It is a language in which programs are written to control the operations of the
computer system. a source language may either be a low-level language or a
high level language.
• A high level language is one (e.g. COBOL, PASCAL and FORTRAN) that is
designed for ease of use in writing programs and is intended to be used to
program computers of different manufactures and types.
• The term high-level is used because a whole sequence of computer operation
can be specified by writing a single instruction in the language.
• By contrast, a low level language is one that requires the programmer to tell
the computer quite explicitly what is to be done.
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Machine Code Languages
• When computers were in early stage of development, all programs had to be
written in the machine code. This was the only language of communication
available for the programmer.
(a) Low Level Languages: The first step towards easing the problems of the
programmer came with the introduction of symbolic or assembly or low level
languages.
(b) High Level Languages: In order to simplify and speed-up the preparation of
programs, high level languages were developed which are problem-oriented
rather than machine-oriented, e.g.:
(i) COBOL: It uses English-like statements for the writing of instructions, and is
more applicable to business data processing. The name COBOL stands for
COmmon Business-Oriented Languages.

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(ii) FORTRAN: It is an algebraic language used for preparing instructions in the
form of arithmetic formula in scientific applications. The name FORTRAN is an
abbreviation for FORmular TRANslation.

(iii) ALGOL: This stands for ALGOrithmic Language for scientific programming
using algorithms.
• Other examples of High Level Languages include:
• Pascal
• C Language
• Python

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 Application Software:
• This is a set of programs for accomplishing specific tasks or business functions.
They are programs that make it possible to do a particular job, or application
that one wants to accomplish.
• Application software products are designed to meet a particular need in an
environment. It may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's
notepad for writing and editing simple text or consist of a collection of
programs (suites of programs) often called a software package, which work
together to accomplish a task, such as (i) word processor package like
Microsoft WORD, (ii) spreadsheet package like Microsoft Excel, (iii) Database
Management System such as Microsoft Access, (iv) Games like Monopoly,
Freecell, Solitaire and (v) Educational programs e.g. Encarta, Encyclopedia.

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Examples of Application software are:
• Payroll Software
• Student Record Software (eportal and ISIS)
• Inventory Management Software
• Income Tax Software
• Hotel Reservation Software
• Microsoft Office Suite Software
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel
• Microsoft Powerpoint

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• Word Processor: The following basic terms are common in word processing
packages:
i. cut and paste ix. formatting
ii. Clipboard x. style sheet
iii. word wrap xi. spell checker
iv. Justification xii. text searching
v. font, proportional spacing, xiii. text retrieval
vi. point size xiv. headers and footers
vii. typeface xv. heading
viii. formatting xvi. desktop publishing

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Utility Software
• These are specialized programs that help one performs routine computing
functions.
• They perform a variety of housekeeping and file conversion functions.
• Utility programs are computer programs that perform a particular function
related to computer system management and maintenance.
Examples are:
i. Anti-virus software
ii. Data compression software
iii. Disk optimization software
iv. Disk backup software

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Device Drivers
• These are software program that make possible the communication between
the computer system and other peripheral devices (e.g. printer, mouse, etc.)
attached to the system.
• They take the instructions and/or data from the computer system and
converts them into a form that is readily understood by a peripheral device,
and vice versa

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Custom-built Software
• Custom software (also known as bespoke software or tailor-made software)
is software that is specially developed for some specific organization or other
user.
• It is SW built for a particular organization to fulfill the needs of that particular
organization. A common example is a system for processing students’ results
in institutions.
• This type of SW is expensive because the builder has to recoup costs and
make a profit from a single sale. The delivery time is longer.
• Customers get more productivity out of it because it is built according to their
exact specifications – just like a custom-built shoe fits better, but generally is
more expensive, and requires a longer period for delivery.

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 Main Types of Software Licensees
1. Proprietary – Most software on a Windows PC or a Macintosh belongs to this
category
2. Freeware – Most software on a Linux PC belongs to that category
3. Shareware – the category which lies between the above two categories
Proprietary Software License
• The user needs to pay the maker of the Software for buying a license that
allows the user to make use of the software.
• The license, generally, does not transfer the ownership of the software to the
buyer but just allows the user to make use of it.
• The user is legally barred from making copies of the licensed software for sales
or distribution. Generally, the license is meant for personal use only.
• Most software in use in the world is of this type. Examples are: Windows, Mac
OS, MS Word, Adobe Photoshop, Norton Antivirus etc.
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Types of Proprietary Licenses
• Single-user license: A single user license is meant solely for the buyer and not
any other person has legal right to the software.
• Multi-user license: A multiuser license allows more than one person legal
right of usage of the software. In many cases the number of people who have
the legal right of usage is specified.
• Concurrent-user license: The license allows software installed in the central
computer to be used by more than one person at a time.
• Site license: The license allows a buyer to install the software from a website.

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Freeware software License
• It is also known as “Public Domain Software”. The licence allows the user free
usage of the software. The author, however, generally retains the ownership
of the software. It can usually be downloaded from author’s website or other
Web sites. Examples are Linux; LaTeX; Netscape Web browser – the
Navigator; the Internet Explorer etc.
Shareware software License
• The license allows the user free usage of the software, but with a request
that the user pay a token to the author if the user is satisfied with the
software. The author retains ownership of the software. It is often
downloaded from author’s Web sites. Examples are: WinZip, Download
Accelerator.
• The author is an individual or a small business that cannot afford to advertise.
No one will even try the software if it had a price. The expectation is that the
user will try the software for free, find it useful, and then pay the very small
price for the software
Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 17
Trialware License
• This licence is similar to shareware, but different in the following areas:
• The software is usable for a short period only.
• After an initial trial period that can range from a week to a few months, the
software self-destructs.
• Can be downloaded from the Internet or alternatively, the user can receive a
copy by writing to the maker of the software.
• Trialware are good so customers can have a risk-free trial though for a
limited-period only.

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Firmware
• Firmware is a set of instructions or programs written in machine language
and designed to act as intermediary between the software and hardware.
• It is semi permanently stored in the hardware and updated less often.
• Examples, Basic Input Output System (BIOS), Extensible Firmware Interface
(EFI), Embeded systems (Keyboard, TV, Remote, Graphic cards, Printers, etc.)
Humanware
• Humanware is the hardware and software that emphasizes user capability
and empowerment and the design of the user interface

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 Information system
• “An information system (IS) can be defined technically as a set of interrelated
components that collect, process, store, and distribute in-formation to support
decision making and control in an organization.”
• “Information systems are combinations of hardware, software, and
telecommunications networks that people build and use to collect, create, and
distribute useful data, typically in organizational settings.”
• “Information systems are interrelated components working together to collect,
process, store, and disseminate information to support decision making,
coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an organization.
The Components of Information Systems
• Information systems can be viewed as having five major components: hardware,
software, data, people, and processes.
• The first three are technology. The last two components, people and processes,
Data
• The third technology component is data.
• data as a collection of facts. For example, your address (street, city state, postal
code), your phone number, and your social networking account are all pieces of
data. Like software, data is also intangible, unable to be seen in its native state.
• Pieces of unrelated data are not very useful. But aggregated, indexed, and
organized together into a database, a powerful tool for businesses.
• Organizations collect all kinds of data and use it to make decisions which can then
be analyzed as to their effectiveness.
• The analysis of data is then used to improve the organization’s performance.
• Besides the technology components (hardware, software, and data) which
have long been considered the core technology of information systems, it has
been suggested that one other component should be added: communication.
• An information system cannot exist without the ability to communicate – the
first personal computers were stand-alone machines that did not access the
Internet. However, in today’s hyper connected world, it is an extremely rare
computer that does not connect to another device or to a network.
• Technically, the networking communication component is made up of
hardware and software, but it is such a core feature of today’s information
systems that it has become itown category

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People
• the people involved in information systems may include user support
staff, to systems analysts, to developers, all the way up to the chief
information officer (CIO), the people involved with information systems
are an essential element

Process
• The last component of information systems is process.
• A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or
goal.
• Information systems are becoming more integrated with organizational
processes, bringing greater productivity and better control to those
processes.
Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 23
• Businesses/Organisations automating activities using technology also utilize
information systems to do more.
• The ultimate goal is to improve processes both internally and externally,
enhancing interfaces with suppliers and customers.
• Technology buzzwords such as “business process re-engineering,” “business
process management,” and “enterprise resource planning” all have to do
with the continued improvement of these business procedures and the
integration of technology with them.
• Businesses hoping to gain a competitive advantage over their competitors
are highly focused on this component of information systems.

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Computer-Based Information Systems
• The purpose of a computer-based information system is to provide managers (and
various categories of employees) with the appropriate kind of information to help
them make decisions.
• It is used to collect and analyze data from all departments and is designed to
provide an organization’s management with up-to-date information at any time.
• There are several types of computer-based information systems, which serve
different levels of management:
• Office information systems
• Transaction processing systems
• Management information systems
• Decision support systems
• Executive support systems
• Expert systems

Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 25

Office Information Systems
• Office information systems (OISs), also called office automation systems
(OASs), combine various technologies to reduce the manual labor required
in operating an efficient office environment and to increase productivity.
• Used throughout all levels of an organization, OIS technologies include fax,
voice mail, email, scheduling software, word processing, and desktop
publishing, among others.
• The backbone of an OIS is a network—LAN, intranet, extranet—that connects
everything.
• All office functions—dictation, typing, filing, copying, fax, microfilm and
records management, telephone calls and switchboard operations—are
candidates for integration into the network.

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Transaction Processing Systems
• In most organizations, particularly business organizations, most of what goes
on consists largely of structured information known as transactions.
• A transaction is a recorded event having to do with routine business
activities.
• A transaction may be recorded manually or via a computer system and
includes everything concerning the product or service in which the
organization is engaged: production, distribution, sales, orders.
• It also includes materials purchased, employees hired, taxes paid, and so on.
• Today in most organizations, the bulk of such transactions is recorded in a
computer-based information system.
• These systems tend to have clearly defined inputs and outputs, and there is
an emphasis on efficiency and accuracy.
Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 27
• Transaction processing systems record data but do little in the way of
converting data into information.
A transaction processing system (TPS) is a computer-based information
system that keeps track of the transactions needed to conduct business.
• The transactions can be handled via batch processing, also known as offline
processing —that is, the data is gathered and processed in batches at periodic
intervals, such as at the end of the day or once a week.
• Or they may be handled via real-time processing, also known as online
transaction processing —that is, each transaction is processed immediately as
it is entered. The data collected by a TPS is typically stored in databases.
• Input and output: The inputs to the system are transaction data: bills, orders,
inventory levels, and the like.
• The output consists of processed transactions: bills, paychecks, and so on.

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Management Information Systems
• A management information system (MIS) is a computer-based information
system that uses data recorded by a TPS as input into programs that produce
routine reports as output.
• Input and output: Inputs consist of processed transaction data, such as bills,
orders, and paychecks, plus other internal data.
• Outputs consist of summarized, structured reports: budget summaries,
production schedules, and the like.
Produces several kinds of reports: Managers at this level usually receive
information in the form of several kinds of reports: summary, exception,
periodic, demand.
• Summary reports show totals and trends. An example is a report showing total
sales by office, by product, and by salesperson, as well as total overall sales.
• Exception reports show out-of-the-ordinary data. An example is an inventory
report listing only those items of which fewer than 10 are in stock.
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• Periodic reports are produced on a regular schedule. Such daily, weekly,
monthly, quarterly, or annual reports may contain sales figures, income
statements, or balance sheets. They are usually produced on paper, such as
computer printouts.
• Demand reports produce information in response to an unscheduled demand.
A director of finance might order a demand credit-background report on an
unknown customer who wants to place a large order. Demand reports are
often produced on a terminal or microcomputer screen, rather than on paper.
Decision Support Systems
• A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that
provides a flexible tool for analysis and helps managers focus on the future.
• A DSS aims to produce collected information known as business intelligence,
gathering data from a wide range of sources in a way that can be interpreted
by humans and used to support better business decision making.
Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 30
• DSS applications are not single information resources, such as a database or a
program that graphically represents sales figures, but a combination of
integrated resources working together.
• Whereas a TPS records data and an MIS summarizes data, a DSS analyzes
data.
• To reach the DSS level of sophistication in information technology, an
organization must have established TPS and MIS systems first.
• Inputs include internal data—such as summarized reports and processed
transaction data—and also data that is external to the organization. External
data may be produced by trade associations, marketing research firms, the
Bureau of the Census, and other government agencies.
• The outputs are demand reports on which a top manager can make decisions
about unstructured problems.

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Produces analytic models: The key attribute of a DSS is that it uses models. A
model is a mathematical representation of a real system. The models use a DSS
database, which draws on the TPS and MIS files, as well as external data such as
stock reports, government reports, and national and international news.
• Many DSSs are developed to support the types of decisions faced by managers
in specific industries, such as airlines or real estate.
Executive Support Systems
• Also called an executive information system (EIS), an executive support system
(ESS) is an easy-to-use DSS made especially for strategic managers; it
specifically supports strategic decision making.
• It draws on data not only from systems internal to the organization but also
from those outside, such as news services or market-research databases.

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Expert Systems
• An expert system, or knowledge-based system, is a set of interactive
computer programs that helps users solve problems that would otherwise
require the assistance of a human expert.
• Expert systems are created on the basis of knowledge collected on specific
topics from human specialists, and they imitate the reasoning process of a
human being.

Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 33

Components of Computer
Systems
Dr. O. D. NINAN
Computing Science
Bowen University, Iwo.
November, 2023.

Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 1

 Types of Computer
• There are three basic kinds of computers.
• based on the hardware structure and the way physical quantities are
represented .
• 1. Analog computers. 2. Digital Computers. 3. . Hybrid computers.
• Analog computers are used to process analog data.
• It measures continuous changes in some physical quantity
• Such type of data includes temperature, pressure, speed, weight, voltage, depth etc.
These quantities are continuous and having an infinite variety of values
• Analog computers are widely used for certain specialized engineering and
scientific applications,
• for calculation and measurement of analog quantities.
• Analog computers do not require any storage capability because they measure and
compare quantities in a single operation.

Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 2

Digital Computers
• work with digits to represent numerals, letters or other special symbols.
• digital computers process information which is based on the presence or the absence
of a binary digit (0, 1).
• The results of digital computers are more accurate than the results of analog
computers.
• Analog computers are faster than digital.
• Digital computers store information.
• Digital computers count and analog computers measures.

• Hybrid is a combination of digital and analog computers.

• It combines the best features of both types of computers.
• It has the speed of analog computer and the memory and accuracy of digital computer.
• are used mainly in specialized applications where both kinds of data need to be
processed.
• process both continuous and discrete data.
Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 3
• A computer system comprises of two major components –
Hardware and Software.
• The physical and tangible parts of a computer are called hardware.
• It includes the devices such as
keyboard, mouse, monitor, printers, motherboard,
memory chips, electronic circuitry, expansion cards,
cables, switches and everything you can touch and feel.

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Some common hardware that you’ll find inside a computer:
• Motherboard Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Random Access Memory (RAM) Power Supply
• Video Card Hard Drive
• Optical Drive (i.e. BD/DVD/CD drive) Sound Card
• Network Interface Card (NIC) Analog Modem
• FireWire/USB Expansion Card.

Some common hardware that you might find connected to the outside of a
computer:
• Keyboard Mouse Printer Scanner
• Speakers Monitor
Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 5
 Input Devices
• A unit of computer system that brings data and instruction into the
computer. It accepts data or instruction given by user and converts into
machine readable code if required.

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• The term input is used to describe the process of capturing or collecting raw
data, at the beginning of computer based information system, in to a form
that is usable by the computer for processing.
• Keyboard and mouse are the most popular input unit devices.
• Other devices of this unit are: light pen, joystick, tracker ball, microphone,
scanners, sensors, graphic tablet, touch screen etc.
• Keyboard
• A computer key board is an electromechanical component designed to create
specialized electronic codes (scan codes) when a key is pressed.
• These codes are transmitted along the cables to computer system unit or
terminal, where it is analyzed and converted in to the appropriate computer
usable code.

Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 7

• Keyboards have five distinct groups of keys:
Standard type writer keys: resembles a typewriter
Function keys: The top row keys from F1 to F10 or F12
Cursor movement keys: Arrow keys, Home, End, PageUp, PageDown
Numeric keys: a keypad at the right to make it easy to enter numbers
Special purpose keys: Ctrl, Alt, Shift, Del, Insert.
• Types of Keyboard
1. PC/XT, 2. PC/AT, 3. Enhanced and 4. Windows

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• PC/XT (Stands for eXtended Technology) keyboards have 83 keys, function
keys (F1 to F10) are arranged on left hand side. These keyboards are not
compatible with AT keyboards

• PC/AT (Advanced Technology) contains 84 keys. SysRq (System Request) key

was introduced. Indicator LEDs for Caps, Scroll and NUM lock are used in AT
keyboards.

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• Enhanced keyboards have 101 to 106 keys based on different language
layout.
• Windows Keyboards contained 104 to 109 keys based on different language
layouts. Win key and Menu key are the addition on the Windows Keyboards.

Windows Enhanced Keyboard

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 Mouse
• A mouse is a device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a
display screen. A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard or flat
surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks like a mouse, its
connecting wire that one can imagine to be the mouse tail;
• As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the same
direction. Mice contain two or three buttons, which have different functions
depending on what program is running.
• Some newer mice also include a scroll wheel for scrolling through long
documents.

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• There are three types of mouse: Mechanical, Opto-Mechanical and Optical.
• Mechanical mouse has a ball on its underside and sensors detect the direction
of ball movement to move the cursor on the screen.
• Optomechanical mouse are similar to mechanical mouse but they have
optical sensors instead of balls in it.
• Optical mouse uses laser to detect the mouse movement.
• Looking at how a mouse is connected to computer, we can find three types of
mouse:
• Serial Mouse, Serial mouse connect through RS-232C serial port and it is the
simplest of connection.
• PS/2 Mouse, PS/2 mouse connect through PS/2 port and
• USB Mouse. USB Mouse connect through USB port.
• Cordless mouse (wireless mouse) connects to the computer through infrared
or radio wave to communicate with
Dr. O. D. Ninan computer
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 Scanner
• A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters,
magazine pages, and similar sources for computer editing and display. The
recognition technology can recognize the text and marks present on the
scanned image and convert them into editable form.
• Scanners come in hand-held, feed-in, and flatbed types and for scanning
black-and-white only, or color.
• Scanners usually come with software, such as Adobe’s Photoshop product,
that lets you resize and otherwise modify a captured image.

• Different scanner technologies are OCR, OMR, BCR and MICR .

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 OMR Technology
• The OMR technology allows user to read the check boxes – that is the sign
affixed in predefined spaces. This technology useful to automate the marking
of objective exams. Specialized software along with OMR can completely
automate the checking, marking and tabulating the exam papers.

Different marks OMR can read

ICR Technology

ICR technology used to recognize manuscript data in unconstrained or

constrained mode when there is usually space among characters. It can be used
to enter the forms directly into the computer.
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 BCR Technology
• The BCR technology allows the recognition of bar codes printed on retail
products, as well as, decoding their content.

• OCR Technology

• It’s the recognition technology for printed and typed texts

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 MICR Technology
• MICR technology used to identify the text written by magnetic ink.
Magnetic ink is a special type of ink that contains iron particles dissolved in
ink. MICR magnetizes the writing and scan it accurately. It used to verify the
signatures in bank checks.

• CHR Technology
• It allows user to read manuscript data in cursive written (natural writing not
in capital letters)

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 Output Devices
• A unit of computer system that sends information out of the computer
• the unit of computer system that provides the result of processing to the
users is output unit.
• This unit receives information from CPU and converts into suitable human
readable form. Monitor, Plotter, Printer, Projector, Speaker etc. are output
devices.
• Monitors
• A computer monitor is also called display screen or visual display unit (VDU).
• Text and Images are displayed on monitors by individual dots called pixels
• A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen. The density of dots determines the
clarity of the images – known as resolution.
• A screen resolution 1024 x 768 means that it has 1024 dots in one line and
768 lines in one screen. Another measure of display resolution is a dot pitch.
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• There are two types of monitors – cathode-ray tubes (CRT) and flat panel display.
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors
• A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced
when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface.
• CRT monitors are of two types – monochrome and color.

• Monochrome Monitors
• Monochrome monitors have only two colors – one for background and other for the
foreground (text). The colors can be white, amber or green on a dark background.
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• A monochrome monitor was very common in the early days of computing, from the
1960s through the 1980s until color monitors became popular.
• They are still widely used in applications such as computerized cash
register systems.
• Color Monitors
• A color monitor is a display peripheral that displays more than two colors.
• Color monitors implement the RGB color model by using three different phosphors
that appear red, green, and blue when activated.
• By placing the phosphors directly next to each other, and activating them with
different intensities, color monitors can create an unlimited number of colors.
• Color display technology have been developed through following paths:
• CGA stands for Color Graphics Adapter. It is a circuit board introduced by IBM and
the first graphics standard for the IBM PC. With a CGA monitor, it is harder to read
than with a monochrome monitor because the CGA supports much fewer pixels. It
supports 4 colors.
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• EGA It stands for Enhanced Graphics Adapter. EGA is a video display standard
that has a resolution of 640 by 350 pixels and supports 16 colors. EGA
supports previous display modes and requires a new monitor.
VGA:
• VGA stands for Video Graphics Array. This is a video display standard that
provides medium to high resolution. In a text mode, the resolution of this
board is 720 by 400 pixels. It supports 16 colors with a higher resolution of 640
by 480 pixels and 256 colors with 320 x 200 pixels.
Super VGA:
• This is a very high resolution standard that displays up to 65,536 colors.
• Super VGA can support a 16.8 million colors at 800 by 600 pixels and 256
colors at 1024 by 768 pixels.
• VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association) has set a standard for super
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 Flat Panel Displays
• Portable computers such as a lap top use flat panel displays, because they
are more compact and consume less power than CRTs. A Flat panel display
LCD Monitor is shown.

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 Printers
• A printer is an output device that produces a hard copy of data on to a paper.
The resolution of printer output is expressed as DPI (Dots per inch).
• Printers can be classified into different types in several ways. There are three
types of printers based on the way they print:
• Serial Printers
• Serial printers are also called a character printer. They print a single character at
a time. They are usually inexpensive and slow.
• Line Printers
• Line printers can print one line at a time. They are expensive and very fast
• Page Printers
• Page printers can print one whole page at a time. Page printers are also called a
laser printer because they usually use a laser to produce page images. The print
quality of these printers is the best.
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• Similarly, there are two types of printers based on the use of a hammer.
• Impact Printers
• Impact printers use a hammer or pin to hit the carbon ribbon. This forms characters or dots
to print images on the paper. Because these printers hit the paper it produces sound and
thus they are noisy. Dot-matrix and daisy-wheel printers are the examples of Impact
Printers.
• Nonimpact Printers
• Non-impact printers do not touch paper to produce printout. They do not have the
hammer and do not hit. The examples of non-impact printer are ink-jet, laser printer,
thermal printers and so on.
• There are two types of printers based on how they form characters.
• Bit-Mapped Printers
• Images are formed from groups of dots and can be placed anywhere on the page. They
have many printing options and good printing quality. They use PostScript as a standard
language for instructing a microcomputer.
• Character-based Printers
• These printers print characters into the lines and columns of a page. These printers use
predefined set of characters and are restricted in position of characters.
• Microcomputers use five kinds of printers. They are daisy wheel printers, chain printers,
dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers, and laser printers.
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Daisy Wheel Printer
• Daisy-Wheel is a printer mechanism that uses any kind of hub (wheel)
having a set of spokes at the margin of the hub. The wheel can be removed
to use a different character set. Daisy-Wheel Printer prints typewriter-like
characters. They are slower and less reliable than dot-matrix printers.
Chain Printer
• A chain printer uses a printing mechanism that uses character typefaces
linked together in a chain.
• This printer is not commonly found around microcomputers, because it is a
very expensive, high-speed machine designed originally for mainframes and
minicomputers.
• Chain printers are very reliable and can speed up to 3000 lines per minute.

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Dot-Matrix Printer
• Dot-matrix printers are printers that write characters and form graphic
images using one or two columns of tiny dots on a print head. The dot
hammer moving serially across the paper strikes an inked-ribbon and creates
images on paper.
• They are used for tasks where a high-quality image is not essential.
• Several kinds of dot matrix printers are available with print heads that have
7, 9, 18, or 24 pins.

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Ink-Jet Printer
• Ink-jet is a printer mechanism that sprays one or more color of ink at high
speed onto the paper and produces high-quality printing. This printer also
produces color printing as well as high-quality image. Ink-jet printing has two
methods: Continuous stream method and drop-on- demand method.
Laser Printer
• A laser printer is a printer that uses the electrophotograpic method used in a
copy machine. The printer uses a laser beam light source to create images on a
photographic drum. Then the images on the drum are treated with a
magnetically charged toner and are transferred onto a paper. A heat source is
usually applied to make the images adhere.
• In 1984, Hewlett-Packard introduced the first desktop laser printer, called the
LaserJet.
• The laser printer produces high-resolution letters and graphics quality images,
so it is adopted in applications requiring high-quality output.
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 Plotters
• A plotter is a special-purpose output device that draws images with ink pens.
It is a graphics printer for making sophisticated graphs, charts, maps, and
three-dimensional graphics as well as high-quality colored documents. It can
also produce larger size of documents.
• Plotters require data in a vector graphics format that can produce images with
a series of lines. There are two main types of plotters:
• Drum Plotter:
• This is a plotter that has a drum. A paper wraps the drum that rotates to
produce plots. Pens in a drum plotter move across the paper while the drum is
turning. A drum plotter is usually used to produce smaller drawings.
• Flatbed Plotter:
• This is a plotter that has a bed. This is also called a table plotter. The plotter
draws graphics on the paper placed on the bed. There are several size of beds.
This plotter is usually used for producing large drawings.
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 System Unit
• System Unit is the main part of a microcomputer consisting processing unit
and devices. A system unit includes the parts such as Motherboard,
Microprocessor, Memory Chips, System Clock, Buses, Ports, Expansion Slots
and Cards. The system unit is housed within the system cabinet known as
chassis.

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Motherboard
• A Motherboard or system board is the main circuit board of a microcomputer.
It contains the circuitry printed on a flat board.
• Motherboard connects microprocessor to all other parts of computer and
devices attached.
• Microprocessors, memory modules, BIOS chip, ROM chips, main memory
cards, system clock, display adapters, build-in VGA and NIC, AGP and PCI
expansion slots and ), the buses, and all the chips used for controlling the
peripheral devices.

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• Motherboard

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Microprocessor
• A microprocessor is the main component of a microcomputer. It is a
processor whose elements are miniaturized into one or a few integrated
circuits contained in a single silicon microchip. Microprocessor executes
instructions. In a microcomputer, it is a single microchip to hold the central
processing unit (CPU). To function as a processor, it requires a system clock,
primary storage, and power supply.
Microprocessor Capacity
• The capacity of a microprocessor chip is represented in word sizes. A word
size is the number of bits (e.g., 8, 16, or 32 bits) that a computer (CPU) can
process at a time.
• If word has more bits, the computer (CPU) is more powerful and faster. Eg., a
16-bit-word computer can access 2 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits) at a time, while a
32-bit-word computer can access 4 bytes at a time. Therefore, the 32-bit
computer is faster than theDr. O.16-bit computer.
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• Microprocessor

• Memory Chips
• Primary memory is built into chips that can hold programs and data either
temporarily or permanently.
• Based on whether they can store data temporarily or permanently, there are
two types of memory chipsDr.–O. D.RAMs and ROMs.
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• RAM Chips

• RAM stands for random-access memory. Random- access memory holds the
data or instructions that the CPU is presently processing. I
• t is a volatile memory chip meaning the data stored in RAM are temporary. It
is erased automatically after some time or when the power supply is cut off.
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Types of RAM
• SRAM: Static random access memory can hold data as long as power supply
is provided.
• DRAM: Dynamic random access memory can hold data only for few
milliseconds. So it must be refreshed periodically.
• FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the
original form of DRAM.
• EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not
wait for all of the processing of the first bit before continuing to the next one.
• SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of
the burst mode concept to greatly improve performance. SDRAM is about
five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in desktops
today.
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• DDR SDRAM: Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM
except that is has higher bandwidth, meaning greater speed.
• VRAM: is a type of RAM used specifically for video adapters or 3-D
accelerators.
Memory Modules
• Memory modules are the circuit board containing memory chips.
• SIMM:stands for single in-line memory module. allowed for up to 256 MB of
RAM.
• DIMM: dual in-line memory module (DIMM). DIMMs range in capacity from
8 MB to 1 GB per module.
• RIMM: Rambus in-line memory module(RIMM)
• SODIMM: small outline dual in-line memory module. . Capacity ranges from 16
MB to 1 GB per module.
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• ROM Chips

• ROM stands for read-only memory. A ROM chip is a memory chip that stores
instructions and data permanently. Its contents are placed into the ROM chip
at the time of manufacture and cannot be modified by the user.
• A CPU can read and retrieve the instructions and data from the ROM chip, but
it cannot change the contents in ROM.
• ROM chips usually contain special instructions for computer operations such
as ROM BIOS.
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• PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory):
• A permanent storage device that becomes a read-only memory after it is
written once by the customer rather than by the chip manufacturer. For
example, a software producer can write instructions onto the PROM using
special equipment.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory):
• EPROM is a reusable PROM-chip that can be erased by a special ultraviolet
light. EPROM holds its content until erased and new instructions can be
written on it.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory):
• EEPROM-chip can be erased, either within a computer or externally, by
electric power.

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• EAPROM (Electrically Alterable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
• EAPROM is another type of PROM stands for electrically alterable
programmable read-only memory. This type of memory can be changed by the
computer using special high-current operations.
• System Clock
• The clock is a device that generates periodic, accurately spaced signals.
The system clock controls the speed of all the operations within a computer.
• The clock speed is the internal speed of a computer. The clock speed is
expressed in megahertzes (MHz). 33 MHz means 33 million cycles per second.
A computer processor’s speed is faster if it has higher clock speed.
• Expansion Slots
• Expansion slots are receptacles inside a system unit that printed circuit boards
(expansion boards) are plugged into
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• Expansion Slots

• Expansion Boards
• Expansion boards are also called expansion cards, controller cards, plug-in boards, adapter
cards, or interface cards. They are plugged into expansion slots.
• Expansion boards are connected to peripherals through ports located on the edge of
expansion boards.
• Expansion boards include memory expansion cards /O controller, video display card, sound
cards, communications cards, etc.
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• Ports

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Ports
• A port is an external connecting socket on the outer side of the system unit.
This is a pathway into and out of the computer. A port lets users plug in
outside peripherals, such as monitors, scanners and printers.
Serial Ports
• Serial ports are external I/O connectors used to attach modems, scanners or
other serial interface devices to the computer.
Parallel Ports
• Parallel ports are external I/O connectors on a computer used to hook up
printers or other parallel interface devices.

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 Storage Devices
• Storage Unit Devices
• Computers have two different types of storage – primary (temporary) storage
and secondary (permanent) storage. Secondary storage means external
storage. Storage device includes a magnetic disk, optical disk, magnetic tape
and others.
• Floppy Disks
• Floppy disks are removable, direct access storage media that are inserted into
floppy disk drive to read and write.
• or simply disks.
• The first floppies were of 8” in diameter. The two most common disks are
5 1/4-inch (5.25″) and 3 1/2-inch (3.5″). Floppy disks are flat, circular pieces of
Mylar plastic that rotate within a jacket (protective cover). These are also
called floppies, Diskettes
• DS/DD (2S/2D) Disk: DS/DD means Double Sided Double Density. This is a
floppy disk recorded on both of its sides (DS) and has twice the capacity of the
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• DS/HD Disk: DS/HD means Double Sided High Density. An HD disk has
increased storage capacity.
• Floppy Drives
• A floppy drive is a device used to read data from floppy disks and store data
inside it. Floppy drive grabs a disk at its center and spins it inside its plastic
jacket. A microcomputer usually has internal floppy drives inside the
computer cabinet, but it sometimes has external floppy drive, a separate
component outside the cabinet.
• Hard Disks (Hard Drives)
• A hard disk is a magnetic disk made of metal plates and covered with a
magnetic recording surface. Hard disks come in removable and fixed varieties
that hold from several hundreds of megabytes to several gigabytes. They
are tightly sealed to prevent any foreign matter (dust, moist) from getting
inside which causes head crash.
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• Internal Hard Disk
• Internal hard disk is made up of several metallic platters, a motor, an access
arm and read-write heads sealed inside a container.
• An internal hard disk looked like a part of a system unit inside a computer
cabinet.
• External Hard-Disk Drives: This is a drive that is not built into the system
cabinet of microcomputers. External hard disk drives are treated as
peripherals.
• Optical Disks
• Optical disk is a disk written and read by laser beam. Optical disk does not
spin, or move access arms and read/write heads, because a laser beam can be
moved electronically. The capacity of the storage is considerably greater than
the magnetic disk.
• There are three forms of optical disks .
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• CD-ROM: CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory) is an optical disk storage
that contains text, graphics and hi-fi stereo sound.
• A CD- ROM drive can read music CD, but a CD player cannot read CD-ROM.
CD-ROM is a read-only disk that cannot be written on or erased by the user.
• WORM: A WORM (write once, read many) disk is an optical disk that is
written on just once by the user and then cannot be overwritten.
• A WORM disk is ideal for use as archive because it can be read many times,
but the data cannot be erased.
• Magnetic Tape
• A magnetic tape is a tape coated with a magnetic material on which data can
be stored, usually used for a backup purpose.
• A magnetic tape is slower than direct access storage such as disk, because it is
a sequential access storage.
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