ENERGY ENGINEERING DEPT / 4TH CLASS (2016-2017) / DESIGN OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

Wind turbine: a wind turbine is a device that extracts kinetic energy from the wind and converts it
into mechanical energy across the rotor and finally into electrical energy in the generator. Therefore
wind turbine power production depends on the interaction between the rotor and the wind. So the major
aspects of wind turbine performance like power output and loads are determined by the aerodynamic
forces generated by the wind.

1. Fundamental Formulation
The kinetic energy of a moving air can be expressed as:
K. E = 〈(1⁄2)m𝑉1 2 〉 … (1)

The air mass flow rate with the air density (ρ) passes through a certain cross-sectional area (A) at
velocity (𝑉1 ), is
𝑚° = 〈ρ A 𝑉1 〉 … (2)

The power available in the wind represents the rate of kinetic energy and that leads to following Eq.
Pw = 〈(1⁄2) ρ A 𝑉1 3 〉 … (3)

The angular velocities (ω) of the rotor blades can be estimate from the rotor rotational speed (N) and
can be written as:
ω = (2π N⁄60) … (4)

The tip rotor blade velocities (v) , at the blade tip (R) are estimate from the angular velocity multiplied
by the rotor blade outer radius and can be written as:

v = 〈R ω〉 … (5)

The tip speed ratio represents the ratio between rotor blade velocities to the upstream wind velocities,
which can be written as
λ = TSR = (Rω⁄𝑉1 ) = 〈(v⁄𝑉1 )〉 … (6)

2. Power Coefficient
The ratio of extracted mechanical power by the rotor to the power available in the wind is called
the power coefficient, (𝐶𝑃 ) and can be expressed as follows:

𝐶𝑃 = [𝑃𝑒𝑥 ⁄𝑃𝑤 ] … (7) 〈𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟〉

𝑷𝒆𝒙 = Power extracted by the rotor. 𝑷𝒘 = Power available in the wind.

Ex: Estimate the power extracted by a 5 m diameter wind turbine at a wind speed of 10 m/s and
determine the number of kWhs produced in a day. Assume (𝐶𝑃 = 0.4).
Solution:
1 1
𝑃𝑒𝑥 = 𝐶𝑃 × [ 𝜌𝐴𝑽𝟑𝟏 ] = 0.4 × [ × 1.225 × 𝜋 × 2.52 × 103 ] = 4.71 𝑘𝑊
2 2

If the wind speed remained constant over the day, then

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑠 = 4.71 ×× 24 = 113.04 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑠/𝑑𝑎𝑦

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Ex: Sometimes wind resource surveys give the wind speed in terms of a (power density). If the power
density is 100 𝑊/𝑚2 , what is the wind speed?
Solution:
Power density = 𝑃𝐷 = 〈𝑃𝑤 ⁄𝐴〉 (𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 ) … (8)
𝑃𝐷 = 〈0.5 × 𝜌 × 𝑽𝟑𝟏 〉 = 〈0.5 × 1.225 × 𝑽𝟑𝟏 〉 = 100
𝑉 = 〈2 × 100/1.225〉1⁄3 = 5.5 𝑚/𝑠

3. Thrust Coefficient
The ratio between the thrust force transfer to the shaft of wind turbine rotor, to the thrust force exerted
by the wind on the rotor is called thrust coefficient, (𝐶𝐹𝑇 ) and can be formulated as follows:
𝑭
𝐶𝐹𝑇 = [𝟎.𝟓×𝝆×𝑽𝟐 ×𝑨]… (9) 〈𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟〉
𝟏

4. Torque Coefficient
The ratio between the torque transfer to the shaft of wind turbine rotor, to the torque exerted by the
wind on the rotor is called torque coefficient, (𝐶𝑇 ) and can be formulated as follows:

𝑻
𝐶𝑇 = [𝟎.𝟓×𝝆×𝑽𝟐 ×𝑨×𝑹]… (10) 〈𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟〉
𝟏

5. Relation Between 𝑪𝑷 & 𝑪𝑻

𝐶𝑃 𝑃𝑒𝑥 0.5 × 𝜌 × 𝑉12 × 𝐴 × 𝑅 𝑃𝑒𝑥 × 𝑅

=[ × ] =
𝐶𝑇 0.5 ρ A 𝑉1 3 𝑇 𝑇 × 𝑉1

𝐶𝑃 𝑃𝑒𝑥 × 𝑅 × 𝜔
=[ ] , ∵ 𝑃𝑒𝑥 = 𝑇 × (𝜔) →
𝐶𝑇 𝑇 × (𝜔) × 𝑉1

𝑪𝑷 𝜔×𝑅 𝑪𝑷
= → = λ … (11) 〈𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟〉
𝑪𝑻 𝑉1 𝑪𝑻

Ex: Consider a wind turbine with 5 m diameter rotor. Speed of the rotor at 10 m/s wind velocity is 130
rpm and its (𝑪𝑷 = 0.35). calculate the (λ) and (𝑪𝑻 ) of the turbine. What will be the torque available
at the rotor shaft?
Solution:

ω = (2π N⁄60) = (2π × 130⁄60) = 13.6 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝜔 × 𝑅 13.6 × 2.5
λ= = = 3.4
𝑉1 10

𝐶𝑃 0.35
𝐶𝑇 = = = 0.103
λ 3.4

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𝜋
𝑇 = 0.5 × 𝜌 × 𝑉12 × 𝐴 × 𝑅 × 𝐶𝑇 = 0.5 × 1.24 × × 52 × 102 × 0.103
4
→ 𝑇 = 313.39 𝑁. 𝑚
6. Modeling of Wind Turbine
The mass flow rate across the stream tube is constant, so
𝝆𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝝆𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐 = 𝝆𝑨𝟑 𝑽𝟑 = 𝝆𝑨𝟒 𝑽𝟒 …
(12)
∵ 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 〈𝑩𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒊 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏〉
& 𝑽𝟐 = (𝟐⁄𝟑)𝑽𝟏 , 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝑽𝟒 = (𝟏⁄𝟑)𝑽𝟏 →

𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨𝟑 = (𝟑⁄𝟐)𝑨𝟏 … (13)

𝑨𝟒 = 𝟑𝑨𝟏 = 𝟐𝑨𝟐 … (14)

𝑷𝒎 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝑾𝟏 − 𝑷𝑾𝟒

𝟏
= 𝝆(𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟑𝟏 − 𝑨𝟒 𝑽𝟑𝟒 )
𝟐

𝟏 𝟑
𝑷𝒎 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 = 𝝆𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟑𝟏 (𝟏 − )
𝟐 𝟐𝟕
𝟏 𝟖
= 𝝆 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟑𝟏
𝟐 𝟗

𝟏 𝟖𝟐
𝑷𝒎 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 = 𝝆 𝑨 𝑽𝟑
𝟐 𝟗𝟑 𝟐 𝟏

𝟏𝟔 𝟏
𝑷𝒎 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 = 𝝆𝑨 𝑽𝟑
𝟐𝟕 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝟏
𝑷𝒎 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟑 × 𝟐
𝝆𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟑𝟏 … (15)
Fig (1): Circular tube of air flowing
𝑪𝑷,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟑 〈𝑩𝒆𝒕𝒛 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕〉 through ideal wind turbine.

7. Wind Speed Variation with Height (Wind Shear)

𝑽𝒛 𝒛 Table (1): Variation of 𝒛𝒐 and m with terrain

𝑽𝒉
= (𝒉)𝒎 … (16)
𝒉𝒐 = Reference height,
𝒎 =exponent that depends on the
roughness height.
𝒛
𝑽𝒛 𝐥𝐧( )
𝒛𝒐
=[ 𝒉 ] … (17)
𝑽𝒉 𝐥𝐧( )
𝒛𝒐
𝒛𝒐 =Roughness height.

Ex: The wind speed at the height of 10 m is 5 m/sec. calculate the wind speed at a height of 40 m.
a) The location is on land, and b) The location is on the water

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𝑽𝒛 𝒛 𝟒𝟎
a) = (𝒉)𝒎 → 𝑽𝒛 = 𝟓 × (𝟏𝟎)𝟎.𝟏𝟒 =
𝑽𝒉
𝟔. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎/𝒔

𝑽𝒛 𝒛 𝟒𝟎
b) = ( 𝒉) 𝒎 → 𝑽𝒛 = 𝟓 × (𝟏𝟎)𝟎.𝟏 =
𝑽𝒉
𝟓. 𝟕𝟒 𝒎/𝒔 Fig (2): The wind speed as a function of
height and terrain.

8. Wind Speed Distribution

8.1: Mean wind speed
1⁄
∑𝑛
𝑖 𝑉𝑖
3 3
𝑉𝑚 = [ ] … (18)
𝑛
𝑉𝑖 = Observed wind speed, and n = the number of observation.

8.2: Variance
∑𝑛
𝑖 (𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑚 )
2
𝜎𝑣2 = [ ] … (19)
𝑛

8.3: standard deviation

∑𝑛
𝑖 (𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑚 )
2
𝜎𝑣 = √[ ] … (20)
𝑛

Ex: In a location five wind speeds were observed: 2, 4, 7, 8, and 9 m/sec. Calculate: 𝑉𝑚 , 𝜎𝑣2 , and 𝜎𝑣 .
Solution:
2+4+7+8+9 𝑚
𝑉𝑚 = =6
5 𝑠
1
𝜎𝑣2 = × 〈(2 − 6)2 + (4 − 6)2 + (7 − 6)2 + (8 − 6)2 + (9 − 6)2 〉 = 6.8 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠 2
5
𝜎𝑣 = √8.5 = 2.608 𝑚/𝑠

9. Performance of wind energy conversion systems:-

For the efficient planning and successful implementation of any wind power project, an understanding
on the performance of the Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS), at the proposed site, is essential.
The major factors affecting the power produced by a WECS are (a) the strength of the wind spectra
prevailing at the site and its availability to the turbine (b) the aerodynamic efficiency of the and (c) the
efficiencies in manipulating, transmitting and transforming this power into the desired form.

 Wind is a stochastic phenomenon. Velocity and direction of wind at a location considerably

vary from season to season and even time to time.
 Its distribution also has significant influence on the performance of the WECS.
 The characteristic operational speeds of a wind machine should match well with the prevailing
wind spectra to ensure the maximum exploitation of the available energy.

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 Several types of wind machines with the same rated capacity but different operating
characteristics may be available in the market.
 The designer of a wind energy project should judiciously choose the turbine optimally
matching with his site to maximize the energy production.

10. Power curve of the wind turbine:

Fig (3): Ideal power curve of a pitch controlled wind turbine.

Table (2): Performance regions of a wind turbine.

Velocity range power
0 to 𝑉𝐼 No power as the system is idle
𝑉𝐼 to 𝑉𝑅 Power increases with V
𝑉𝑅 to 𝑉𝑜 Constant power PR
> 𝑉𝑜 No power as the system is shut down

Hence, the turbine has four distinct performance regions as indicated in Table (2). The power produced
by the system is effectively derived from performance regions corresponding to VI to VR and VR to
VO. Let us name these as region 1 and 2. The velocity-power relationship in the region 1 can be
expressed in the general form
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑎𝑉 𝑛 + 𝑏 … (21)

Where a & b are constants and n is the velocity-power proportionality. Now consider the performance
of the system at VI and VR. At VI, the power developed by the turbine is zero. Thus

𝑎 𝑉𝐼𝑛 + 𝑏 = 0 … (22)

At VR power generated is PR. That is:

𝑎 𝑉𝑅𝑛 + 𝑏 = 𝑃𝑅 … (23)
Finally,
𝑉 𝑛 −𝑉 𝑛
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑃𝑅 〈𝑉 𝑛−𝑉𝐼𝑛 〉 … (24)
𝑅 𝐼
Ex: A 2 MW wind turbine has cut-in, rated and cut-out velocities 3.5 m/s, 13.5 m/s and 25 m/s
respectively. Generate the power curve of the turbine. Take the ideal velocity power proportionality,
that is n = 3. Between 3.5 m/s and 13.5 m/s.
Solution:

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𝑉 3 − (3.5)3
𝑃𝑉 = 2000 × [ ]
(13.5)3 − (3.5)3
For 13.5 < V< 25, the turbine develops its rated power of 2,000 kW. When V > 25, the turbine produces
no power as it is shut down. The resulting power curves is shown in figure (4).

Fig (4): Power curve of the wind turbine.

In practice, the power response of the turbine does not follow a perfect curve as shown above. Field
observations are rather scattered figure (5). This means that, for the same wind velocity V, the turbine
appears to develop different powers as shown in the figure. This happens because we cannot precisely
measure the strength of the wind as it passes through the turbine. The measurements are made from
meteorological towers mounted slightly away from the turbine. Due to momentary fluctuations in the
wind, velocity of the measured wind and the wind column actually interacting with the turbine may be
different. Further, due to the variations in the air density, there may be differences in the power
characteristics recorded during different days. Observations from wind farms indicate that even the
same type of turbines installed at the same location may show different power characteristics. It should
also be noted that the power curve tells us the power expected from the turbine at an instantaneous
wind velocity V and not for the velocity averaged over a period.

Fig (5): Field performance of a 250 kW wind turbine.

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The velocity power proportionality has a profound effect on the power generated by the wind turbine.
Ideally, variations in power with the velocity should be cubic in nature. However in practice, this can
take any form such as linear, quadratic, cubic or even higher powers and its combinations.
11. Capacity factor:
The ratio of the energy actually produced by the system to the energy that could have been produced
by it, if the machine would have operated as its rated power throughout the time period. Thus,
𝐸
𝑪𝑭 = 𝑇 𝑃𝑇 … (25)
𝑅

Ex: A wind energy system has the following parameters:

Rotor diameter, D = 37.5 m 𝑪𝒑 = 38 %
Cut in wind velocity 𝑽𝒘𝒊 = 𝟓. 𝟒 𝒎/𝒔 Rated wind velocity 𝑉𝑤𝑟 = 9.7 𝑚/𝑠
Cut out wind velocity 𝑽𝒘𝒐 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟗 𝒎/𝒔 Air density 𝜌 = 1.225 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
Synchronous generator rated power output, 𝑷𝒐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑾.

a) Calculate the available power in the wind at rated wind speed.

b) If the wind turbine operate at maximum power coefficient at rated wind speed, then calculate
the mechanical power extracted from the wind at rated wind speed.
c) Calculate the combined gear-generator efficiency.
d) Calculate the generator capacity factor, if the average power output of the generator is 𝑷𝒂𝒗 =
120 𝑘𝑊.
Solution:
3 37.5
a) 𝑷𝒘 = (𝟏⁄𝟐) × 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉𝑤𝑟 = (𝟏⁄𝟐) × 1.225 × 𝜋 ( 2)2 × (9.7)3 → 𝑷𝒘 = 617.4 𝑘𝑊.
b) 𝑷𝒎 = 𝑷𝒘 × 𝑪𝒑 = 617.4 × 0.38 → 𝑷𝒎 = 234.61 𝑘𝑊.
c) 𝜼 = (𝑷𝒐 /𝑷𝒎 ) = (200/234.61) → 𝜼 = 85.25 % .
𝑷 120
d) 𝑪𝑭 = [ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 ] = [200] → 𝑪𝑭 = 0.6
𝒐

12. Wind Turbine Noise

Well-designed wind turbines are extremely quiet: one simple data correlation for the sound power
level 𝐿𝑃 , gives
𝐿𝑃 ≈ 10−7 𝑃 … (26)

13. Turbulence
Turbulence intensity is usually calculated for short time periods, minutes to an hour, and is the mean
wind speed divided by the standard deviation:

𝐼 = (𝑉𝑚 ⁄𝜎𝑣 ) … (27)

14. Analysis of find farms:

When several turbines are installed in clusters, the turbulence due to the rotation of blades of one
turbine may affect the nearby turbines. In order to minimize the effect of this rotor induced turbulence,
a spacing of (3 DT to 4 DT) is provided within the rows, where DT is the rotor diameter. Similarly, the
spacing between the rows may be around 10 DT, so that the wind stream passing through one turbine
is restored before it interacts with the next turbine. Turbines are placed in rows with the direction of
incoming wind perpendicular to it, as shown in Fig (6).
The number of turbines per row (NTR) may be estimated as
NTR = (LR ⁄SR ) + 1 … (28)
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Where LR is the row length and SR is the row spacing. If PF is the total capacity of the wind farm and
PT is the rated power of a turbine, then
NT = (PF⁄PT ) … (29)
Where NT is the total number of turbines in the farm. Hence, the total number of rows is obviously
NR = (NT ⁄NTR ) … (30)

Figure (6): Typical layout of a wind farm.

15. Aerodynamic of HAWTs:

15.1. Actuator Disc Model:
The simplest model of a wind turbine is the so-called actuator disc model where the turbine is replaced
by a circular disc through which the airstream flows with a velocity 𝑈∞ and across which there is a
pressure drop from 𝑝𝑢 to 𝑝𝑑 as shown in Fig (7). Actuator disc model is based on the assumptions like
no frictional drag, homogenous, incompressible, steady state fluid flow, constant pressure increment
or thrust per unit area over the disk, continuity of velocity through the disk and an infinite number of
blades.

Fig (7): Actuator Disk Model.

The mass flow rate remains the same throughout the flow. So the continuity equation along the
stream tube can be written as
𝜌 𝐴∞ 𝑈∞ = 𝜌 𝐴𝑑 𝑈𝑑 = 𝜌 𝐴𝑤 𝑈𝑤 … (31)

Assuming the continuity of velocity through the disk gives

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𝑈2 = 𝑈3 = 𝑈𝑅 … (32)

For steady state flow the mass flow rate can be obtained using

𝑚° = 𝜌𝐴𝑈𝑅 … (33)
Applying the conservation of linear momentum equation on both sides of the actuator disk gives

𝐹 = 𝑚° (𝑈∞ − 𝑈𝑤 ) … (34)

Bernoulli equation can be applied on both sides of the rotor.

1 1
𝑝𝑑 + 2 𝜌 𝑈𝑅2 = 𝑝𝑜 + 2 𝜌 𝑈𝑤2 … (35)

1 1
2
𝑝𝑜 + 2 𝜌 𝑈∞ = 𝑝𝑢 + 2 𝜌 𝑈𝑅2 … (36)

The pressure decrease (𝑝′ ) is

1
𝑝′ = 2 𝜌 (𝑈∞
2
− 𝑈𝑤2 ) … (37)
1
𝐹 = 𝐴 𝑝′ → 𝐹 = 2 𝜌 𝐴 (𝑈∞
2
− 𝑈𝑤2 ) … (38)
𝑈∞ +𝑈𝑤
∴ 𝑈𝑅 = … (39)
2

The axial induction factor is defined as:

𝑎 = ((𝑈∞ − 𝑈𝑅 )/𝑈∞ ) … (40)
𝑈𝑅 = 𝑈∞ (1 − 𝑎) … (41)
𝑈𝑤 = 𝑈∞ (1 − 2𝑎) … (42)
The power output of the rotor can be estimated as
𝑃 = 𝐹 𝑈𝑅 … (43)
The power output based on the momentum balance on both sides of the actuator disk rotor is
1 2
𝑃 = 2 𝜌 𝐴 (𝑈∞ − 𝑈𝑤2 ) 𝑈𝑅 … (44)

3 (1
𝑃 = 2 𝜌𝐴 𝑎 𝑈∞ − 𝑎)2 … (45)

Finally the performance parameters of a HAWT rotor (power coefficient 𝐶𝑃 , thrust coefficient 𝐶𝐹𝑇 ,
and the tip-speed ratio λ) can be expressed in dimensionless form which is formulated as
3
𝐶𝑃 = (2𝑃 ⁄𝜌𝑈∞ 𝜋𝑅 2 ) … (46)
2
𝐶𝐹𝑇 = (2𝐹 ⁄𝜌𝑈∞ 𝜋𝑅 2 ) … (47)
𝜆 = (𝑅 Ω⁄𝑈∞ ) … (48)

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The power coefficient, axial thrust, and thrust force coefficient of the rotor can be rewritten as
respectively
𝐶𝑃 = 4𝑎 (1 − 𝑎)2 … (49)
2
𝐹 = 2𝐴𝑎𝜌(1 − 𝑎)𝑈∞ … (50)

𝐶𝐹𝑇 = 4𝑎 (1 − 𝑎) … (51)

15.2. Blade element theory:

Until this point the momentum theory is tried to be explained on account of (HAWT) rotor design but
it does not consider the effects of rotor geometry characteristics like chord and twist distributions of
the blade airfoil. For this reason blade element theory needs to be added to the design method. In order
to apply blade element analysis, it is assumed that the blade is divided into (N) sections. This analysis
is based on some assumptions including no aerodynamic interactions between different blade elements
and the forces on the blade elements are solely determined by the lift and drag coefficients.

Fig (8): Rotating Annular Stream Tube. Fig (9): The Blade Element Model

Since each of the blade elements has a different rotational speed and geometric characteristics they
will experience a slightly different flow. So blade element theory involves dividing up the blade into
a sufficient number (usually between ten and twenty) of elements and calculating the flow at each one
(Figs. 8, 9). Overall performance characteristics of the blade are then determined by numerical
integration along the blade span.

𝑾 → 𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲

𝑽(𝟏 − 𝒂) → wind velocity at blades

𝜽𝒑 → section pitch angle

𝜶 → angle of attack

∅ = 𝜽𝒑 + 𝜶 → flow angle

𝜷 → blade pitch angle

𝜽 → section twist angle

Fig (10): Blade geometry for the analysis of a HAWT Rotor.

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From fig. 10, the following equations can be derived immediately.

𝑉 (1−𝑎)
𝑊= … (52)
sin(ϕ)

𝑉 (1−𝑎) (1−𝑎)
tan(∅) = Ω 𝑟 (1+𝑎′ ) = (1+𝑎′ )𝜆 … (53)
𝑟

In the above Eq (53), 𝑎′ is the tangential induction factor which is defines as

𝜔
𝑎′ = 2 Ω … (54)

Here (𝜔) is the angular velocity of flow, and (Ω) is the angular velocity of the rotor.
1
𝑑𝐹𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 2 𝜌 𝑊 2 𝑐𝑑𝑟 … (55)
1
𝑑𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌 𝑊 2 𝑐𝑑𝑟 … (56)
2

𝑑𝐹𝑇 = 𝑑𝐹𝐿 sin(𝜙) − 𝑑𝐹𝐷 cos(𝜙) … (57) [Edge wise load]

𝑑𝐹𝑁 = 𝑑𝐹𝐿 cos(𝜙) + 𝑑𝐹𝐷 sin(𝜙) … (58) [Flap wise load]
If the rotor has (B) number of blades, the above equations can be rearranged as
1
𝑑𝐹𝑇 = 𝐵 𝜌 𝑊 2 (𝐶𝐿 sin(𝜙) − 𝐶𝐷 cos(𝜙)) 𝑐𝑑𝑟 … (59)
2
1
𝑑𝐹𝑁 = 𝐵 𝜌 𝑊 2 (𝐶𝐿 cos(𝜙) + 𝐶𝐷 sin(𝜙)) 𝑐𝑑𝑟 … (60)
2

The elemental torque can be written as

1
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑟𝑑𝐹𝑇 → 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐵 𝜌 𝑊 2 (𝐶𝐿 sin(𝜙) − 𝐶𝐷 cos(𝜙)) 𝑐𝑟𝑑𝑟 … (61)
2

The solidity ratio can be defined as

𝜎 = 𝐵𝑐 ⁄2𝜋𝑟 … (62)
The general form of elemental torque and thrust equations becomes
𝑉 2 (1−𝑎)2
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜎𝜋𝜌 (𝐶𝐿 sin(𝜙) − 𝐶𝐷 cos(𝜙)) 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 … (63)
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (∅)

𝑉 2 (1−𝑎)2
𝑑𝐹𝑁 = 𝜎𝜋𝜌 (𝐶𝐿 cos(𝜙) + 𝐶𝐷 sin(𝜙)) 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 … (64)
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (∅)

The power produced by the rotor of wind turbine is estimated as

𝑅
𝑃 = ∫0 Ω 𝑑𝑄 … (65)

Finally, the power coefficient of the wind turbines is formulated as

𝑅
𝑃 ∫ Ω 𝑑𝑄
𝐶𝑝 = = 10 … (66)
𝑃𝑊 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉3
2

16. Rotor design

A simple procedure for an approximate design of a wind rotor is discussed, based on the fundamental
aerodynamic theories. Following input parameters are to be identified for such a design.
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1. Radius of the rotor (R)

2. Number of blades (B)
3. Tip speed ratio of the rotor at the design point (𝜆𝐷 )
4. Design lift coefficient of the airfoil (𝐶𝐿𝐷 )
5. Angle of attack of the airfoil lift (𝛼)
If the power expected from the turbine (𝑃𝐷 ) at its design point is known, with the relationship
1
𝑃𝐷 = 2 𝐶𝑃𝐷 𝜂𝑑 𝜂𝑔 𝜌𝑎 𝐴𝑇 𝑉𝐷3 … (67)

The radius of the rotor can be estimated as

1⁄2
2 𝑃𝐷
𝑅 = [𝐶 ] … (68)
𝑃𝐷 𝜂𝑑 𝜂𝑔 𝜌𝑎 𝜋 𝑉3
𝐷

𝑪𝑷𝑫 = The design power coefficient of the rotor, 𝜼𝒅 = The drive train efficiency,
𝜼𝒈 = The generator efficiency, 𝑉𝐷 = The design wind velocity.

For a well-designed system, the design power coefficient (𝐶𝑃𝐷 ) may be in the range of (0.4 - 0.45) and
the combined efficiency of the drive train and generator may be taken as (0.9). If the design is to be
based on the energy required for a specific application (EA), the rotor radius can be calculated by

1⁄2
2 𝐸𝐴
𝑅 = [𝜂 3 ] … (69)
𝑆 𝜌𝑎 𝜋 𝑉𝑀 𝑇

𝜼𝑺 = overall system efficiency, 𝑽𝑴 = mean wind velocity over a period, 𝑻 = Number of hours in that period.

Number of blades in a rotor is directly related to the design tip speed ratio. The higher the tip speed
ratio, the lower would be the number of blades. Figure (11) gives a guideline for choosing the number
of blades based on the design tip speed ratio.
Angle of attack (𝜶) and corresponding lift coefficient (CLD) are taken from the performance data of
the airfoil used in the design. Data on drag and lift coefficients at different angles of attack may be
available for standard airfoil sections.
As we would like to minimize the drag force and maximize the lift, (𝜶) corresponding to minimum
(CD/CL) is to be identified. This can be obtained from a (CD-CL) curve of an airfoil by plotting a
tangent to the curve from the origin as shown in figure (12). If such data are not readily available for
the selected airfoil, the required information should be generated through wind tunnel experiments.

Fig. 11: Number of blades and design tip speed

Fig.12: CD-CL relationship of an airfoil.
ratio.

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Once all these input parameters are identified, the design procedure involves computing the chord
length (C) and blade setting angle (𝜷) at different sections of the airfoil. (C) and (𝜷) of a blade section
at a distance r from the center can be determined by the following sets of relationships:

𝜆𝐷 𝑟
𝜆𝑟 = … (70)
𝑅
2 −1 1
𝜙= tan … (71)
3 𝜆𝑟

𝛽 = 𝜙 − 𝛼 … (72)
8𝜋𝑟
𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 (1 − cos 𝜙) … (73)
𝐿𝐷

Ex: Design the rotor for an aero generator to develop 100 W at a wind speed of 7 m/s. NACA 4412
airfoil may be used for the rotor. Let us take the design power coefficient as 0.4 and the combined
drive train and generator efficiency 0.9. Taking the air density as 1.224 kg/m3.

Solution:
1⁄2 1⁄2
2 𝑃𝐷 2 × 100
𝑅=[ ] =[ ] = 0.65 𝑚
𝐶𝑃𝐷 𝜂𝑑𝑔 𝜌𝑎 𝜋 𝑉𝐷3 0.4 × 0.9 × 1.224 × 𝜋 × 73

From figure (11), it is logical to take a design tip speed ratio of 5 for such rotors. From the available
performance data of NACA 4412 airfoil, it is seen that minimum 𝐶𝐷 /𝐶𝐿 of 0.01 is attained at an angle
of attack of 4° and the corresponding lift coefficient (𝐶𝐿𝐷 ) is 0.8. The total blade length, starting from
0.2 R to R, is divided in to 9 sections at an interval of 6.5 cm. The chord and blade setting angle at
these sections are calculated using equations (70) to (73). The results are given in Table (3) Profile of
the designed blade is shown in figure (13).

Table (3): Design specifications of the wind rotor.

Figure (13): Profile of the designed blade.

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