ISBN 978-1-6654-3986-2

Enhanced Regenerative Braking System for

Electric Vechile with High Power Density
2021 International Conference on System, Computation, Automation and Networking (ICSCAN) | 978-1-6654-3986-2/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ICSCAN53069.2021.9526369

Storage
Naveen Kumar Mydham A Vijayakumari*
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India
[email protected]

S R Mohanrajan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India
sr [email protected]

Abstract—This work presents the implementation of regenera- of driving etc. influence it. Regenerative energy from braking
tive braking method of Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous is considered be one of the direct way to enhance the drive
Motor(IPMSM) in electric vehicle(EV) with a battery/High- range of the vehicle which can also reduces the size of the
power density element Hybrid Energy Storage System(HESS).
The Regenerative Braking(RB) control of IPMSM and transfer battery[2]. Moreover, regeneration in EV while decelerating
of brake energy to a High-power density element in EV model can be done with software modifications in the controller side
are the main objectives this work. The proposed system uses and without any need of added power electronics components
a bidirectional dc/dc converter(BDC) to interface between the in the system.
battery and the ultra/super capacitor. It helps to maintain the The recent development in power electronics components,
ultra/super capacitor voltage higher than the voltage across the
battery for the most urban driving scenarios. The ultra/super motor technology, and rare earth permanent magnet material
capacitor is receives the peak power from the RB and protects has made IPMSM as the most recognized choice for EV
the battery being burdened with over charging. So, the limitation drive[3]. Since the IPMSM makes use of both reluctance and
of overcharging of battery as well as the peak power handling by magnetic torque, it is the most efficient motor available and
battery during RB can be eliminated. The harvested energy from also more extensive constant power operation can be achieved.
the RBS serves the real-time peak power demands during acceler-
ations, Up-hills and starting transients of the electric motor. Thus, Depending on the supply frequency, the IPMSM runs at a
the battery is avoided from the stress and repeated charges during constant speed at any torque value up to its operating point
regenerative braking, which results in improving the battery life which is one of the desired characteristics for traction drives.
span. Since the braking energy could be completely utilized, the There are scalar and vector control techniques are available
driving range of the electric vehicle can be increased considerably for the control of IPMSM. In the scalar control method,
and also overcomes the limitation of RBS.
Index Terms—IPMSM, Maximum Torque Per Ampere Con- the v/f control is carried out without considering the phase
trol, Hybrid Energy Storage System, Bi-Directional dc/dc Con- relation between rotor and stator flux which leads to poor
verter, Electric Vehicle, High Power Density Storage, Regenera- transient response and hence scaler control techniques are
tive Braking not recommended for electric vehicle applications. In vector
control methods, Maximum Torque/Ampere(MTPA) control
I. I NTRODUCTION method is most preferred in minimizing copper losses and
Electric vehicle is considered as the potential candidate having the advantages like less ripples in torque and flux[4].
to take out the internal combustion engine(ICE) vehicles to At present, The standard energy storage system in EVs
make emission-free roadways in the imminent future. Since the are Lithium ion batteries because of their characteristics like
invention of EV, the driving range of the EV is the one of the long life, high energy density and low self discharge as
key factor which limits the development of EV[1]. The drive compared to other available energy storage systems. There will
range of the Electric Vehicle is depends on its battery a lot. be a significant stress on battery during vehicle accelerations,
But, many factors and circumstances like road conditions, way climbing uphill etc. While decelerating, Regenerative energy
from the braking can be stored into vehicle’s battery directly.
* The author demised prior to the submission of this paper But the regenerative braking energy cannot be stored when the

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battery is reaching to its fully charged[5]. Any further charge

from regenerative braking afterwards would cause the battery
to raise above its safe limit and can cause destruction. So either
the regenerative braking energy must be unutilized, or the
battery must be oversized. To overcome this limitation while
regenerative braking, an additional high-power density energy
storage is added. The high-power density energy storage
system receives any peak power from regenerative braking and
protects the battery being burdened with over charging. For
EV applications, the recent studies suggests that Battery and
ultra/super capacitor HESS gives the significant improvement
on the drive range and performance of the vehicle[6][9][10].
For this reason, the presented work targets to design and
analyse the Regenerative Braking System(RBS) with HESS Fig. 1. Complete implementation scheme with MTPA algorithm and HESS
to enhance its regenerative braking efficiency and dynamic for regenerative braking
performance of the vehicle during starting transients, acceler-
ations, climbing uphills etc. This proposed system validated
q-axis and d-axis stator currents are available for generating a
with Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule(UDDS) driving
required torque value. Among those combinations, an optimal
cycle. The proposed system modelled and simulated in the
one has to be selected such that the selected combination gives
Matlab/Simulink and the results are presented and analysed.
the smallest stator current vector. Such a control algorithm
II. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF IPMSM with optimal direct and quadrature axis stator current that gives
rise to the least stator current for generating the required torque
The stator voltage equations in d-q frame of IPMSM are
value is termed as MTPA control algorithm.
dλq In terms of angle and magnitude, the direct-axis and
V q = Rs Iq + + ωλd (1) quadrature-axis stator currents are represented as,
dt
dλd id = −Is sinβ (5)
Vd = Rs Id + − ωλq (2)
dt iq = −Is cosβ (6)
where λq = λaq = Lq iq , λd = λad + λm = Ld id + λm ,
where Is is the amplitude of stator current and β is the angle
λm is the flux linkage of permanent magnet.
of the stator current vector w.r.t direct axis.
The output power of IPMSM can be represented as
Using the angle-magnitude variant of the direct-quadrature
3 currents, the IPMSM torque equation is written as:
(ωs λd Iq − ωs λq Id )
Po = (3)
2 3 3
The electromagnetic torque, which is power divided by Te = [ ]P ψf Is cosβ + [ ]P (Ld − Lq )ψf Is sin2 β (7)
2 4
mechanical speed can be represented as: In this model, MTPA control algorithm is used for maneu-
3 P vering the vehicle. Table.1 shows the motor parameters for
Te = ∗ [λm Iq + (Ld − Lq )Id Iq ] (4)
2 2 developing the MTPA algorithm for IPMSM drive. Fig. 1
From the above torque equation, it is consisting of two shows the complete implementation scheme for the proposed
distinct torques. The first term represents the electromagnetic system.
torque, its occurring between the permanent magnet and Iq ,
while the second term represents the reluctance torque due to TABLE I
S YSTEM PARAMETERS FOR MTPA CONTROL ALGORITHM
the difference in direct-axis and quadrature-axis reluctance.
Parameter Value
III. REGENERATION WITH MTPA ALGORITHM Rated power 35 kW
Base speed 1500 rpm
Vector control of IPMSM is comparatively easy than that Nominal torque 205 Nm
of induction motor because of the simplicity in obtaining the Permanent magnetic flux 0.04366 Wb
rotor flux position information directly from the rotor position Inductance in q-axis 0.29758 mH
Inductance in d-axis 0.23468 mH
itself. Therefore, in contrast to induction motor, the vector
Stator copper resistance 0.010087 Ω
control of IPMSM, does not involve complex computations to Inertia 0.1234 kg-m2
acquire the position of rotor flux. Friction coefficient 0.1
The torque of IPMSM consists of magnetic and reluctance Pole pairs 8
Inverter switching frequency 10 kHz
torque. Since Lq is greater than Ld in IPMSM, the reluctance DC link voltage (190 - 381) V
torque will aid the magnetic torque when the d-axis stator
current is of negative polarity. Many different combinations of

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where A = vehicle frontal area, v = velocity of the vehicle,

cw = Drag coefficient, ρ = air density.
Grading resistance occurs when a vehicle goes up or down
a hill. During this period, the vehicle’s weight will produce
a force component that is always directed downwards. This
force opposes the forward motion while climbing a slope and
aids the vehicle motion while the vehicle goes down the grade
is expressed as,
Fg = M ∗ g ∗ sinθ (10)

where θ = the angle of road inclination, g = acceleration

constant in m/s2 and M = mass of the vehicle in kg.
Apart from these three forces, force due to inertia occurs
during both cruising and braking and is calculated as,
ΣJ dv
Fa = (M + ) (11)
R2 dt
where M = mass of the vehicle in kg, J = inertia of rotational
components, v = velocity of the vehicle, R = radius of the tire.
Fig. 2. UDDS Drive cycle
Hence the tractive force is obtained as,

Ft = Fr + Fw + Fg + Fa (12)
IV. E LECTRIC V EHICLE M ODEL FOR T RACTIVE P OWER
ESTIMATION The torque, speed and power imposed on the motor is
defined as:
Tata Tigor EV is considered as the reference vehicle model Ft ∗ r
for validating this work. To estimate the wheel torque of Tm = (13)
G
developed vehicle model, UDDS drive cycle is considered,
which representing the city driving conditions obtained from v∗G
ωm = (14)
the USEPA. The complete duration of UDDS drive cycle is r
1369seconds, for the intended simulation studies, a portion Pm = ωm ∗ Tm (15)
from 0 to 340 seconds is chosen and it is shown in a magnified
scale in Fig. 2. Due to simulation time limitations, this time where Tm = motor torque, d = diameter of the wheel, G =
curtailment is as imposed. By applying the UDDS drive gear ratio, Pm = motor power and ωm = motor speed.
cycle on to the developed vehicle model, the required speed, The amount of energy that can be recovered while braking
torque and power that has to be delivered by the IPMSM are can be estimated by integrating power equation (15) over the
calculated. The power and torque that has to be delivered by whole deceleration time period.
the IPMSM are determined by different resistive forces that
act on a moving vehicle. TABLE II
D ESIGN PARAMETERS FOR E LECTRIC V EHICLE
The power source of the electric vehicle delivers a tractive
force(Ft ) which is been transferred to the driving wheels Vehicle parameter Value
via transmission and final drive. This tractive force propels Total vehicle mass (M) 1590 kg
the vehicle forward movement. Resistive forces like rolling Vehicle cross section area (Af ) 2.58 m2
Density of air (ρ) 1.2 kg/m3
resistance, aerodynamic drag and gradient resistance acts on Drag coefficient (Cd ) 0.3
the moving vehicle and tries to retard its motion. While Rolling resistance coefficient (Co ) 0.02
braking, these forces aids the deceleration of the vehicle. Road angle (θ) 9.80
Gear ratio (G) 7.2
When a vehicle moves, there exists a friction between the
Transmission gear ratio (ig ) 3
vehicle’s tyres and the road which results in rolling resistance Differential gear ratio (io ) 2.4
and is represented as, Gravitational acceleration (g) 9.807 m/s2
Diameter of tyre (D) 0.65 m
Fr = M ∗ g ∗ fr (8)

where fr = rolling resistance coefficient, g = acceleration Table.2 shows the vehicle parameters of Tata Tigor EV.
constant in m/s2 and M = vehicle mass in kg. The reference speed and reference torque are generated for
Aerodynamic drag is the resistance due to wind can be the IPMSM drive by applying the UDDS drive cycle on to
calculated as, the developed EV model. These reference quantities act as
the input to the IPMSM simulation system and ensures the
Fw = 0.5 ∗ ρ ∗ A ∗ cw ∗ v 2 (9) tracking of the reference as demanded by UDDS drive cycle.

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Fig. 3. HESS configuration for Enhanced regenerative braking system

Fig. 4. VLCSM of operation energy flow

V. HESS AND ITS CONFIGURATIONS
In order to avoid the frequent charge and discharge cycles,
limit surge discharge currents, improve energy availability,
enhance battery life cycle and system efficiency, it is rec-
ommended to combine more than one energy storage either
in series or parallel[7][8]. This combination is called HESS.
Different HESS configurations are possible with Battery/SC,
Battery/FC, SC/FC, Battery/SC/FC etc.
The different HESS topologies are passive parallel config-
uration, Battery/SC Configuration, SC/Battery Configuration,
Cascaded Configuration, Multiple Input Converter Configura-
tion, Multiple Converter Configuration and Battery/SC with Fig. 5. VHCSM of operation energy flow
Diode Configuration. Above mentioned configurations are
having their own advantages and disadvantages. In this paper,
our focus is on Battery/SC with Diode Configuration to get smaller than PC . If PD is greater than PC , it is referred as
the full advantage of this configuration. This configuration is Vehicle High Constant Speed Mode(VHCSM). Both VLCSM
illustrated in Fig. 3. and VHCSM are regular modes of the vehicle, since in real
time vehicle driving conditions, the PD of the vehicle is always
VI. C ONFIGURATION FOR E NHANCED R EGENERATIVE changing.
BRAKING SYSTEM In VLCSM, since PC greater than PD , the Ultra/Super
In Battery/SC with Diode configuration, dc link voltage is Capacitor voltage(VU C ) can be maintained greater than the
permitted to change in a predetermined voltage levels. The battery voltage(VB ), the dc-link voltage(VD C ) can also be
motor drive of the electric vehicle is developed to handle the maintained at any value greater than the (VB ). In the VCSOM,
current at lower voltage. Ultra/Super Capacitor bank at Higher the Ultra/Super Capacitor is neither providing to the electric
voltage is directly connected to the dc link so as to supply motor nor absorbing the power. Since the Battery voltage is
the real time peak power demands of the electric vehicle. less than that of Ultra/Super Capacitor, So the switch reversely
whereas a lower level voltage battery pack is connected to the biased. There won’t be any energy flow through the switch.
dc link via a power diode. A BDC is connected between the The motor is not receiving any energy directly from the battery.
Ultra/Super Capacitor and the battery to transfer the energy Fig. 4 shows the VLCSM energy flow.
to charge the Ultra/Super Capacitor. The BDC is always In VHCSM, PD greater than PC , VU C can no longer be
controlled in such a way that the Ultra/Super Capacitor voltage maintained more than VB . Therefore, the switch is forward
is greater than battery voltage. Therefore, the power diode is biased condition. So, the battery is delivering the energy
reverse biased in most of the cases. directly to the motor. The BDC will be turned off in this mode
In order to explain the battery and Ultra/Super Capacitor of operation. Fig. 5 shows the VHCSM energy flow.
Hybrid Energy Storage System operation in electric vehicle
B. Mode 2: Acceleration operation
applications can be categorized into three modes. They are Ve-
hicle Constant Speed Operating Mode(VCSOM), Acceleration At the starting of the acceleration mode of operation, con-
Operating Mode(AOM) and Regenerative Braking Operating sider VU C greater than VB . Since PC less than PD , VU C will
Mode(RBOM) or Deceleration Operating Mode(DOM). keep reducing. So, Energies from the Ultra/Super Capacitor
and the BDC are both supporting the acceleration. Fig. 6 shows
A. Mode 1: VCSOM the acceleration mode of operation phase I energy flow.
Depending on dc/dc converter power (PC ) and power With the decreasing of Ultra/Super Capacitor voltage, VU C
demand (PD ), the VCSOM is divided into two modes. In will reduce to equal level as VB . When VU C = VB , the Ul-
Vehicle low constant speed mode(VLCSM), PD is equal to or tra/Super Capacitor and the battery become paralleled through

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Fig. 10. HESS Power Delivered for Tata Tigor EV Model

Fig. 6. Acceleration mode of operation phase I energy flow

the diode directly. The vehicle enters the VHCSM. In the

VHCSM, if PC becomes greater than PD , the difference power
between PC and PD will be used to charge the Ultra/Super
Capacitor. The energy flow of acceleration mode of operation
phase II is illustrated in Fig. 7.

C. Mode 3: Regeneration operation

There are two phases of operations available in the Regener-
ative mode of operation. In phase I operation, the regenerative
power from the braking will be fed into the Ultra/Super
Capacitor only. and the BDC will be in boost mode of
operation till Ultra/Super Capacitor voltage is less than the
Fig. 7. Acceleration mode of operation phase II energy flow
target Ultra/Super Capacitor voltage (VU C tar g et ). Fig. 8
shows the phase I energy flow.
Fig. 10 shows the RB phase II operation energy flow.
Operation of phase II describes the working conditions of
the continuous RB condition. If continuous RB is needed in
the vehicle, the BDC will work in buck mode of operation
to transfer the energy to the battery from the Ultra/Super
Capacitor to make sure that the VU C is within the operating
limits.

D. Ultra/Super Capacitor Design

Braking power is defined as:
Brakingtorque[N m] ∗ Speed[rpm]
PRB [kW ] = (16)
9550
Fig. 8. RBOM phase I energy flow Braking Energy is defined as:
BrakingP ower ∗ Brakingtime
ERB [kW h] = (17)
3600
The energy stored in the Ultra/Super Capacitor is defined
as:
1
ES C = C(Vmax 2 − Vmin 2 ) (18)
2
where Vmax and Vmin are maximum and minimum allowed
voltages by the Ultra/Super Capacitor module.
The Ultra/Super Capacitor voltage needs to be discharged
to 50% of it’s initial voltage, In order to deliver 75% of the
stored energy in the Ultra/Super Capacitor. So, min and max
allowed voltages of Ultra/Super capacitor module is 190 V and
Fig. 9. RBOM phase II energy flow 381 V respectively. The maximum braking time is 34 seconds
from UDDS drive cycle.

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Then Capacitance required to store the braking energy

available at the time of braking is
2 ∗ ES C
CS C =
Vmax 2 − Vmin 2
By Considering BCAP 3400 P300 K04/05 Utra/Super ca-
pacitor, 127 Utra/Super capacitor cells are connected in series
to get the required module capacitance and Voltage. Table.3
shows the parameters of BCAP 3400 P300 K04/05 Utra/Super
capacitor and module size.

TABLE III
PARAMETERS FOR U TRA /S UPER CAPACITOR MODULE

Parameter Value
Typical voltage (Vty p ) 3V
Capacitance (CS C ) 3400 F
Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) 0.15 mΩ
Cell Mass 0.496 kg
Total no of cells in module 127
Total weight of module 63 kg

VII. S TUDY AND S IMULATION RESULTS

The proposed Enhanced Regenerative Braking System with
HESS has been carried out and the developed model is
simulated using Matlab/Simulink software. The main objective
is to use the battery and Ultra/Super capacitor HESS to avoid
the limitations of battery during regenerative braking.
This system has developed to replace the battery only energy
storage system with the presented Enhanced Regenerative
braking system with HESS. The Ultra/ Super capacitor is sized
to store the regenerative braking power from the braking and
the power feeding from the BDC. The stored energy used for
urban driving transient power demands of the vehicle.
The stop start nature of urban driving will result in frequent
Fig. 11. a) Vehicle speed (b) Total load power required (c) Power delivered
discharges and charges of the battery at high power, which by Battery and SC (d) Load current (e) current delivered by Battery (f) current
ranges from -10.62 to 15.9 kW can be seen in fig. 10. However, delivered by SC
only 1.6 kW is the battery pack avg moving power, which is
about 1/10 of the peak power. So, we only need 1.6 kW bi-
directional converter to deliver the average constant power to
load and Ultra/Super capacitor delivers the transient power
demands.
The developed system is validated with UDDS driving cycle
and results are presented in fig. 11. From the figure, It is
observed that total load demand is supplied by two sources
where battery delivers the constant load and Ultra/Super
capacitor delivers the transient load of the vehicle and also
during regeneration, only Ultra/Super capacitor observed the
entire power from the braking which completely avoided the
frequent charge and discharge cycles during regeneration. For
instances, at 225 seconds the load profile needs the tractive
power of 15.8 kW and It is observed that, Battery delivers the
constant average load of 1.6 kW while Ultra/Super capacitor
delivers the remaining load power of 14.2 kW. and at 310
second the Ultra/Super capacitor observed the 9.1 kW power
and it is combination of regenerative power of 6.5 kW during Fig. 12. (a) Battery SoC (b) Ultra/Super capacitor SoC
barking and constant battery load of 1.6 kW. The actual load

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current of the system is supplied by the combined support of

Ultra/Super capacitor and battery, battery stress is significantly
minimised as sharp variations in load current are supplied by
Ultra/Super capacitor. These variations can be seen in fig. 11.
Battery SoC is decreasing gradually as Battery is supplies
constant load power and Ultra/Super capacitor SoC have many
variations as its observes the peak power from regenerative
braking and supplies transient loads can be seen in fig. 12.
VIII. C ONCLUSION
From the simulation results, can able to transfer the brake
power directly to a Ultra/Super capacitor only. So, Enhanced
RBS with HESS is addressed the limitations of battery only
system during regenerative braking. This system is found
effective in minimising the stress and avoids the battery
frequent charge and discharge cycles and improves the cycle
life which results in significant improvement in drive range of
the EV. The simulation results can be considered as a proof
of concept for enhanced RBS with high power density system
for the future EV applications.
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