Intercultural

Communication
 What is
Culture?
Culture is a set of human-made
objective and subjective
elements that in the past have
increased the probability of
survival and resulted in
satisfaction for the
participants in an ecological
niche, and thus became shared
among those who could
communicate with each other
because they had a common
language and they lived at the
same time and place.
(Triandis 1994 p. 23)
 What Culture
does?

• Teaches people how to adapt to

surroundings

• Passes along previous knowledge

and experiences to future
generations
 Characteristic
s of culture

• Culture is learned
• Culture is passed along
• Culture is dynamic
• Culture is an integrated
system
 Culture and
communication

• Verbal and nonverbal meanings are

learned as part of a person’s
cultural affiliation.
• Each culture has a very elaborate
set of verbal and nonverbal
symbols to which people within
that culture have learned to
attach meaning.
• These meanings reside within the
individual.
 What is
intercultural
communication?

• Interaction between people

whose cultural perceptions
and symbol systems differ
enough to alter the
communication event
 What is
language?

Language may be thought of as an

organized system of symbols, both
verbal and nonverbal, used in a
common and uniform way by persons
who are able to manipulate these
symbols to express their thoughts
and feelings.
Functions of language

Social Expressi
Social
interact ons of
cohesion
ion identity
Characteristics of language

Words evoke
denotative
Words are Word are
or
mere symbols arbitrary
connotative
meanings
 Language and Culture
• Serves to organize people into groups
according to factors such as age,
gender, and even socio-income level.
• Allows a group to record and preserve
past events, when passed on to new
generations, becomes a unifying
force.
• The deeds of previous generations
become an important means to
socialize and enculturate children
with the group’s enduring values and
normative behaviours.
• Language and culture work together in
a symbiotic relationship that ensures
Culture and Context
Basic assumptions about human communication:
• communication is rule governed,
• context prescribes appropriate communication
rules, and
• communication rules are culturally diverse.
Communication is Rule Governed
• Culturally determined rules tell both parties
what is suitable behavior for the specific
situation.
• These rules define acceptable and unacceptable
codes of thought, feeling, and behavior.
• Communication rules govern both verbal and
nonverbal behaviors and specify not only what
should be said, but also how it should be
said.
Communication is Rule Governed
• Nonverbal rules apply to touch, facial
expressions, eye contact, and paralanguage.
• Verbal rules govern such things as topic
selection, turn taking, voice volume, and the
formality of language.
Context Helps
Specify
Communication
Rules
• Diverse contexts as a
classroom, bank, hospital,
courtroom, wedding, funeral
determines which
communication rules you
follow.
• A job interview requires use
of more formal language
than at a cricket match.
• For job interview, you might
go for power dressing but
for a sports event, jeans or
shorts and a T-shirt could
be appropriate.
Context Helps Specify
Communication Rules
• Your nonverbal behavior would also be
different.

• At the interview, you would probably shake

hands with your prospective employer, but at
the football game with friends, you might
embrace them when you see them, slap them on
the back, or hit a “high-five”.
Communication Rules are
Culturally Diverse
• Cultures have many of the same social settings
(schools, business meetings, hospitals, and
the like), their members frequently abide by
different rules when interacting within those
environments.
• Concepts of dress, time, language, manners,
and nonverbal behavior can differ
significantly among cultures.
Assessing the Context
• Regardless of the context or culture, you will
find communication rules regarding:
1.formality and informality
2.assertiveness and interpersonal harmony
3.status relationships that play a major role
in how people respond to their interpersonal
and organizational environments.
High Context vs Low Context
Continuum
 Contextual Differences

Low Context High Context

Direct, simple and clear Indirect and implicit messages
messages
Monochronic Polychronic

Low use of non-verbal High use of non-verbal

communication communication

High reliance on written Low reliance on written

communication communication

Rely on facts and evidence for Use intuition and feelings to

decisions make decisions

Short-term relationships Long-term relationships

Schedules are more important Relationships are more important

 Language and
meaning
• In the Hopi language, there is
no plural form for nouns
referring to time, such as days
and years.
English: “they stayed ten days”
Hopi: “they stayed until the
eleventh day” or
“they left after the
tenth day.”
• In addition, all phrase terms,
such as summer, morning, etc.,
are not nouns, but function as
adverbs.
Language and meaning

Navajo’s concern for individual

autonomy:

English Navajo Speaker

Speaker
I must go there. It is only good
that I shall go
there.
I make the horse The horse is
English Haryanvi Japanese
• Rice • Jeeri - rice growing in • Ine – rice growing in the
the field field
• Dhan– rice with the husk • Momi – rice with the husk
still on still on
• Chawal-uncooked/cooked • Genmai – unpolished (brown)
white rice rice
• Kome – uncooked white rice
(e.g., at the store)
• Shinmai – rice harvested
this year
• Komai – rice harvested last
year
 Language variations

Accent Dialect

• Speakers may be • Dialects are often

negatively stereotyped looked down on as
by their accent. people use the dialect
• Speaking with an accent to stereotype the
may create negative speaker.
impressions with the
listener when the
speaker’s accent
differs significantly
from that of the
 Language variations

Argot Slang

• Argot is specialized • Slang serve as a “means

informal language used of marking social or
by people who are linguistic identity.”
affiliated with a
particular co-culture.
• It establishes a strong
sense of identity, as
it is associated only
with members of the co-
culture.
 Language variations

Texting Idioms

• Many of the text • Idioms are a group of

abbreviations may words that when used
contain concepts that together have a
are culture specific. particular meaning
different from the sum
of the meanings of the
individual words in
isolation.
• Idioms are not capable
of literal translation.
Using language

What lies behind

Every country has those words
its way of saying reflects the
things. The country’s
important thing
is that which values, beliefs,
lies behind and countless
people’s words. linguistic
“rules.”
English

Americans can
American
be
culture tend to
characterized
be direct in
as direct,
their
blunt, frank,
communication
and
style.
unequivocal.
Mexican
Conversation is an important part of Mexican life, and Mexicans
readily engage in casual talk and even delight in wordplay.
Even in business settings, puns, double entendres, and
colloquialisms are frequently interjected, which give conversations
a feeling of liveliness and warmth.
The male orientation that characterizes Mexican society is evident
in the Spanish language use of gendered nouns and pronouns.
The Spanish use of separate verb conjugations for formal and
informal speech also helps Mexicans express the formality.
Their values of indirectness and face-saving are evident in their
use of the Spanish language.
Direct arguments are considered rude.
Brazilian
Brazilians are proud of their language and
protective of its use, and people who do not
know that Brazilians speak Portuguese rather
than Spanish label themselves as ignorant.
Hierarchy governs forms of address such as the
use of formal and informal pronouns, names,
and titles.
This use of language to mark status and rank
also applies to the forms of address used to
speak to the elderly.
Northeast Asian
Chinese, Korean, and Japanese commonly employ
language in an indirect manner to promote
harmony and face-saving measures.
Politeness takes precedence over truth, which
is consistent with the cultural emphasis on
maintaining social stability.
People expect their communication partners to
be able to recognize the intended meaning more
from the context than the actual words used.
Arabic
Language defines and unites the greater Arab community.

Arabs approach their language as a “social conduit in which

emotional resonance is stressed,” which contrasts with the Western
view that language is a means of transferring information.
Arab societies are characterized by the cultural values of
collectivism, hierarchy, and a present orientation, which are
mirrored in how Arabic is used.
Arabs will often appeal to the listener’s emotions. The noisy,
animated speech often associated with the Arab communication style
is normally limited to interactions with social peers.
When engaging elders or superiors, “polite deference is required,”
which demonstrates the value placed on hierarchy.
 German
Germans have unique way of using language that shows their approach
to: Formality

Concern for detail

They are very conscious of their status and insist on proper forms
of address.
Directness

They make a distinction between the formal you (Sie) and the
familiar (du).

They provide much more information than most people from other
cultures require.

They use an explicit style of speech in which precision of

expression, exactness of definition, and literalness play important
parts.
Interpreting the message

Interpreting is usually in “real time,” not

delayed, it is often not as accurate as
translating.

In China when the KFC slogan “Finger Lickin’

Good” was translated as “Eat Your Fingers
Off.”
Language competence in the
intercultural setting
Learn Learn a second language

Be Be mindful

Be Be aware of conversational taboos

Be Be attentive to your speech rate

Be Be conscious of differences in vocabulary

Attend Attend to nonverbal behavior

Use Use “checking” devices

Be aware of cultural variations in the use of
Be language
What is
nonverbal
communication

Nonverbal communication involves

all those nonverbal stimuli in a
communication setting that are
generated by both the source and
his or her use of the
environment and that have
potential message value for the
source and/or receiver.
Functions of nonverbal
communication
Conveying internal states

Creating identity

Regulating interaction

Substituting for words

Nonverbal communication and
culture
Culture is but one of the dynamics that influence the way
people send and receive nonverbal messages.

Nonverbal behavior is part of the socialization process and

presents the members of each culture with “cultural rules”.

These rules are manifested in norms, values, attitudes,

traditions, customs, and heritage and are communicated across
generations.
What emotions are felt, how they are expressed, and how they
are understood are matters of culture.
Appearance

Whom you select to avoid and/or approach is often

determined by a person’s attractiveness
A person usually internalizes the definitions of
attractiveness related to the culture in which
they live.
• In large parts of Africa, plumpness is considered a sign of
beauty, health, and wealth, and slimness is evidence of
unhappiness, disease, or mistreatment at the hands of one’s
husband.
• In Myanmar, an extended neck is considered a sign of beauty.
• Face painting is still common in parts of Africa and South
America and among some American Indian tribes.
Skin Colour
First characteristic people notice when they
approach a stranger and the one that has the
greatest impact on perception and interaction.
First racial marker children recognize and can
be considered the most salient of phenotypic
attributes.
May be the basis of the allocation of economic
and psychological privileges to individuals
relative to the degree those privileges are
awarded to valued members of the dominant
culture.
Attire
Clothing can be used to tell others
about economic status, educational
level, social position, status,
occupation, interests, public and
private affiliations, and the like.
The things that people say, or are
forced to say, through their clothing
are thus above all statements about an
individual’s identity.
Body movement
People use movements to communicate, culture
teaches them how to use and interpret the
movements.
Americans walk big—swinging arms, letting our
legs amble wide—in a manner that’s fitting for
folks from a country with plenty of empty
space.
Citizens of densely populated countries
exhibit a far more compact posture, with
elbows and knees tucked tight and arm swings
restrained.
Posture
Posture can be a sign of:

whether people are paying attention,

the level of status in the encounter,

if people are friends or strangers

if they like or dislike each other,

it can provide a variety of other information

about the relationship.
Posture
In many countries, such as Germany, Sweden,
and Taiwan, slouching is considered a sign of
rudeness and poor manners.
In Turkey, it is a sign of rudeness to sit
with your legs crossed.

An act of ankle-to-knee leg crossing could be

mistaken for an insult (a showing of the sole
of the foot gesture) in Saudi Arabia, Egypt,
Singapore, or Thailand.
Gestures
Used to share internal states

Crew members on the deck of an aircraft carrier do most

of their talking via hand gestures.
The “thumbs-up” gesture in the United States has
positive connotations because it indicates that
“everything is okay” or “you are doing very well.”
In Australia, Bangladesh, Iran, and Nigeria, it is seen
as a rude gesture.
In Turkey, it represents a political party.
 Gestures

In the United States, pointing with the

index finger is used to give directions.
Germans point with the little finger

In Japan pointing is done with the

entire hand with the palm held upward.
In China, pointing can be taken as a
sign of rudeness.
In much of the Arab world, pointing is
thought to be an offensive gesture.
In much of Asia, pointing the index
finger at a person is considered rude.
 Gestures

In the United States, “making a circle with

one’s thumb and index finger while extending
the others is emblematic of the word ‘okay’
In Japan (and Korea) it traditionally signified
‘money’

Among Arabs this gesture is usually accompanied

by a baring of teeth, signifying extreme
hostility.
In Tunisia, the gesture means, “I’ll kill you.”

In some Latino cultures, the circle with the

thumb and index finger is often perceived as an
obscene gesture.
Gestures
In Mexico, when asking someone to wait for
“just a minute, please” (un momento, por
favor), the speaker also makes a fist and
then extends the thumb and index finger so
that they form a sideways “U,” as though
measuring a short
Greeks express span
“yes” of a
with time.
nod similar to
the one used in the United States, but when
communicating “no,” they jerk their heads
back and raise their faces. Lifting one or
both hands up to the shoulders strongly
emphasizes
In Chile, tothe “no.”
“say” that someone is
unintelligent or dense, one holds the palm
upward with the fingers spread.
 Idiosyncratic
gestures
Distinctive gestures whose meanings are usually the feature
and property of a particular culture.
• In Nepal, pulling both earlobes is a form of apology for
offending someone.
• Pulling one earlobe in China means a person is “saying”
that he or she touched something that was very hot.
• In Japan, a gesture is made by pointing both index fingers
above the head, at the top of the ears, as if they were the
horns of an ogre. The gesture means the man’s wife is
angry.
• In China, if you place your right hand over your heart, it
means you are making a sincere promise.
• In Iraq, the same gesture can mean “thank you.”
• For the French, pulling the skin down below the right eye
can mean, “I don’t believe you.”
• In Argentina, one twists an imaginary mustache to signify
that everything is “okay.”
Beckoning
Gestures

• In United States, when a

person wants to signal a
friend to come, he or she
usually makes this gesture.
• In much of Latin America,
this gesture takes on
romantic connotations.
• In the Philippines, that
same gesture is often used
to call one’s dog.
Frequency and
Intensity of
Gestures
• Italians, Africans, and
people from the Middle East
are more outwardly
expressive and utilize
gestures with greater
frequency and intensity
than do Japanese, Chinese,
and Scandinavians.
• Members of many Asian
cultures perceive such
outward activity quite
differently, often equating
vigorous action with a lack
of manners and personal
restraint.
Facial expressions
The human face is a primary tool used for transmitting
emotional expressions.
Assigned face, the one you are born with

Voluntary face, the face that can be manipulated at will

the face that is changed by your surroundings and the

messages you receive, such as when you involuntarily
blush after receiving a compliment.
“some primary facial expressions are inherently linked
with moods and feelings” and have their origin in our
evolutionary past and are universal.
 Facial expressions
Different cultures create their own rules for what are
appropriate facial expressions and how those expressions
are to be interpreted.

Richmond, McCroskey, and Hickson offer a summary of how

these acquired behaviors grow out of the cultural factors:

• Cultures differ concerning circumstances that elicit emotions.

• Cultures differ about the consequences that follow certain emotional
expressions.
• Different cultures have different display rules that govern the use of
facial behavior, which their members must learn.
Each culture “teaches” its members what nonverbal actions
to exhibit (crying or laughing), the meaning of those
actions (sadness or happiness), and the contextual setting
of those actions (funeral or wedding).
Facial expressions
Smile is a universal act, and everyone is born knowing how to
smile, it is also influenced by culture.

Culture can influence smiling both by determining the

interpretation of events, which affects the cause of happiness,
and by shaping display rules, which determine when it is
socially appropriate to smile.
Thai smile, as it can be used to display sadness, joy,
embarrassment, fright, anxiety, and numerous other emotions.

Vietnamese also make use of the smile to represent phrases such

as “Hello,” “Thank you,” and “I am sorry.”
Facial
expressions
• Japanese may smile when they
feel embarrassed and laugh when
they want to hide their anger.
Smiling is also used to denote
acceptance of a command from a
person of higher status.
• In many cultures smiling is not
a common or widely accepted
nonverbal action.
• In Korean culture too much
smiling is often perceived as a
sign of shallowness.
• Russian culture also has limited
use of smiling.
 Eye contact and
Eyesgaze
can:
• give clues to the nature of the
relationship,
• indicate if the channels of
communication are open or closed,
• assist in monitoring feedback,
• indicate degrees of attentiveness
and interest in the interaction,
• regulate the flow of the
conversation,
• reflect positive or negative
emotions, and
• help define power and status
relationships between the
participants.
• much of eye contact is directly
related to culture.
 Eye contact and gaze
• In Japan, prolonged eye contact is often
considered discourteous and disrespectful. It
is not uncommon for Japanese to look down or
away or even close their eyes while engaging
in conversation.
• Korean, place much more emphasis on the
observance of the eyes than do others.
• Many Asian, Latino, and Caribbean cultures
also avoid eye contact as a sign of respect.
• In India, the amount of eye contact that is
employed is often related to a person’s
social position. This means that people of
different socioeconomic classes often avoid
eye contact with each other.
• In Egypt, where the issue is not social
status but gender, Women and men who are
strangers may avoid eye contact out of
modesty and respect for religious rules.
• Arabs use very direct and prolonged eye
 Touch
• It is our first form of “language” and
point of contact with others.
• During infancy, they are highly involved
in tactile experiences with other people.
• During childhood, they learn the rules of
touching. You are taught whom to touch
and where they may be touched.
• By the time they reach adolescence, their
culture has taught them the “rules” of
touch behaviour.
• They have become skilled at knowing whom
to hug and the intensity and location of
contact associated with the person they
are hugging (parent, friend, lover).
• Culture has also “taught you” what
occasions (greeting, expression of
affection, etc.) call for a hug.
 Touch
Six basic Accidental touching is when someone inadvertently bumps into
types of you.
touching:
Professional touching is carried out by individuals such as
doctors, nurses, hairdressers, or even a swimming coach
moving the arms of a pupil.
Social politeness touching is associated with greeting and
showing appreciation. These contacts can range from a
handshake to a respectful pat on the back.
Friendship touches demonstrate concern and caring between
family members and close friends. In this type of touching,
you might see actions ranging from an extended embrace to an
arm placed on a shoulder.
Love-intimacy touches are those touches that usually occur
in romantic relationships (caressing, hugging, embracing,
kissing, and the like).
Sexual touch, the most intimate type, is used for sexual
arousal.
 Touch
Brazilians may even continue to touch you intermittently on the arm,
hand, or shoulder during much of the conversation.
Hugs, pats on backs, and other physical contact are an important part of
communication in Mexico.
A high frequency of touching is also prevalent among the people of
Eastern Europe, Spain, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Israel.
Touch is less frequent among Germans and Finns.

Intentional touching is also not a prevalent form of communication in

Asia.
In Japanese business practices, Touching fellow workers and associates
is not common.
Many Southeast Asians believe that touching their heads places them in
jeopardy because that is where their spirits reside.
Touch and Gender
Women, for example, tend to welcome touch more
than do men, especially when it is from the
same sex. They initiate touch behavior more
than men.
Gender differences as they apply to touch,
particularly in the workplace, have become the
source of many sexual harassment cases.
Always remember that touching is contextual
and often carries multiple meanings.
 Scents
Scents can communicate memories, fear, love, dominance, and excitement—and may
even arouse powerful feelings about another person.

Cultures have been using odor in a variety of ways from the burning of incense
in India, to the aroma of flowers and herbs used in China for medicinal
purposes, to people using aromatherapy to cure certain illnesses.
Culture plays a part in how scent is perceived and responded to.

American culture that tends to be uncomfortable with natural body smells

Many other cultures regard natural odors as normal.

Most Italians do not mask their scents with other aromas.

There is a belief among Muslim women that wearing perfume on clothes either
outdoors or when meeting strangers indoors should be avoided.
Paralanguage
Vocal cues provided you with information with
which to make judgments about the characters’
personalities, emotional states, ethnic
background, and rhetorical activity.

Most classifications divide paralanguage into

three categories:

• vocal qualities
• vocal characterizers
• vocal segregates
 Paralanguage:
Vocal qualities
• Cultural differences are most apparent in
the use of volume.
• Arabs speak with high levels of volume. For
Arabs, loudness connotes strength and
sincerity. A softer voice suggests weakness
and even deceitfulness.
• Germans conduct their business with a
commanding tone that projects authority and
self-confidence.
• Philippines speak softly, as they maintain
that this is a sign of good upbringing and
education.
• Speaking in soft tones is also valued in
Thailand.
• In Japan, raising one’s voice often implies
a lack of self-control. For the Japanese, a
gentle and soft voice reflects good manners
and helps maintain social harmony—two
Paralanguage: Vocal qualities
and gender
• Men’s voices tend to have louder
Gender volume, lower pitch, and less
inflection. Notice that these
differenc features are likely to conform to
es in cultural perceptions of men as
assertive and emotionally
paralangu controlled.
• Women’s voices typically have
age higher pitch, softer volume, and
more inflection. Again, these are
indicates characteristics associated with
that: cultural views of women as
emotional and polite.
Paralanguage: Vocal
characteristics
Vocal characteristics are vocalizations that convey a meaning for
members of a specific culture.

In both France and Argentina, it is considered rude to yawn in public.

And in much of Europe, whistling during a public performance is a

message of disapproval and ridicule.

For many Muslims, the simple act of sneezing is interpreted as “a

blessing from God.

Laughing also sends different messages, depending on the culture.

Laughing and giggling are interpreted as expressions of enjoyment among

many culture, but for many Southeast Asians, the same behavior may be a
sign of extreme embarrassment, discomfort.
Paralanguage: Vocal
segregates
• Vocal segregates are sounds that are audible but
are not actual words. These sounds are used as
substitutes for words.
• “shh” sound produced by many when they are
asking someone to be silent.
• “eh” sound, which the Maasai draw out and which
can mean “yes,” “I understand,” or “continue.”
• In Kenya, the “iya” sound tells the other person
that everything is okay.
• In Jamaica, the “kissing” or “sucking” sound
expresses anger, exasperation, or frustration.
• The Japanese make use of vocal segregates in
their conversations. To demonstrate reluctance
or concern, a Japanese worker might “suck in his
breath, look doubtful and say ‘Saa.… ’”
• Japanese will also make small utterances to
demonstrate their attentiveness, such as hai
(“yes,” “certainly,” “all right,” or “very
well”), so which has the same sound as the
English “so” (“I hear that” or an indication of
agreement), or eto (“well…” or “let me see…”).
Proxemics:
Space and
distance

Proxemics is concerned with:

• personal space
• seating
• furniture arrangement.
 Personal space
• Cultures that stress individualism and
privacy (England, the United States,
Sweden, Germany, and Australia) generally
demand more space than do collective
cultures.
• Gender differences in the use of space:
• women normally “establish closer
proximity to others” than do men
• men claim more personal space than
women
• women manifest less discomfort than men
when confronted with a small amount of
space
• men seem to approach females more
closely than females who move toward
men
• women seek to interact at a closer
distance than do men
• men more frequently walk in front of
 Seating
Seating arrangements are frequently dictated by cultural and historical
norms, particularly at formal events

Seating arrangements signal power relations

Perceptions related to leadership, dominance, sex roles, and introversion

and extraversion are influenced by seating arrangements.

In USA, people tend to talk with those opposite them rather than those
seated beside them and the person sitting at the head of the table is the
leader.
In China, seating arrangements place the honored person (often decided by
seniority and age) facing east or facing the entrance to the hall. The
higher a person’s status, the closer they sit to the person of honor.
Seating
In Korea seating arrangements reflect status and
role distinctions. In a car, office, or home, the
seat on the right is considered to be the place of
honor.
In Japan, seating at any formal event is determined
based on hierarchy. In formal meetings, the most
senior person sits in the middle and those next
highest in rank sit to the left and right of this
senior position.
In Samoan and Fiji cultures, junior members take
physically lower and farther seat than a superior to
show respect and status .
 Furniture arrangement
Furniture arrangements play a communicative role by expressing cultural or symbolic
meaning.

Chinese executives will often seek out a seat that they believe is synchronous with
the environment.

In the United States, furniture is often arranged to achieve privacy and

interpersonal isolation. The furniture in the living room is pointed toward the
television set so people can focus on the television program rather than the other
people in the room.
French, Italians, and Mexicans, are often surprised by the United States furniture
arrangement. They believe that such an arrangement is rude and stifles conversation.

In Japan, offices are usually open and shared with many colleagues, office seating is
arranged according to seniority, with desks abutting each other.

French offices are organized around the manager, who is at the center.

In Germany, seating is dispersed throughout the office.

 Time
• One of the markers of a successful and
intimate relationship is the amount of
time people spend together and how
patient they are with each other.
• Cultures have their own time norms,
which are unconsciously followed until
violated. When such violations occur,
however, they are perceived as
intentional messages associated with
that culture. In this regard, each
culture teaches its people what is
appropriate or inappropriate regarding
time.
• Two cultural perspectives about time:
• Informal time
• Monochronic and polychronic
classifications
 Informal time:
• Rules that apply to punctuality are taught
Punctuality
implicitly and explicitly.
• Cultures vary in their punctuality standards.
• How late is “late”? This varies greatly.
• In Britain and America, one may be 5
minutes late for a business appointment,
but not 15 and certainly not 30 minutes
late, which is perfectly normal in Arab
countries.
• On the other hand, in Britain it is correct
to be 5 to 15 minutes late for an
invitation to dinner. An Italian might
arrive 2 hours late, an Ethiopian after,
and a Javanese not at all—he had accepted
only to prevent his host from losing face.
• In Spain, Italy, and Argentina it is
typical for people to be thirty or more
minutes late for a meeting or dinner
appointment.
• In Africa, people also might show up late
for appointments, meetings, and social
engagements.
Informal time:
Pace

• The Irish have a saying:

“Life is a dance not a race.”
• Americans live life at a
frenzied pace
• French do not share the
American sense of urgency to
accomplish tasks
• Japanese and Chinese value
slow pace
• In Africa, people who rush
are suspected of trying to
cheat
• Arabs are nonchalance about
time and deadlines
Monochronic (M-
Time) &
Polychronic (P-
• Hall’s classifies cultures in two
Time)
categories - monochronic (M-time)
and polychronic (P-time), based on
how they perceive and utilize
• Monochronic view of time believes
time is a scarce resource which
must be rationed and controlled
using schedules and appointments,
and through aiming to do only one
thing at any one time.
• Polychronic view of time sees the
maintenance of harmonious
relationships as the important
agenda, so that use of time needs
to be flexible in order that we do
right by the various people to
whom we have obligations.
Time orientation

Monochronic Polychronic

One thing at a time Multiple activities at once

Rigid approach to time Flexible approach to time

Strict agenda No strict agenda

Focus on task Focus on relationship

Completion of job most Relationships more important than

important the job

Emphasise promptness Promptness based on relationships

 Silence
• Within the interpersonal setting, silence can provide an
interval in an ongoing interaction during which the
participants:
• have time to think,
• check or suppress an emotion,
• encode a lengthy response,
• inaugurate another line of thought,
• call attention to certain words,
• express various emotions, or
• indicate thoughtfulness.
• It can be interpreted as an indication of agreement, anger,
lack of interest, injured feelings, shyness, a means of showing
respect, contempt, or even a way concealing the truth.
Silence

• Cross-cultural differences are common over when to talk and

when to remain silent, or what a particular instance of
silence means.
• In most Western cultures, talk is highly valued, and as such,
it is often difficult to determine the meaning behind
someone’s silence.
• American saying “the squeaky wheel gets the grease”
• Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, “Speech is power: Speech is to
persuade, to convert, to compel.”
• Buddhists feel comfortable with the absence of noise or talk
and actually believe that words can contaminate an
experience.
• Silence is also used by many Asian people as a means of
avoiding conflict.
 Silence
• The Japanese emphasis on silence serves
a variety of purposes. First, among
family members, silence is actually seen
as a way of “talking.”
• Second, silence in Japan is linked to
credibility. Someone who is silent is
often perceived as having higher
credibility than someone who talks most
of the time.
• Hindus believe that “self realization,
salvation, truth, wisdom, peace, and
bliss are all achieved in a state of
meditation and introspection when the
individual is communicating with himself
or herself in silence.
• In Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway,
silence conveys interest and
consideration. In fact, your silence
tells the other person that you want
them to continue talking.
Developing nonverbal communication
competence
Your interpretations should be tentative

Be conscious of the context

Utilize feedback

Know your culture

Monitor your nonverbal actions

Intercultural communication at workplace

Business protocol
involves forms of
behavior such as
establishing initial
contact, greeting
conventions, personal
appearance, gift
giving, and
communication
improprieties, with
cultural differences
in these protocols
varying widely.
Cultural Variances in
Organizations
MANAGEMENT CONCERN NORTHEAST ASIAN EURO-AMERICAN

Organizational Vertical Horizontal

structure Hierarchal Egalitarian
Organizational Interpersonal Legal system
relationships Basis relations Merit
of trust Time/age Equitable to
Basis for promotion Equal for all individual
Reward allocation High/expected Low/undesired
Involvement in
personal life
 Cultural Variations in Decision
Making

NORTHEAST ASIAN EURO-AMERICAN

Deliberative Delegated authority

Consensus oriented Individual oriented
Shared responsibility Individual
Group cohesion and responsibility
harmony Positive results
 Conflict management/resolution

NORTHEAST ASIAN EURO-AMERICAN

Detrimental Beneficial
Conflict and parties connected Conflict and parties separate
Holistic; logical analysis Linear; logical analysis
Indirect approach Direct approach
Confrontation avoided Confrontation is okay
High face concerns Low face concerns
Respected mediator Legal action; expert mediator
More information Less information
Intercultural communication at workplace

Business protocol
involves forms of
behavior such as
establishing initial
contact, greeting
conventions, personal
appearance, gift
giving, and
communication
improprieties, with
cultural differences
in these protocols
varying widely.
Cultural Variances in
Organizations
MANAGEMENT CONCERN NORTHEAST ASIAN EURO-AMERICAN

Organizational Vertical Horizontal

structure Hierarchal Egalitarian
Organizational Interpersonal Legal system
relationships Basis relations Merit
of trust Time/age Equitable to
Basis for promotion Equal for all individual
Reward allocation High/expected Low/undesired
Involvement in
personal life
 Cultural Variations in Decision
Making

NORTHEAST ASIAN EURO-AMERICAN

Deliberative Delegated authority

Consensus oriented Individual oriented
Shared responsibility Individual
Group cohesion and responsibility
harmony Positive results
 Conflict management/resolution

NORTHEAST ASIAN EURO-AMERICAN

Detrimental Beneficial
Conflict and parties connected Conflict and parties separate
Holistic; logical analysis Linear; logical analysis
Indirect approach Direct approach
Confrontation avoided Confrontation is okay
High face concerns Low face concerns
Respected mediator Legal action; expert mediator
More information Less information