Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof.

Sandesh Berde

Unit. 1 DC Machines
> Direct Current Machine A DC machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device.

> When it converts mechanical power into DC electrical power , it is known as a DC generator.

> When it converts DC electrical power into mechanical power it is known as a DC motor.

Q.) Draw Construction of DC machine ( DC motor Or DC Generator). State parts of the D.C machine &
Write function.

Ans:

Armature Core: It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery slots are
cut, which accommodate the armature winding.

The armature core serves the following Functions: (i) It houses the conductors in the slots. (ii) It provides
an easy path for magnetic flux.
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Armature Winding: The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably connected. This is
known as armature winding. Function of armature winding is to carry armature current and produce
armature flux.

On the basis of connections, there are two types of armature windings named (i) Lap winding and (ii) Wave
winding. (i) In lap winding the connections are such that the number of parallel paths is equal to number of
poles and the number of brushes is equal to the number parallel paths. (ii) In wave winding, the
connections are such that the numbers of parallel paths are only two irrespective of the number of poles
and the number of brushes is equal to two i.e., number of parallel paths

Q.) State & Explain types of armature winding.

In DC machines (motors or generators), lap winding and wave winding are two types of armature winding

1. Lap Winding

Lap winding is a type of armature winding where each coil is connected to the adjacent coil in such a way
that the end of one coil is joined to the start of the next coil. This creates a series of loops (laps) as the coils
overlap each other.

Features of Lap Winding:

 Connections: The number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles, meaning the total
current is divided among more paths.
 Suitability: Lap winding is used for low voltage, high current applications.
 Commutator Segments: The number of commutator segments equals the number of coils.
 Parallel Paths: The number of parallel paths (A) is equal to the number of poles (P), i.e., A=PA =
PA=P.
 Current Handling: As the current is divided among multiple parallel paths, each path carries less
current, making lap winding suitable for machines with high current ratings.
 Application: Suitable for large DC machines that require high current and low voltage, such as
industrial machines.

Advantages of Lap Winding:

 High current output due to multiple parallel paths.

 Better commutation in high-current applications.
 Suitable for large machines with low voltage.

Disadvantages of Lap Winding:

 Complex structure and winding arrangement.

 Larger number of parallel paths may lead to more difficult fault detection.
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

In lap winding, the coils lap back on themselves, making it look like the coils are overlapping. The winding
ends up forming several closed loops.

2. Wave Winding:

Wave winding is another type of armature winding where the coils are connected in such a way that after
passing through a series of coils, the winding returns to a commutator segment that is far from the starting
point. This creates a wave-like pattern across the armature.

Features of Wave Winding:

 Connections: The number of parallel paths is always two, regardless of the number of poles,
meaning the output voltage is higher compared to lap winding.
 Suitability: Wave winding is used for high voltage, low current applications.
 Commutator Segments: Like lap winding, the number of commutator segments equals the number
of coils.
 Parallel Paths: The number of parallel paths (A) is always two, regardless of the number of poles
(P), i.e., A=2
 Voltage Handling: Wave winding is designed to produce higher voltage output because fewer
parallel paths concentrate the voltage.
 Application: Suitable for smaller DC machines or applications requiring high voltage and lower
current, such as portable generators or smaller motors.

Advantages of Wave Winding:

 Higher voltage output due to fewer parallel paths.

 Fewer parallel paths, making fault detection easier.
 Suitable for smaller machines with high voltage and low current requirements.

Disadvantages of Wave Winding:

 Limited current-carrying capacity due to fewer parallel paths.

 Less effective commutation at high currents compared to lap winding.

Q.) Compare Lap Winding & Wave winding.

Comparison between Lap and Wave Winding:

Feature Lap Winding Wave Winding

Number of Parallel Paths Equal to the number of poles (A = P) Always two (A = 2)

No. of brushes Equal to the number of poles (A = P) Always two (A = 2)

Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Feature Lap Winding Wave Winding

Use High current, low voltage Low current, high voltage

Voltage Low voltage output High voltage output

Dummy Coil Not required May be required

Application Large machines (industrial) Small machines (portable devices)

Winding Structure More complex (more parallel paths) Simpler (2 parallel paths)

Fault Detection Harder due to more paths Easier due to fewer paths

Q.) State & Explain Working principle of DC Generator.

Working Principle of DC Generator:

A DC generator works on the principle of Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction, which states that
when a conductor moves within a magnetic field, and cuts the fluxes, an electromotive force (EMF) is
induced in the conductor. If the circuit is closed, this induced EMF causes a current to flow through the
conductor.

EMF = B l v …volt

Where, B= Magnetic Flux density Wb/sq.m

l = Length of conductor in meter

v= velocity

Explanation of the Working Principle:

1. Magnetic Field: The generator consists of a stationary magnetic field, which is produced by field
magnets. The magnetic field can be created using either permanent magnets or electromagnets.
2. Armature: Inside the magnetic field, a rotating armature (a set of coils) is positioned. The armature
is connected to a mechanical system that provides rotational motion.
3. Motion of the Armature: When the armature rotates within the magnetic field, the conductors cut
through the magnetic lines of force, resulting in the induction of an EMF in the armature according
to Faraday's Law.
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

4. Direction of Induced EMF: The direction of the induced EMF follows Fleming's Right-Hand Rule:
o Thumb: Motion of the conductor (rotation)
o First finger: Direction of the magnetic field (N to S)
o Middle finger: Direction of induced current.
5. Commutator: A DC generator is equipped with a commutator, which is a split-ring device
connected to the armature. Its function is to convert the alternating current (AC), generated in the
armature, into direct current (DC) by reversing the connection of the coil with the external circuit
every half cycle.

Q.) State Fleming's right hand rule & Fleming's left hand rule with diagram.

Ans: Fleming's Right Hand Rule:

Stretch out the first three fingers of your right hand such that they are mutually perpendicular to each
other , If first finger shows direction of magnetic field, thumb shows direction of relative motion of
conductor with respect to field then the middle finger will indicate the direction of EMF or current

Fleming's Left Hand Rule:

Stretch out the first three fingers of your left hand such that they are mutually perpendicular to each
other, align first finger in direction of magnetic field, middle finger in direction of current then the thumb
will give the direction of force acting on the conductor.
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Q.) State & Explain Working principle of DC Motor.

The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is take place
in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced on it. The direction of this force is determined by
Fleming’ left hand rule its magnitude is given by the relation:

F = B.i.l. newton

Where, B= Magnetic Flux density Wb/sq.m

i= Current in conductor (ampere)

l = Length of conductor in meter

 For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field produced
by a 2 pole machine, see Fig. 4.5(a).
 When DC supply is connected to the coil, current flows through conductor which sets up its
own field (Armature Flux) as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b).
 By the interaction of the two fields (i.e., Main Flux & Armature Flux), a resultant field is set
up as shown in Fig. 4.5(c).
 Hence Unidirectional Force exerted on conductor, And armature starts to rotate.
 The DC motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of
the magnetic field and current-carrying armature.
 The commutator plays a crucial role in ensuring continuous rotation by reversing the current
direction, maintaining unidirectional torque on the armature.

Q.) Classify different types of DC generators.

Ans: Different Types of Generators:

1) Separately excited DC generator

2) Self excited DC generator:

(i) DC series generator

(ii) DC shunt generator

(iii) DC Compound generator: short shunt and long shunt / (cumulative or differential)
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Q.) Classify different types of DC motors.

Ans: Classification of DC motors:

(i) DC series motor

(ii) DC shunt motor

(iii) DC Compound motor : short shunt and long shunt

Q.) Derive an e.m.f. equation of DC generator.

Ans: Derivation of e.m.f. Equation of DC Generator:

Let P = no of poles,

Ø = average flux per pole (Wb),

Z = total no of armature conductors.

A = number of parallel paths of armature winding,

N = speed of generator in RPM.

E = emf of generator

By Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction

 Induced emf in each conductor (E) = d∅

dt

 Here, the flux cut by one armature conductor in one revolution (d∅) = P Ø.
 The time for one revolution (dt) = (60/N) sec.

 Avg EMF (E ) = (flux cut in one revolution)/(time for one revolution)

Avg. EMF (E ) = P Ø N volt……………..( Induced emf in each conductor)

60
 For Z conductors the total emf will be

Total Avg. EMF = P Ø Z N volt……………..( Induced emf in Z conductors)

60
 Parallel paths (A) are depending on the armature winding type -( wave and lap winding )

Total Avg. EMF = P Ø Z N volt……………..( Induced emf in Z conductors)

60 A

Parallel paths ( A) = P ………… (for lap winding)

Parallel paths ( A) = 2 ………… (for wave winding)
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Q.) Draw connection diagram of DC series Generator & DC shunt Generator. Write voltage equation &
current equation of both machines.

Ans: 1. DC series Generator

 Voltage Equation - Eg= V + Ia (Ra + Rse ) + Brush Drop

 Current Equation - I a = IF = IL

Where:

 Eg = Generated EMF in volt

 Vt or V = Terminal voltage (output voltage)
 Ia = Armature current in Ampere
 IF =series Field current in Ampere
 IL = Load current in Ampere
 Ra = Armature resistance in ohm
 Rse or Rf = series Field winding resistance in ohm

3. DC Shunt Generator

 Voltage Equation - Eg= V + Ia Ra + Brush Drop

 Current Equation - I a = IL + I F & IF = V/Rsh

Where:
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

 Eg = Generated EMF in volt

 Vt or V = Terminal voltage (output voltage)
 Ia = Armature current in Ampere
 IF =shunt Field current in Ampere
 IL = Load current in Ampere
 Ra = Armature resistance in ohm
 Rsh or Rf = shunt Field winding resistance in ohm

Q.) Draw connection diagram of DC series Motor & DC shunt Motor. Write voltage equation & current
equation of both machines.

1. DC series Motor

Voltage equation: V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rs ) + Brush Drop or : Eb = V - Ia (Ra + Rs ) - Brush Drop

Current equation: - I a = IF = IL
Where:

 Eb =Back EMF in volt

 Vt or V = Terminal voltage (output voltage)
 Ia = Armature current in Ampere
 IF =series Field current in Ampere
 IL = Load current in Ampere
 Ra = Armature resistance in ohm
 Rse or Rf = series Field winding resistance in ohm

4. DC Shunt Motor
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

 Voltage Equation - V= Eb + Ia Ra + Brush Drop or Eb = V - Ia Ra - Brush Drop

 Voltage equation: V = Eb + Ia Ra + Brush Drop or : Eb = V - Ia Ra - Brush Drop
 Current Equation - I L = Ia + I F & IF = V/Rsh

Where:

 Eb = Back EMF in volt

 Vt or V = Terminal voltage (output voltage)
 Ia = Armature current in Ampere
 IF or Ish =shunt Field current in Ampere
 IL = Load current in Ampere
 Ra = Armature resistance in ohm
 Rsh or Rf = shunt Field winding resistance in ohm

Q.) Draw & Explain connection diagram of Separately Excited DC Generator.

A separately excited DC generator is a type of DC generator where the field winding (which produces the magnetic
field) is energized by an external independent DC power source, rather than the generator's own armature. This
allows for better control of the field current and, consequently, the output voltage.

DC Separately Excited DC Generator

 Voltage Equation - Eg= V + Ia Ra + Brush Drop

 Current Equation - I a = IL
Where:

 Eg = Generated EMF in volt

 Vt or V = Terminal voltage (output voltage)
 Ia = Armature current in Ampere
 IF =separately excited Field current in Ampere
 IL = Load current in Ampere
 Ra = Armature resistance in ohm
 Rsh or Rf = shunt Field winding resistance in ohm

Q.) How will you change the direction of rotation of a d.c.motor?

Ans: (i) By reversing direction of only Armature current.

(ii) By reversing the direction of only field current.

Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Q.) List the various losses on in DC motor.

Ans: The various losses on a DC Motor are:

1) Winding losses (Copper or Cu losses):

i) Armature winding Cu loss. ii) Shunt field Cu loss. iii) Series field Cu loss

2) Core losses (Iron losses):

(i) Eddy Current loss (ii) Hysteresis Loss

3) Brush contact loss:

4) Windage and frictional losses (Mechanical losses).

Q.) Draw & Explain characteristics of DC series motor.

Ans: While discussing the DC motor characteristics, the following two relations should always be kept in
mind: Ta ∝ Φ Ia N ∝ Eb Φ

(T Vs Ia) (N Vs Ia) (N Vs Ta)

Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

 Torque versus armature current (T v/s Ia)

Before saturation T α Ia2, Therefore, on light loads, the torque produced by the series motor is
proportional to the square of the armature current, and hence curve drawn between torque and armature
current up to magnetic saturation is a parabola.
After saturation, T α Ia, But after magnetic saturation flux φ is independent of excitation current and so
torque is proportional to Ia and hence characteristics become a straight line.

 Speed versus armature current (N v/s Ia)

We know that Eb = (PφNZ)/60A or N = (60AEb)/PφZ

In the above equation, all quantities are constant except Eb and φ.

Therefore, N α Eb / φ also Eb = V – Ia Ra N α (V – IaRa) / φ

In a DC series motor, initially, the field flux φ rises in proportion to the current but after saturation, it is
independent of the armature current.

Consequently, speed N is inversely proportional to the current. The speed may become dangerously high if
the load reduces to a small value.Hence, a DC series motor should not be operated without load.

 Torque versus speed (T v/s N)

Since a series motor develops high starting torques at low speeds and low torque at high speeds,
therefore, speed – torque characteristics of a DC series motor is a hyperbola.

High starting torque enables, even a small series motor to start a heavy load. Therefore, DC series motors
are used where high starting torque is required like hoists, cranes, electrical locomotives, elevators, etc.

Q.) Draw & Explain characteristics of DC Shunt motor.

Ans: While discussing the DC motor characteristics, the following two relations should always be kept in
mind: Ta ∝ Φ Ia N ∝ Eb Φ

Ta

(T Vs Ia) (N Vs Ia) (N Vs Ta)

Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Torque – Current Characteristics (T v/s Ia):

We know that, T α Iaφ But the flux of a shunt motor is practically constant.
Therefore, T α Ia the torque-current characteristic of a shunt motor is a straight line passing through the
origin.
Although the field current remains practically constant, the field flux becomes slightly weaker at heavy
loads, due to armature reaction, hence the curve bends slightly bends at heavy loads.

Speed Current Characteristic (N v/s Ia): The back EMF of the shunt motor is given by
Eb = V – IaRa = (PφNZ)/60A
Because P, N, Z, and A are constant

Therefore, Eb α Nφ or V – IaRa α Nφ or N α (V – IaRa)/φ …….(1)

The field flux of the shunt motor is almost constant. Therefore, the numerator of RHS of equation (1)
decreases with an increase in load (or Ia).
So there is a little fall in speed with the increase in load, hence the curve bends slightly as the load is
increased due to increased IaRa voltage drop.

Speed – Torque Characteristics (N v/s T):

The speed torque characteristics are similar to speed current characteristics.
Ta ∝ Φ Ia N ∝ Eb Φ

Because there is no appreciable change in the speed of a shunt motor from no-load to full-load, it may be
connected to loads that are totally and suddenly thrown off without any fear of excessive speed resulting.

These motors are used where constant speed and low starting torque are required like centrifugal pumps,
fans, blowers, conveyors, etc.

Q.) Draw & Explain characteristics of DC Compound motor.

Ans:

DC Compound Motor Characteristics

 In the case of a cumulative compound motor, as the armature current increases, the series flux
increases, so the flux per pole increases.
But T α Iaφ
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Consequently, the torque also increases; however, this increase in torque is greater than that of the shunt
motor.

 In cumulative compound motors, the series field aids the shunt field, so flux per pole increases as
the armature current increase and hence speed decreases.
 Whereas in the case of a differential compound motor, the series field opposes the shunt field so
the total flux of such motor decreases with an increase in current (i.e. load).
Hence in a differential compound motor, torque increases with an increase in current.

 Also, flux per pole decreases as the armature current increase, and hence speed increases.
 In a differential compound motor, the motor speed will increase with an increase in the load, which
leads to an unstable operation. Therefore, a differential compound motor is rarely used for any
practical application.

Q.) What is back emf in DC motor? Explain its significance.

Ans: Back emf: When the armature of DC motor rotates under the fixed magnetic field and cuts it, by
Faradays law an emf is induced in them. The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage
as per Lenz’s law. Hence known as back or counter emf E b.

Significance of back emf:

Armature current, Ia = V − Eb
Ra
i) If the motor is at standstill or rest E b is zero. This causes large current flow through armature, which
produce high starting torque.

ii) When motor takes speed, the back emf increases, causes armature current to decrease hence decrease
in torque.

iii) It follows therefore that back emf in DC motor regulates the flow of armature current i.e. it
automatically changes the armature current to meet load requirements.

Q.) What is Starter of DC motor? Explain need of Starter.

Ans: DC Motor Starter is basically a resistance which is connected in series with the armature winding only
at the time of starting the motor. Its job is to limit the starting current of the motor. The starter or starter
resistance will remain in the circuit of the motor only at the time of starting and will go out of circuit or
becomes ineffective when the motor speed reaches its desired value.

Need of Starter.

We know that for a dc shunt motor, V = Eb+ IaRa

And for a dc series motor, V = Eb+ Ia(Ra+ Rs)

Hence the expression for Ia are as follows:

For dc shunt motor, Ia= V – EbRa

Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

For dc series motor, Ia= V – Eb(Ra+ Rs)

At the time of starting the motor, speed N = 0 and hence the back emf Eb = 0. Hence the armature current
at the time of starting is extremely large if the rated voltage V is applied to the motor at the time of
starting. The starting current of the motor can be 15 to 20 times higher than the lull load current.

Due to excessive current, the insulation of the armature winding may get damaged. In order to avoid this
we have to keep the starting current of the motor below the safe limits. This is achieved by using a starter.

Q.) State types of Starter & Draw 3 point Starter.

DC Motor Starters

o Two-Point Starter

o Three-Point Starter

o Four-Point Starter
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Q.) State & Explain any one speed control method of DC Shunt motor.

Ans: The speed of a DC shunt is given by,

It is clear from the equation (1) that the speed of a DC shunt motor can be changed by two methods −

 Armature Resistance Control Method

 Flux Control Method

Armature Resistance Control Method

> The armature resistance control method is based on the principle that by varying the voltage available
across the armature, the back EMF of the motor can be changed, which in turn changes the speed of the
shunt motor.

> In this method, a variable resistance RC (called controller resistance) is inserted in series with the
armature. The speed of DC shunt motor is given by,

And

Thus, due to the voltage drop in the controller resistance, the back EMF is decreased and hence the speed
of the motor.

>The maximum speed that can be obtained using armature resistance control method is the speed
corresponding to Rc = 0, i.e., the normal speed. Therefore, by this method only speed below the normal
speed can be obtained by increasing the value of Rc.
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

Flux Control Method

> The flux control method is based on the principle that by varying the field flux ϕ, the speed of DC shunt
motor can be changed.

> In this method, a variable resistance (called field rheostat) is connected in series with the shunt field
winding. By increasing the resistance of the field rheostat, the shunt field current Ish can be reduced and
hence the field flux. Thus, by the flux control method, the speed of a DC shunt can only be increased above
the normal speed.

Q.) State & Explain any one speed control method of DC Series motor.

Ans: The speed of a DC series motor is given by,

Hence, it is clear from the eq. (1) that the speed of a DC series motor can be changed by using any one of
the following two methods −

 Field Control Method

 Armature Resistance Control Method

Armature Resistance Control Method

In the armature resistance control method, a variable resistance is connected in series with the supply (as
shown in figure)
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

 This series resistance reduces the voltage available across the armature and thus the speed is
decreased.
 By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below the normal speed can be obtained.
 This method has poor speed regulation, but this has no significance since the series motors are
used in varying speed applications.
 The armature resistance control method is the most common method employed to control the
speed of DC series motors.

Field Control Method:

A) Field Diverter:

In this method, a variable resistance called field diverter is connected in parallel with the series field
winding as shown in the figure.

 The field diverter shunts some portion of the line current from the series field winding, hence
weakening the field and increasing the speed of the motor.
 The lowest speed that can be obtained using this method is corresponding to the zero current
through the diverter which is the normal speed of the motor.
 Therefore, the field diverter method only provides speed above the normal speed.

B) Armature Diverter

In this method, a variable resistance called armature diverter is connected in parallel with armature,
which shunts some portion of the line current from the armature winding and hence reducing the
armature current (see the figure).
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

 For a given load, if armature current (Ia) is decreased, the flux must increase to maintain the load
torque (τa ∝ϕIa) constant.
 Since the speed (N ∝ 1/ϕ), so the motor speed must decrease. By using armature diverter method,
any speed below the normal speed can be obtained.

C) Tapped Field Control

In this method, to decrease the flux, the number of turns in the series field winding is reduced and
hence the speed is increased.

 A switch (S) or Tapping’s are used to short any part of the series field winding as shown in the
figure.
 With the full turn of the field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and by reducing the number
of turns in the series field winding, speeds above the normal speed can be obtained.

Q.) State the application of DC motor.

Ans: Applications of DC Motors

Series Motors :

The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is required and variations in speed are possible.
For example – the series motors are used in the traction system, cranes, air compressors, Vaccum Cleaner,
Sewing machine, etc.

Shunt Motors
Sub: Ele. Machine & Instruments Prof. Sandesh Berde

The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and starting conditions are not severe. The
various applications of DC shunt motor are in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, Blowers,
Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Spinning machines, etc.

Compound Motors

The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is required. The
examples of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors, Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy
Planners, etc.

Q.) State the application of DC Generator.

Applications of DC Generators

Separately Excited DC Generators

 Separately excited DC Generators are used in laboratories for testing as they have a wide range of
voltage output.
 Used as a supply source of DC motors.
Shunt wound Generators

 DC shunt-wound generators are used for lighting purposes.

 Used to charge the battery.
 Providing excitation to the alternators.
Series Wound Generators

 DC series wound generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative braking for providing field
excitation current.
 Used as a booster in distribution networks.
 Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting and heavy power supply.
 Differentially compounded generators are mainly used for arc welding purpose.