buildings

Article
Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Pervious Concrete with
Steel Fiber or Glass Fiber
Ming-Gin Lee 1, * , Wei-Chien Wang 2 , Yung-Chih Wang 2 , Yi-Cheng Hsieh 2 and Yung-Chih Lin 2

1 Department of Construction Engineering, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung 413, Taiwan

2 Department of Civil Engineering, National Central University, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan;
[email protected] (W.-C.W.); [email protected] (Y.-C.W.); [email protected] (Y.-C.H.);
[email protected] (Y.-C.L.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Pervious concrete (also called porous concrete) is one of the most promising sustainable and
green building materials today. This study examined high-strength pervious concrete and ordinary-
strength pervious concrete reinforced with steel fiber or glass fiber. A total of fifteen mixtures of
normal- and high-strength pervious concretes with steel fiber or glass fiber were used. The goal
of high-strength pervious concrete is that the 28-day compressive strength be above 42 MPa and
the porosity be as close to 15% as possible to achieve technical specifications. Both normal- and
high-strength pervious concretes reinforced with steel fiber (1%, 2%) or glass fiber (0.25%, 0.5%) were
investigated in water permeability, porosity, compressive strength, flexural strength, elastic modulus,
and toughness tests. The test results show that in both high-strength pervious concrete and ordinary
pervious concrete with steel fibers added, the porosity and permeability coefficient are increased
compared with the control group. The coefficient of permeability for high-strength, fiber-reinforced
pervious concretes with two aggregate sizes meets the requirements of the ACI specification for
structural concrete. In addition, the high-strength pervious concrete specimen H1-S2 (2% steel fiber)
has the highest compressive strength of 52.8 MPa at the age of 28 days. The flexural strength of
Citation: Lee, M.-G.; Wang, W.-C.; pervious concrete also increases with age. However, the flexural strength of fiber-reinforced pervious
Wang, Y.-C.; Hsieh, Y.-C.; Lin, Y.-C.
concrete did not follow this trend due to the large variation in the quality control of different fiber
Mechanical Properties of
mixtures. However, both steel fiber and glass fiber have a certain degree of improvement in the
High-Strength Pervious Concrete
flexural toughness, and the effect is better with steel fiber. After the flexural strength reaches the
with Steel Fiber or Glass Fiber.
peak value, there is still about 30% of the bearing capacity, and it gradually decreases until it is
Buildings 2022, 12, 620. https://
doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050620
completely destroyed.

Academic Editor: Giuseppina Uva Keywords: pervious concrete; glass fiber; steel fiber; strength; elastic modulus
Received: 2 April 2022
Accepted: 5 May 2022
Published: 7 May 2022
1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
1.1. Background
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil- Porous concrete, also known as permeable concrete or pervious concrete, or no-fines
iations. concrete and/or porous pavement, is a typical high-porosity concrete used in concrete
paving applications [1,2]. It allows precipitation and other sources of water to pass through
it. This can reduce rainwater runoff and transfer it to the recharge groundwater table. The
porosity is usually designed to achieve a porosity of 18% to 35% and a compressive strength
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. of 2.5 to 25 MPa. The drainage rate is usually in the range of 2 to 18 gallons/minute/ft2 [2,3].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Generally, permeable concrete mixes contain little or no fine aggregate, and there is only
This article is an open access article enough grout to cover the aggregate particles to maintain the interconnectivity of the
distributed under the terms and voids [4]. In order to solve the rainwater runoff problem, prevent ecological damage, and
conditions of the Creative Commons
reduce the heat-island effect, it is not a trivial matter to find a suitable permeable concrete
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
mix design for Taiwan [5]. Traditionally used in parking lots, light traffic areas, sidewalks
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
and greenhouses, pervious concrete plays a vital role in sustainable development [4,5].
4.0/).

Buildings 2022, 12, 620. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050620 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2022, 12, 620 2 of 18

1.2. Literature Review

The permeable concrete parking lot was also selected as the overall solution to the
hot pavement problem in the Cool Communities program. The road surface has brought
about the phenomenon of the heat-island effect in bigger cities. Generally speaking, the
temperature measured in an asphalt parking lot is higher than that in a pervious concrete
parking lot. Pervious concrete also reduces snow and ice build-up. In addition, pervious
concrete is environmentally friendly and non-polluting [3].
Automobile exhaust and crankcase leakage cause hydrocarbons, heavy metals and
suspended solids to be distributed on the road [6]. Automobile pollutants will accumulate
on the road until the rainfall carries them away, eventually entering waterways or ground-
water [7]. These contaminants may damage sensitive waterbody resource ecosystems, and
pumping this water into the water supply through surface water or wells can be detrimental
to human or livestock health. The water quality study on pervious concrete pavements
reports the removal of pollutants from stormwater. According to the above studies, the per-
meable concrete pavement system can filter water, purify water and capture biodegradable
oils [8]. The use of oil bacteria does not require the addition of oil-degrading bacteria; local
bacteria can degrade oil by themselves. In cases where some oils are effectively degraded,
nutrients are required to promote the lipid-degradable activity of bacteria. As nutrient
levels drop, CO2 levels also drop, which indicates bacterial activity [8]. With the increase of
microbial diversity in the pavement structure, the utilization rate of oil also increases. This
phenomenon remains unclear, and more experiments and studies are needed to determine
why the best oil degradation activities show high diversity, even when only oil degradation
by bacteria is observed [8,9]. The continuous voids formed inside and on the surface of
pervious concrete and its large specific surface area provide habitat space for bacteria,
phytoplankton and organisms, which are effective in water purification [8].
According to ACI 522R-10 [9], the application of pervious concrete can be also used in
the scope of harbour engineering, including coastal structures, seawalls and artificial reefs.
The application scope and applicability of pervious concrete are roughly divided into the
following 13 items:
(1) Permeable pavement and walkway in parking lot;
(2) Rigid permeable pavement outside hypermarket;
(3) Greenhouse floor plate to prevent water accumulation;
(4) Structural walls with light weight or thermal insulation properties;
(5) Pavements, walls and slabs with good sound absorption properties;
(6) Base courses of urban roads, country roads, highways and airports;
(7) Surfaces of car parks and zoo areas;
(8) Bridge bases (embankments);
(9) Swimming pool floor slabs;
(10) Seaside structures and seawalls;
(11) Sludge beds for sewage treatment plants;
(12) Solar energy storage systems; and
(13) Artificial fishing reefs, etc.
Usually, the above-mentioned pervious concrete is not reinforced with steel rein-
forcement. If it is applied to reinforced concrete, the steel reinforcement needs to be
anti-corrosion or have a galvanized coating [10,11].
Pervious concrete has the advantages of water retention, cooling, improving drainage
and purifying water quality. However, with the increase of traffic volume and vehicle age,
the drainage function of the pervious pavement will gradually decrease after the pores are
blocked. This is one of the main problems and requires regular maintenance.
Steel fiber is a metal reinforcement material. Steel fibers for reinforced concrete are
defined as short, discrete-length steel fibers with an aspect ratio (length-to-diameter ratio)
of approximately 20 mm to 100 mm and have different cross-sections, and are small
enough to be randomly dispersed in unhardened concrete. The concrete mixture uses the
usual mixing procedure. Adding a certain amount of steel fiber to concrete can make the
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 3 of 18

physical properties of concrete change qualitatively and greatly improve the properties
of crack resistance, impact resistance, fatigue resistance, bending resistance, toughness
and durability. Basically, steel fibers can be divided into five categories according to the
manufacturing process and their shape and cross-section: cold drawing, cut sheet, melt
extraction, grinding and cutting, and modified cold drawing [10]. With the addition of steel
fibers to the concrete, it was found that the flexural strength was greatly improved. The
flexural strength increased to 6.46 N/mm2 with 1% steel fibers in the concrete, but was
5.36 N/mm2 without steel fibers, i.e., a 21% increase in flexural strength [11]. The study
investigated the use of hook-end steel fibers to increase the flexural strength of permeable
concrete without affecting its permeability and porosity. It was found that 1.5% of steel
fibers based on the volume of the concrete was sufficient to achieve the required target
strength and permeability rate [12].
Fiberglass is also called glass fiber. It is a material made of extremely fine glass fibers.
Fiberglass is a lightweight and very strong material. Although the strength performance is
lower than that of steel fiber and the rigidity is lower, the material is generally less brittle,
and the raw material is much cheaper. It has been determined that the compressive strength
of the glass-fiber-reinforced concrete mixture with different amounts will increase by a
certain percentage. The observed increase in compressive strength is 20% to 25%. The
flexural strength and splitting tensile strength of different glass-fiber-reinforced concrete
specimens at 28 days of age were also compared, and the percentages were found to
increase from 15% to 20% [13]. The addition of glass and steel fibers slightly increases the
surface hardness. In addition, the addition of glass fibers improves the ductility of self-
compacting concrete, and the strength of steel fibers is higher than that of glass fibers [14].
In the toughness study of steel and polypropylene fiber concrete bending beams, it was
found that steel fiber concrete (SFRC) and polypropylene fiber concrete (PFRC) behave
differently in bending. Due to the characteristics of the fiber-reinforced concrete, the
behaviour of PFRC is obviously a double-peak response, while the behaviour of SFRC is a
single-peak [15]. It is mainly used for bridging cracks in concrete internal structures and
plastically deforming concrete members while reducing stress concentration at the crack
ends. Different studies have been conducted on the use of fibers such as polypropylene
(PP), steel, glass, Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), carbon, Nylon, Kevlar fibers, etc., in order to
increase the mechanical properties of pervious concrete, as shown in Table 1 [16–23].

Table 1. Summary of research on fiber-reinforced pervious concrete.

Fiber Content Mechanical Properties Permeability

Literature w/c
(% in Volume) fc * ft * ff * cm/s

Pils et al. [16] PP @ 1, 2, 4(kg/m3 ) 0.25, 0.3, 0.35 ↓ ↑ ↓ 0.12–0.078

Kharbikar et al. [17] PP @ 0.15–0.25% 0.27 to 0.33 ↓ – – ↑ (up to 0.2%)
Thakre et al. [18] Nylon fiber 0.1–0.25% 0.36 ↓ – – ↑ (up to 0.2%)
0.3% PP fiber
Hesami et al. [19] 0.2% glass fiber 0.27 to 0.40 ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ then ↓
0.5% steel fiber
Patidar et al. [20] PP @ 2.54 g/mould size 0.30 to 0.40 ↑ – – ↑
Rangelov et al. [21] Carbon Fiber @ 0.5–1.5% 0.28 ↑ ↑ – ↑ infiltration
Kevlar fiber 0.2–0.4%
Bukola et al. [22] PVA fiber 0.2–0.4% 0.33 ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑
UHMWPE fiber 0.2–0.4%
Tang et al. [23] PP @ 0.013–0.13 (kg/m3 ) 0.28 to 0.31 – – – 2.18–2.45
* Change of mechanical properties (fc: compressive strength, ft: tensile splitting strength, ff: flexural strength)
compared to the group without fiber.

The research results of Hussain et al. [24] showed that the compressive strength and
modulus of rupture of the steel hook, steel corrugated and polyolefin specimens were
increased by 24.8%, 20% and 11%, respectively, and the ultimate bearing capacity of the
slabs was 39%, 13% and 19%, respectively, compared with control specimens. The main
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 4 of 18

purpose of this study was to find a high-strength pervious concrete mix proportion of
glass fiber and steel fiber suitable for permeable concrete pavement, as well as perform
laboratory research on the compressive strength, flexural strength, elastic modulus and
toughness properties of pervious concrete. Few studies have evaluated the effects of steel
fibers and glass fibers on the mechanical properties of high-strength pervious concrete.

2. Experiments
This research report first describes the preparation of high-strength pervious fiber
concrete materials and mixtures, and then concrete sample preparation, factor combinations,
porosity and water permeability tests, compressive strength, elastic modulus, flexural
strength and toughness strength tests.

2.1. Pervious Concrete Materials and Mix Design

The materials used in this study were Type I Portland Cement conforming to ASTM C
150 [25], produced by Taiwan Cement Company, three kinds of coarse aggregates (dimen-
sions 3.0 mm, 3.6 mm and 4.8~9.5 mm), SF (silica fume), superplasticizer (HRWR), water,
steel fibers or glass fibers and no fine aggregate. The chemical composition and specific
surface area of cement and silica fume is given in Table 2. Pervious concrete is a highly
porous concrete material that allows water or liquids to pass through.

Table 2. Chemical compositions of cement and silica fume (%).

Compositions Cement Silica Fume

SiO2 20.05 94.26
CaO 62.12 0.07
Al2 O3 4.01 0.30
Fe2 O3 2.87 0.05
MgO 2.70 0.18
SO3 2.60 –
Na2 O 0.20 0.12
K2 O 0.60 0.42
Free Lime 1.10 –
L.O.I. 2.00 3.00
Specific surface area (m2 /g) 0.38 22.04

The pervious concrete mixtures with high-range water reducer (HRWR) admixture
have a wet, metallic look or sheen. As the slurry flows into the spaces between the
aggregates, a small amount of the mixture forms a ball with a non-sagging consistency that
doesn’t crumble or lose its void structure [26]. The steel fibers (DRAMIX® 3D 40/30BG)
were 30 mm straight fibers with a diameter of 1.9 mm, made from cold drawing wire, and
were used for experiments in Table 3. Glass fiber Alkali Resistant (AR) Glass zirconium
fiber, which is sold by local paint shops, contains zirconium dioxide ZrO2 composition,
suitable for cement alkaline environment, also in Table 3.

Table 3. Specification of the AR glass fiber and steel fiber.

Specification Glass Fiber Steel Fiber

Appearance white slender Hooked-end fiber
Length (mm) 36 30
Diameter (mm) 1.9 0.75
Aspect ratio 67 40
Specific gravity 2.68 7.8
Melting point (◦ C) 860 1500
Tensile strength (MPa) 1700 1225
Elastic modulus (GPa) 72 200
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 5 of 18

Table 4 shows fifteen pervious concrete mix designs used in this study. The slump
of high-strength pervious concrete is close to zero with a water-binder ratio of 0.14. The
slump of ordinary pervious concrete is also close to zero, with a water-binder ratio of 0.3.
The #1 mix (N0) contained a pure concrete mix. The #2 mix (NS1) contained a 1% steel
fiber, and the #3 mix (NS2) contained 2% steel fiber. The #4 mix (NG1) contained a 0.25%
glass fiber and the #5 mix (NG2) contained a 0.5% glass fiber. The above five mix designs
are normal-strength pervious concrete. The following five mix designs are high-strength
pervious concrete with #1.0 (3.03 mm) stone, according to its maximum particle size. The
#6 mix (H10) contained a concrete mix without fiber. The #7 mix (H1S1) contained a 1%
steel fiber, and the #8 mix (H1S2) contained 2% steel fiber. The #9 mix (H1G1) contained a
0.25% glass fiber, and the #10 mix (H1G2) contained a 0.5% glass fiber. The final five mix
designs are high-strength pervious concrete with #1.2 (3.64 mm) stone, according to its
maximum particle size. The #11 mix (H1.2) contained a concrete mix without fiber. The #12
mix (H1.2S1) contained a 1% steel fiber, and the #13 mix (H1.2S2) contained 2% steel fiber.
The #14 mix (H1.2G1) contained a 0.25% glass fiber, and the #15 mix (H1.2G2) contained
a 0.25% glass fiber. The high-strength pervious concrete is designed to achieve a 28-day
compressive strength of more than 42 MPa, and the porosity is as close to 10% as possible
to meet the technical specifications.

Table 4. Mix design for normal and high-strength pervious fiber concretes (kg/m3 ).

Mix Cement Aggregate Water SF Steel Fiber Glass Fiber HRWR

1 N0 1530 0 (0)
2 NS1 340 1452 100 0 78 (S1) 0 2.0
3 NS2 1374 156 (S2)
4 NG1 1523 6.8 (G1)
340 100 0 0 2.0
5 NG2 1516 13.6 (G2)
6 H10 1484 0 (0)
7 H1S1 475 1406 68 119 78 (S1) 0 13.7
8 H1S2 1328 156 (S2)
9 H1G1 1477 6.8 (G1)
475 68 119 0 13.7
10 H1G2 1470 13.6 (G2)
11 H1.2 1484 0 (0)
12 H1.2S1 475 1406 68 119 78 (S1) 0 12.5
13 H1.2S2 1328 156 (S2)
14 H1.2G1 1477 6.8 (G1)
475 68 119 0 12.5
15 H1.2G2 1470 13.6 (G2)

Notation
In this experiment, a specific sample-number identifier was developed to identify
the data. High-strength pervious concrete can be divided into #1 stone and #1.2 stone,
according to its maximum particle size. H1 and H1.2 are used as identification codes,
respectively. For normal strength pervious concrete, use N as the code. For added glass
fiber (0%, 0.25% and 0.5%), use (O, G1 and G2), respectively; if steel fiber is added (0%, 1%
and 2%), use (O, S1 and S2), respectively. For example, the high-strength #1 stone pervious
concrete with a 28-day curing period is mixed with 0.5% glass fiber, and the sample number
is H1-D28-G2.
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 6 of 18

2.2. Concrete Samples

Concrete specimens are available in two sizes. Cylinder specimens with a diameter
of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm were prepared according to ASTM C39/39M-16 [27]
for the study of compressive strength development and elastic modulus. Flexural strength
was measured using beam specimens measuring 100 × 100 × 350 mm. The sample is filled
in 2 layers and each layer is compacted with 25 compactions, maintaining the height of the
plate. Curing should begin as soon as possible after placement and compaction [5]. The
pervious concrete specimens were demolded after one day and cured in room temperature
water for 27 days. The specimens were placed under laboratory conditions for 7, 28 and
90 days before the compressive strength, flexural strength, elastic modulus and toughness
tests. The purpose of this study was to evaluate high-strength pervious concretes and
use glass fiber and steel fiber to determine if it could improve its compressive strength,
flexural strength, elastic modulus, or toughness. Pervious concrete specimens are available
in two sizes. Cylinder specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm
were prepared according to ASTM C39/39M-16 [27] for the tests of compressive strength
development and elastic modulus. Flexural strength was measured using beam specimens
measuring 100 × 100 × 350 mm. In addition, the number of samples for the compressive
strength, elastic modulus, porosity and water permeability test of pervious concrete was 6,
and the number of samples for the flexural strength and toughness strength test was 3 in
this study.

2.3. Porosity and Permeability Coefficient Test

For porosity, we used the drainage volume method of the Japan Concrete Association,
such as Formula (1). First, we immersed the specimen in a constant temperature water bath
for 24 h, weighed the saturated weight of its surface dryness, and then placed the specimen
in an oven at a temperature of 110 ◦ C. After drying it for 24 h and putting it into water, we
weighed it in water, and finally the connected porosity (P1 ) was calculated.

1 − (W1 − W2 )
P1 = × 100% (1)
V1

where, P1 : connected porosity (%), W1 : weight of the specimen in water, W2 : weight of the
saturated-surface-dry specimen, V1 : volume of the specimen.
The water permeability coefficient K (cm/s) was measured by the falling head test
mentioned in ACI 522R-10 [9], which is derived from soil mechanics, in low permeability
soil (K < 10−2 cm/s), and refers to the test instrument measured in the literature of Alalea
et al. [28]. As shown in Figure 1, the inner diameter of the upper end of the water pipe was
9.5 mm acrylic pipe, and we connected the PVC pipe of pervious concrete specimen. Then,
the two pipes were connected with a rubber sleeve and the iron ring was used to pressurize
to prevent leakage. After the test, the water permeability coefficient K was calculated by
Formula (2).  
A1 L h
K= × × ln 1 (2)
A2 t h2
where, K: permeability coefficient (cm/s), A1 : cross-sectional area of pipe (cm2 ), A2 : cross-
sectional area of specimen (cm2 ), h1 : initial head height (cm), h2 : final head position (cm),
L: height of specimen (cm), t: time for water to flow from h1 to h2 (s).
 Buildings
Buildings 12, x12,
2022,
2022, FOR620PEER REVIEW 7 of 719of 18

Figure 1. Water
Figure permeability
1. Water coefficient
permeability instrument
coefficient andand
instrument cross-section diagram.
cross-section diagram.

2.4.2.4. Compressive
Compressive Strength
Strength andand Elastic
Elastic Modulus
Modulus TestTest
TheThe compressive
compressive strength
strength testwas
test wascarried
carried out with
with ASTM
ASTMC39M-05
C39M-05[27] [27]in in
thisthis
study.
The age of compressive strength test was carried out at 7, 28, and 90 days,
study. The age of compressive strength test was carried out at 7, 28, and 90 days, and the and the elastic
modulus
elastic modulustesttest
waswas
carried outout
carried in accordance
in accordance with
withASTM
ASTM C469 [29]
C469 in in
[29] thethe
specimen
specimen with
withthe
theage ofof
age 2828
days.
days.The
Theelastic modulus
elastic modulus test equipment
test equipmentwas wasused
usedwith
witha TML
a TML static
staticdata
dataacquisition
acquisition device (TDS
device (TDS530), 100-ton
530), thinthin
100-ton loadload
cellcell
andandelastic modulus
elastic modulusstrain ring,ring,
strain and the
and the concrete elastic modulus was calculated by the secant method in ASTM C469. the
concrete elastic modulus was calculated by the secant method in ASTM C469. After
measurement
After was completed,
the measurement the datathe
was completed, filedata
was file
captured and combined
was captured with Formula
and combined with (3).
The corresponding data was brought in and the elastic modulus was
Formula (3). The corresponding data was brought in and the elastic modulus was calcu- calculated.
lated.
0.4 f 0 c − f 0 c
Ec = (3)
ε ·0.4𝑓
0.4 f 𝑐0 c−−𝑓′𝑐
0.00005
𝐸𝑐 = (3)
𝜀, 0.4𝑓 𝑐 − 0.00005
where Ec: elastic modulus (MPa), f 0 c: compressive strength of concrete (MPa), ε: strain.
where 𝐸𝑐: elastic modulus (MPa), 𝑓′𝑐: compressive strength of concrete (MPa).
2.5. Flexural Strength Test
2.5. Flexural
The Strength
flexural Test
strength test of this study was performed with reference to ASTM
The flexural strength
C78/C78M-18 [30], and test of this study
the flexural was
test age wasperformed
7, 28, andwith reference
90 days, to ASTMThis
respectively.
C78/C78M-18
test method covered the determination of the flexural strength of concrete by This
[30], and the flexural test age was 7, 28, and 90 days, respectively. testof a
the use
method covered the determination of the flexural strength of concrete by the use
10 cm × 10 cm × 35 cm simple beam with third-point loading. After the test, the flexural of a 10
cm strength
× 10 cm of
× the
35 cm
beamsimple beam withbythird-point
was calculated Formula (4).loading. After the test, the flexural
strength of the beam was calculated by Formula (4).
PL
R =𝑃𝐿 2 (4)
𝑅 = bd (4)
𝑏𝑑
where R: flexural strength (MPa), P: maximum load (N), b: average width of section (mm),
where R: flexural strength (MPa), P: maximum load (N), b: average width of section
L: beam span (mm).
(mm), L: beam span (mm).
2.6. Flexural Toughness
2.6. Flexural Toughness
The two most common methods to determine flexural toughness for the reinforced
The concrete
fiber two mostare common
based methods
upon ASTM to determine
Cl0l8 [31]flexural
and JSCE toughness
SF-4 [32]. for the reinforced
In ASTM C1018,
fiber concrete are based upon ASTM Cl0l8 [31] and JSCE SF-4 [32].
toughness is specified in terms of toughness indices (I5 , I10 and I20 ), which refers In ASTM C1018,
to the
toughness is specified
area under in terms ofcurve
the load-deflection toughness indices
calculated out (Ito5, three
I10 and I20), which
different refersdeflections.
specified to the
areaThe
under
JSCEthe
SF-4load-deflection
test method is forcurve calculated
flexural strengthoutand
to flexural
three different
toughness specified deflec-
of reinforced fiber
tions. The JSCE SF-4 test method is for flexural strength and flexural
concrete by third-point loading. In contrast, in the case of JSCE SF-4, the area under thetoughness of rein-
forced
loadfiber concrete
deflection by third-point
curve loading.
up to a specified In contrast,
deflection (L/150)in theiscase of JSCEand
measured SF-4, the area
referred to as
under the load
the toughness. deflection curve up to a specified deflection (L/150) is measured and re-
ferred toFlexural
as the toughness.
toughness is a term used to quantify the energy absorption capacity of
Flexuralit toughness
concrete; is the area ofis concrete
a term under
used to thequantify the energy absorption
flexural load-deflection capacity
curve (Figure 2) upof
until
concrete; it is the area of concrete under the flexural load-deflection curve (Figure 2) up
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 1

Buildings 2022, 12, 620 8 of 18

until a deflection of 1/150 times the span, corresponding to 2 mm for 10 cm × 10 cm × 3

acm specimens
deflection [33].times
of 1/150 Afterthe
thespan,
test,corresponding to 2 mm for(𝑇10) cm
the flexural toughness of the
× 10beam
cm ×was calculate
35 cm
by Formula (5).
specimens [33]. After the test, the flexural toughness (Tb ) of the beam was calculated by
Formula (5). 𝑇 𝐿
𝜎𝑏
Tb ∙= L ×
× 𝛿𝑡𝑏
(5
σb =
δtb bh2 𝑏ℎ (5)
whereσb:𝜎𝑏toughness
where : toughness factor
factor (N⁄mm(N⁄mm 𝑇 : flexural
2 ), T 2:), flexural toughness
toughness (N-m), (N-m), 𝛿𝑡𝑏: deflection
δtb: deflection at a
b
L⁄150(mm),
L⁄150 (mm), 𝐿: beam
L: beam span
span (mm),
(mm), b: beam𝑏: beam
widthwidth h: beamℎ:
(mm), (mm), beam(mm).
height height (mm).

Figure2.2.Flexural
Figure toughness
Flexural definition
toughness diagram.
definition diagram.
3. Experimental Results and Discussion
3. Experimental Results and Discussion
3.1. Porosity and Permeability Coefficient Test
3.1. According
Porosity and Permeability
to ACI Coefficient
522R-10 [9], Test permeability coefficient of pervious con-
the standard
crete isAccording
about 0.1cm/sto ACI or more, and [9],
522R-10 the porosity is aboutpermeability
the standard 18~35%. From Figure 3 and
coefficient of perviou
Table 5, it can be seen that the water permeability coefficients of each
concrete is about 0.1cm/s or more, and the porosity is about 18~35%. From Figuremix proportion and 3 an
aggregate meet the minimum standard value of water permeability coefficient
Table 5, it can be seen that the water permeability coefficients of each mix proportion an proposed
by ACI 522R-10. It is worth noting that the steel fiber was added to the pervious concrete,
aggregate meet the minimum standard value of water permeability coefficient propose
and it had a better water permeability coefficient than the original one. In addition, the per-
by ACI 522R-10.
meability coefficientItof
isthe
worth noting
pervious that the
concrete steel
with fiber
glass was
fiber added
showed noto the pervious
trend. However,concrete
and it had a better water permeability coefficient than the original
regardless of whether high-strength or ordinary-strength pervious concrete was reinforcedone. In addition, th
permeability
with steel fibers,coefficient of theand
both the porosity pervious concrete
permeability withincreased
coefficient glass fiber showed
compared withno trend
However,
the regardless
control group, which isofconsistent
whetherwithhigh-strength or ordinary-strength
the experimental pervious
results of the literature [34]. In concret
contrast, the porosity
was reinforced with of steel
pervious concrete
fibers, both with glass fibers
the porosity showed
and no trend.coefficient increase
permeability
compared with the control group, which is consistent with the experimental results of th
Table 5. Results for porosity and permeability coefficient test.
literature [34]. In contrast, the porosity of pervious concrete with glass fibers showed n
Specimen ID trend. O G1 G2 S1 S2 ACI 522R
H1 0.14 0.18 0.14 0.36 0.52
Table 5. Results for porosity and permeability coefficient test.
Permeability coefficient (cm/s) H1.2 0.12 0.23 0.29 0.42 0.65 ≥0.1
Specimen
N ID
1.41 1.19O G1
1.49 G2
1.56 S11.84 S2 ACI 522R
H1 H1 0.14 0.18 0.14 0.36 0.52
Permeability coef-9.23 7.33 8.50 12.03 13.96
Porosity (%) H1.2 H1.2 0.12 0.23 0.29 0.42 0.6518–35 ≥0.1
ficient (cm/s) 11.04 9.23 8.13 11.93 16.65
N 18.58 N 1.41
18.91 1.19
19.85 1.49
18.93 1.56
21.78 1.84
H1 9.23 7.33 8.50 12.03 13.96
Porosity (%) H1.2 11.04 9.23 8.13 11.93 16.65 18–35
N 18.58 18.91 19.85 18.93 21.78
Buildings 2022,12,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 9of
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18

Figure3.3.Porosity
Figure Porosityand
andpermeability
permeabilitycoefficient
coefficient results
results for
for pervious
pervious concrete
concrete specimens.
specimens.
3.2. Compressive Strength Test
3.2. Compressive Strength Test
In engineering applications, fibers are often used to reduce surface cracks caused by
In engineering applications, fibers are often used to reduce surface cracks caused by
concrete shrinkage, and even provide the tensile force required for cracking when concrete
concrete shrinkage, and even provide the tensile force required for cracking when con-
is under compression, delaying the cracking and damage of the concrete bottom [12].
crete is under compression, delaying the cracking and damage of the concrete bottom
Generally, the compressive strength of pervious concrete is low, but high-strength pervious
[12]. Generally, the compressive strength of pervious concrete is low, but high-strength
concrete uses a low water–cement ratio and aggregate with a smaller maximum particle
pervious concrete uses a low water–cement ratio and aggregate with a smaller maximum
size, which is beneficial to its compressive strength and higher elastic modulus. Figures 4–6
particle size, which is beneficial to its compressive strength and higher elastic modulus.
show the development of the compressive strength of ordinary-strength and high-strength
Figures 4–6 show the development of the compressive strength of ordinary-strength and
pervious concretes. Comparing H1.2-D7-G1 with H1.2-D28-G2, not only was the strength
increased due topervious
high-strength the increase concretes.
of curing Comparing
age, but the H1.2-D7-G1
strength due with H1.2-D28-G2,
to glass not only
fiber reinforcement
wasincreased.
also the strength The increased
strengthdue to the
of the steelincrease
fiber ratioof curing
of H1, age,
H1.2,but
and theNstrength
specimens dueincreases
to glass
fiber reinforcement also increased. The strength of the steel
with the increase of the curing age. In the 28-day curing age, the strength of the fiber ratio of H1, H1.2, and S2 N
specimens increases with the increase of the curing age. In
specimens is higher than that of the S1 ones, and the D28-S2 specimens’ increased strength the 28-day curing age, the
isstrength of the S2Compared
more obvious. specimenswith is higher
0.5% than
glassthat ofthe
fiber, the strength
S1 ones, of and the fiber
glass D28-S2 specimens’
high-strength
increased strength is more obvious. Compared with 0.5%
pervious concrete with a curing age of 28 days is slightly higher than that of 0.25% glass fiber, the strength of glass
glass
fiber high-strength pervious concrete with a curing age of
fiber. It is speculated that the low slump concrete during mixing shortened the setting28 days is slightly higher than
that due
time of 0.25%
to theglass
addition fiber.ofItsteel
is speculated that the low
fibers. In addition, slump
the time concretebefore
difference duringand mixing
after
shortened the setting time due to the addition of steel fibers.
pouring caused uneven cementation of the slurry, and the glass fiber was soft and easy In addition, the time dif-
to
ference before and after pouring caused uneven cementation
deform and cemented into a ball with the cement slurry. It was not evenly dispersed after of the slurry, and the glass
fiber was soft
hardening, and aeasy
so that weak to surface
deform was and formed
cemented whenintoitawas
ball pressed,
with the andcement slurry.
it also It was
resulted in
not evenly dispersed after hardening, so that a weak surface
high strength variability. Different studies have been conducted on the use of fibers such was formed when it was
as
pressed, and it
polypropylene alsosteel,
(PP), resulted
glass,in high
PVA, strength
carbon, Nylon,variability. Different
Kevlar fibers, studies
etc., in order have been
to increase
conducted
the mechanical on properties
the use ofoffibers suchasasshown
concrete, polypropylene (PP), steel,
in Table 1 [16–23]. Afterglass,
addingPVA, carbon,
steel fibers,
Nylon, Kevlar fibers, etc., in order to increase the mechanical
the mechanical properties and permeability were mostly improved in our research, but properties of concrete, as
shown in Table 1 [16–23]. After adding steel fibers, the mechanical
there are also studies that show otherwise, and there are other considerations to take into properties and per-
meabilityAmong
account. were mostly
them, itimproved
is not easy intoour research,
prove that the butpervious
there are also studies
concrete that fibers
with steel show
otherwise, and there are other considerations to take into
may produce clusters, which will make the slurry unevenly distributed in the concrete,account. Among them, it is not
easy to prove
resulting in thethat the pervious
deviation concrete
of strength andwith steel fibersTherefore,
permeability. may produce clusters, on
the research which the
will make
impact the fibers
of steel slurryon unevenly
perviousdistributed
concrete isin the concrete, resulting in the deviation of
uncertain.
strength and permeability. Therefore, the research on the impact of steel fibers on per-
vious concrete is uncertain.
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
10 of 18 10 of 19
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

Figure 4. Compressive strength results for ordinary-strength pervious concrete specimens.

Figure 4. Compressive strength
Figure results strength
4. Compressive for ordinary-strength pervious concrete
results for ordinary-strength perviousspecimens.
concrete specimens.

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 5. Compressive strength results for H1 high-strength pervious concrete specimens. 11 of 19
Figure 5. Compressive
Figure 5. Compressive strength results strength results for H1 high-strength
for H1 high-strength perviousspecimens.
pervious concrete concrete specimens.

Figure
Figure 6. Compressive 6. Compressive
strength strength
results for H1.2 results for H1.2 high-strength
high-strength pervious
pervious concrete concrete specimens.
specimens.

3.3. Elastic Modulus Test

The elastic modulus and its coefficient of the pervious concrete are shown in Figures
7–9. The average elastic modulus of the high-strength pervious concrete specimen is
about 20,000 MPa, while the elastic modulus of the ordinary-strength pervious concrete
specimen is about 10,000 MPa. In addition, there is little research [34,35] on the coefficient
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 11 of 18

3.3. Elastic Modulus Test

The elastic modulus and its coefficient of the pervious concrete are shown in Figures 7–9.
The average elastic modulus of the high-strength pervious concrete specimen is about
20,000 MPa, while the elastic modulus of the ordinary-strength pervious concrete specimen
is about 10,000 MPa. In addition, there is little research [34,35] on the coefficient of the
elastic modulus. Regardless of whether high-strength pervious concrete was reinforced
with fiber or not, it was slightly lower than the suggested coefficient of elastic modulus
of ordinary concrete in Taiwan, which is 4734. Moreover, it was close to the suggested
correction coefficient of elastic modulus of 3795 proposed by Liao W.C. et al. [35]. Yilan
stone was used as the local aggregate material in this study. The strength of the high
strength pervious concrete was high but the porosity was greater than that of ordinary
concrete. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use 3795 to estimate the elastic modulus
value of high-strength fiber pervious concrete. In addition, for ordinary-strength pervious
concrete, it is approximately equal to 0.71 times the recommended value (3795). The
reason may be that the poor grading degree of the pervious concrete aggregate makes the
Buildings 2022,
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12, xx FOR
FOR PEER aggregate soft, and its porosity is large and its compressive strength is low. When the
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 12glass
12 of 19
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or steel fibers are not uniformly dispersed or have balling, the test results of fiber pervious
concrete will also be affected.

Figure 7.
Figure
Figure 7. Elastic
7. Elastic modulus
Elastic modulus distribution
modulus distribution diagram
distribution diagram for
diagram for ordinary-strength
for ordinary-strengthpervious
ordinary-strength perviousconcrete
pervious concretespecimens.
concrete specimens.
specimens.

Figure 8.
Figure
Figure 8. Elastic
8. Elastic modulus
Elastic modulus distribution
modulus distribution diagram
distribution diagram for
diagram for H1
for H1 high-strength
H1 high-strengthpervious
high-strength perviousconcrete
pervious concretespecimens.
concrete specimens.
specimens.
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 12 of 18
Figure 8. Elastic modulus distribution diagram for H1 high-strength pervious concrete specimens.

Figure
Figure 9. Elastic
Elasticmodulus
modulusdistribution
distribution diagram
diagram for H1.2
for H1.2 high-strength
high-strength pervious
pervious concreteconcrete speci-
specimens.
mens.
3.4. Flexural Strength Test
In general,
3.4. Flexural higher
Strength dosage level of fibers could increase the compressive or flexural
Test
strength of concrete specimens. The flexural strength of the fiber-reinforced pervious
concrete is shown in Figures 10–12. The average flexural strength of the high-strength
pervious concrete specimen is about 6 MPa, while the flexural strength of the ordinary-
strength pervious concrete specimen is about 4 MPa. The results show that the fiber content
increased, but the flexural strength of the pervious concrete specimen did not increase
significantly. In some proportion of a small amount of fibers, the flexural strength is
lower than the proportion without fibers, which may due to the water-to-binder ratio of
high strength pervious concrete, which was reduced to 0.14. Although a large amount of
superplasticizer was added, it was still difficult to mix. When the fibers are not uniformly
dispersed or have balling conditions, the hardened concrete easily forms weak joints,
which easily causes bending-strength decline. In addition, compared with steel fiber, the
appearance of glass fiber was weaker and had no hooks at the end, and the aspect ratio is
much smaller than that of steel fiber, so that the cement slurry cannot produce a sufficient
interlocking effect with the glass fiber. Therefore, the tensile force cannot be provided
immediately at the moment of cracking of high-strength pervious concrete, resulting in a
sharp drop in the applied load, and the bridging effect of glass fiber can only be exerted
when the crack at the bottom of the beam is large [11]. The results show that the flexural
strength of ordinary-strength pervious concrete was improved after adding fiber at 7 and
28 curing days, but the fiber content and fiber type did not improve the flexural strength
after 90 days of curing.
Figures 13–15 show the relationship between flexural strength and square root of
compressive strength of the fiber-reinforced pervious concrete specimens. Taiwan’s general
√
formula for general concrete cracking modulus (flexural strength) uses 0.63 fc0 (MPa) as a
commonly used formula for predicting cracking load. The test results are somewhat similar
to past research results [3–5]. However, the average coefficient of cracking load in this study
is higher than 0.63, which is the generalized formula for cracking of ordinary concrete.
√
The results show that using 0.63 fc0 as a common formula for predicting cracking loads
is not appropriate because factors such as water–cement ratio, fiber and porosity are not
considered. More information on the strength of fiber-reinforced pervious concrete will be
collected in the future to obtain a formula for accurately predicting cracking loads.
 slurry cannot produce a sufficient interlocking effect with the glass fiber. Therefore, the
tensile force cannot be provided immediately at the moment of cracking of high-strength
pervious concrete, resulting in a sharp drop in the applied load, and the bridging effect of
glass fiber can only be exerted when the crack at the bottom of the beam is large [11]. The
results show that the flexural strength of ordinary-strength pervious concrete was im-
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 proved after adding fiber at 7 and 28 curing days, but the fiber content and fiber type did 13 of 18
not improve the flexural strength after 90 days of curing.

Buildings
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2022, 12,
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FOR PEER
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REVIEW 14
14 of
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19
Figure
Figure10.
10.Flexural
Flexuralstrength results
strength for for
results ordinary-strength pervious
ordinary-strength concrete
pervious specimens.
concrete specimens.

Figure
Figure11.
Figure 11.Flexural
11. Flexural strength
Flexural
strength results
strength
results for
results H1
for for high-strength
H1 H1 pervious
high-strength
high-strength concrete
pervious
pervious specimens.
concrete
concrete specimens.
specimens.

Figure
Figure 12. Flexural strength results for H1.2 high-strength pervious concrete specimens.
Figure12.
12.Flexural strength
Flexural results
strength for for
results H1.2 high-strength
H1.2 pervious
high-strength concrete
pervious specimens.
concrete specimens.
Figures
Figures 13–15
13–15 show
show the
the relationship
relationship between
between flexural
flexural strength
strength and
and square
square root
root of
of
compressive
compressive strength
strength ofof the
the fiber-reinforced
fiber-reinforced pervious
pervious concrete
concrete specimens.
specimens. Taiwan’s
Taiwan’s
general
general formula
formula forfor general
general concrete
concrete cracking
cracking modulus
modulus (flexural
(flexural strength)
strength) uses
uses 0.63√fc′
0.63√fc′
(MPa)
(MPa) as
as aa commonly
commonly used used formula
formula for
for predicting
predicting cracking
cracking load.
load. The
The test
test results
results are
are
somewhat
somewhat similar
similar toto past
past research
research results
results [3–5].
[3–5]. However,
However, the the average
average coefficient
coefficient of
of
cracking
cracking load
load in
in this
this study
study isis higher
higher than
than 0.63,
0.63, which
which is
is the
the generalized
generalized formula
formula for
for
cracking of ordinary concrete. The results show that using 0.63√fc′ as a common formula
 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 14 of 18
Buildings
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2022,12,
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FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW 15 15 of 19
of 19

Figure 13. Relationship between flexural strength and √fc′ for ordinary pervious concrete.
Figure 13. Relationship between flexural √
strength and √fc′ for ordinary pervious concrete.
Figure 13. Relationship between
Figure flexural between
13. Relationship strengthflexural fc0 for ordinary
and strength and √fc′ forpervious
ordinary concrete.
pervious concrete.

√ 0
Figure
Figure
Figure 14. Relationship 14. Relationship
14.
betweenRelationship between
flexuralbetween flexural
flexural
strength strength
and strength and
fc forand
H1 √fc′
√fc′ forfor
H1H1 high-strength
high-strength
high-strength pervious pervious
pervious concrete.
concrete.
concrete.
Figure 14. Relationship between flexural strength and √fc′ for H1 high-strength pervious concrete.

√
Figure 15. Relationship between flexural strength and fc0 for H1.2 high-strength pervious concrete.

3.5. Flexural Toughness

Through the flexural toughness calculation method provided by JSCE-SF4 [26], using
the flexural load and displacement diagram, as shown in Figures 16–18, the H1-G2 specimen
(0.5% glass fiber) has the maximum bearing capacity, followed by the H1-O, H1-S1, H1-G1
and H1-S2 specimens in Figure 17. When subjected to flexural load, the S2 and S1 specimens
 Figure 15. Relationship between flexural strength and √fc′ for H1.2 high-strength pervious con
crete.

3.5. Flexural Toughness

Buildings 2022, 12, 620 15 of 18
Through the flexural toughness calculation method provided by JSCE-SF4 [26], us
ing the flexural load and displacement diagram, as shown in Figures 16–18, the H1-G
specimen (0.5% glass fiber) has the maximum bearing capacity, followed by the H1-O
with steel fibers haveH1-S1, H1-G1displacement,
a larger and H1-S2 specimens followed in Figure
by the 17.G2When
andsubjected
G1 specimensto flexural
with load, the S
glass fibers, and the minimum displacement is O for the fiber-free specimens, as shownG2 and G
and S1 specimens with steel fibers have a larger displacement, followed by the
in Figures 16–18. specimens
In addition, withtheglass
areafibers,
enclosed and bythetheminimum
flexuraldisplacement is O for the fiber-fre
load and displacement
specimens, as shown in Figures 16–18. In addition, the area enclosed by the flexural load
curve from 0 mm to 2 mm of displacement can be used to calculate the increase in the
and displacement curve from 0 mm to 2 mm of displacement can be used to calculate th
toughness and strength of pervious concrete beams due to the addition of fibers. The
increase in the toughness and strength of pervious concrete beams due to the addition o
flexural toughnessfibers.
and toughness
The flexuralfactor for fiber
toughness pervious factor
and toughness concrete are given
for fiber perviousin Table
concrete 6. are given
The H1-S2 specimen (2% steel
in Table 6. Thefiber)
H1-S2has the maximum
specimen (2% steel flexural
fiber) hastoughness
the maximum andflexural
toughness toughness and
factor. For the twotoughness
types of factor.
fibers,For steel
thefibers had the
two types best reinforcing
of fibers, effect,
steel fibers had and reinforcing
the best due to effect
the increase in fiber andcontent,
due to thethe increase
toughness and content,
in fiber toughness the factor
toughnessalsoand
increased,
toughness which
factor also in
is partially consistent withwhich
creased, the results of theconsistent
is partially literaturewithon this subjectof[32,33].
the results Due toon
the literature thethis subjec
strong stiffness of [32,33]. Due to
steel fiber, thethe strongforce
tensile stiffness of steel
at the fiber,of
bottom the tensile
the beam force
canatbetheprovided
bottom of the beam
immediately whencan thebepervious
providedconcrete
immediately when
cracks, thethe
and pervious
end ofconcrete cracks,
the steel fiberand
hasthe end of the stee
a hook
to provide anchorfiber forcehas
toa the
hookpervious
to provide anchor force
concrete when to the
it ispervious concrete when
under tension, whereasit is under
the tension
whereas the glass fiber itself is relatively small and has
glass fiber itself is relatively small and has low rigidity. When the concrete cracks, the load low rigidity. When the concret
cracks, the load capacity will drop suddenly, and the pervious concrete will only show
capacity will drop suddenly, and the pervious concrete will only show the tensile effect
the tensile effect provided by the glass fiber when it needs to be continuously com
provided by the glass fiber when it needs to be continuously compressed, but the load
pressed, but the load capacity is much lower than that of the steel fiber.
capacity is much lower than that of the steel fiber.

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 19

Figure
Figure 16. Flexural load and16.displacement
Flexural load and displacement
diagram diagram for pervious
for ordinary-fiber ordinary-fiber pervious concrete.
concrete.

Figure 17. Flexural Figure 17. Flexural

load and load and
displacement displacement
diagram diagram
for H1 for H1 high-strength
high-strength fiberconcrete.
fiber pervious pervious concrete.
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 16 of 18
Figure 17. Flexural load and displacement diagram for H1 high-strength fiber pervious concrete.

Figure 18. Flexural load

Figureand
18. displacement diagram
Flexural load and for H1.2
displacement high-strength
diagram fiber pervious
for H1.2 high-strength fiberconcrete.
pervious concrete.

Table 6. Flexural
Table 6. Flexural toughness toughnessfactor
and toughness and toughness
for fiber factor for fiber
pervious pervious concrete.
concrete.
Pervious Concrete Toughness (N-m) Toughness Factor (𝐍⁄𝐦𝐦𝟐 )
Pervious Concrete Toughness (N-m) Toughness Factor (N/mm2 )
H1-D7-G1 6.43 964.50
H1-D7-G1 H1-D7-G2 6.43 6.22 964.50933.00
H1-D7-G2 H1-D7-S1 6.22 15.01 2251.50
933.00
H1-D7-S2 16.73 2509.50
H1-D7-S1 15.01 2251.50
H1.2-D7-G1 7.65 1147.5
H1-D7-S2 H1.2-D7-G2 16.73 8.62 2509.501293
H1.2-D7-G1 H1.2-D7-S1 7.65 9.81 1147.51471.5
H1.2-D7-G2 H1.2-D7-S2 8.62 12.44 1293 1866
N-D7-G1 6.12 918
H1.2-D7-S1 9.81 1471.5
N-D7-G2 5.87 880.5
H1.2-D7-S2 N-D7-S1 12.44 10.38 1866 1557
N-D7-G1 N-D7-S2 6.12 14.39 918 2158.5
N-D7-G2 5.87 880.5
N-D7-S1 10.38 1557
N-D7-S2 14.39 2158.5

4. Summary
The main findings from this study are summarized as follows:
1. The compressive strength increased slightly with the increasing curing age of the per-
vious concrete samples; however, the strengths at 28 days and 90 days were very close.
Whether it is high-strength pervious concrete or ordinary pervious concrete with steel
fibers added, the porosity and permeability coefficient are increased compared with
the control group. The permeability coefficients of high-strength fiber-reinforced per-
vious concretes in both aggregate sizes (3.18 mm and 3.81 mm) met the requirements
of the ACI specification for structural concrete. Moreover, the high-strength pervious
concrete specimen H1-S2 (2% steel fiber) had the highest compressive strength of
52.8 MPa at the age of 28 days.
2. The average modulus of elasticity of high-strength, fiber-reinforced pervious concrete
is about 20,000 MPa, which is close to that of ordinary (non-pervious) concrete,
whereas the modulus of elasticity of ordinary pervious concrete is about 50% of that of
ordinary concrete. In addition, the coefficient of the elastic modulus of high-strength
pervious concrete is close to the value of 3795 suggested by Liao W.C. et al. [29], and
the ordinary pervious concrete is about 0.71 times the suggested value, and the results
are similar regardless of whether fiber is added or not.
Buildings 2022, 12, 620 17 of 18

3. The results show that that the flexural strength of ordinary pervious concrete increases
with the increase of fiber content, and the effect of steel fiber on improving the flexural
strength is better than that of glass fiber. In addition, it was found that when the con-
tent of steel fiber or glass fiber in high-strength pervious concrete increases, its flexural
strength will not increase significantly. However, both steel fiber and glass fiber have
a certain degree of improvement in the flexural toughness and toughness factor, and
the effect is better with steel fiber. There is still about 30% of the bearing capacity after
the peak strength, which gradually decreases until it is completely destroyed.
4. Taiwan’s general formula for general concrete cracking modulus (flexural strength)
√
uses 0.63 fc0 (MPa) as a commonly used formula for predicting cracking load. The
√
results show that using 0.63 fc0 as a common formula for predicting cracking loads is
not appropriate because factors such as water–cement ratio, fiber and porosity are not
considered. More information on the strength of fiber-reinforced pervious concrete
will need to be collected in the future to obtain a formula for accurately predicting
cracking loads.

Author Contributions: Investigation, Y.-C.W. and Y.-C.H.; Writing—original draft, M.-G.L.; Writing—
review & editing, W.-C.W. and Y.-C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan: 107-2221-E-324-010-MY2.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the
Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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