DIGITAL TECHNIQUE

Introduction:

Digital Techniques: Introduction To Digital Techniques is designed for advanced electronics

students who have a thorough understanding of AC/DC electronics and semiconductors. It
assumes a basic understanding of simple algebra.

Application of Digital Circuit:

I. A basic Digital Watch

II. Traffic lights (Principle of working) and countdown timers
III. Automatic Glass Doors at airports, restaurants, offices,etc (They
use digital sensors and open or close depending upon the sensor
reading)
IV. Elevator displays
V. Counters are used in Fitness trackers
VI. 6Digital Thermometer

digital watch Traffic Lights V.Counte

 Characteristics of Digital Circuits:

1. Fanout

2. Power dissipation

3. Propagation delay

4. Noise margin

5. Fan in

6. Operating temperature

7. Power supply requirements

TERMS IN DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Bit:in a digital circuit, the smallest unit of data is the bit, which derives its name from the
phrase binary digit. Any single bit can only exist in one of two possible states. In a physical
digital circuit, ones and zeroes are represented by high and low voltages, respectively.

Byte: The term "byte" is a respelling of the word "bite," in order to avoid the problem of a typo
causing the two words to be mistaken for one another. If you have ever heard of an eight bit
computer, what that means is that the digital circuits within the computer are designed to
primarily handle single bytes.

NUMBER SYSTEM:

Introduction:-

A digital system can understand positional number system only where there are a
few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending
on the position they occupy in the number.

A value of each digit in a number can be determined using:-

• The digit
 • The position of the digit in the number

• The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number
of digits available in the number system).

Decimal Number System:

In decimal number system, the decimal can be a terminating one that has a finite
fractional value a repeating decimal that has a non-terminating fractional value
consisting of repeating stream of digits (e.g. Value of pi). Decimal fractions have
terminating decimal expansion, whereas irrational numbers consist of infinite
non-repeating decimal expansion.

Binary Number system:

Binary numbers are often called bits and could be represented by any two
mutually exclusive states. A binary number is based on powers of two. Like other
numeral systems, binary numbers can do arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. The fundamental Boolean operations are
based on binary numbers. With the help of floating point arithmetic, binary
numbers can be used to represent fractions, real numerals and large numbers.
Decimal Binary

0 0000

1 0001

2 0010

3 0011

4 0100

5 0101

6 0110

7 0111

8 1000
 9 1001

10 1010

Octal Number system:

The number system whose base is 8 is known as the octal number system. The
base 8means the system uses eight digits from 0 to 7. All the eight digits from 0
to 8 have same physical meaning as that of decimal numbers.

BASICS GATE AND UNIVERSAL GATES

BASICS GATES

AND Gate:

The AND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p one o/p, which perform logical conjunction
based on the combinations of its inputs

OR Gate:

The OR gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs a logical conjunction
based on the combinations of its inputs.
NOT Gate:

The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that operates an inverter
operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the reverse of the input. When the input
of the NOT gate is true then the output will be false and vice versa

NAND Gate

The NAND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs the operation of
the AND gate followed by the operation of the NOT gate.NAND gate is designed by combining
the AND and NOT gates.

UNIVERSAL GATES

NOT Gate

The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that operates an inverter
operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the reverse of the input. When the input
of the NOT gate is true then the output will be false and vice versa.
NAND Gate

The NAND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs the operation of
the AND gate followed by the operation of the NOT gate.NAND gate is designed by combining
the AND and NOT gates.

NOR Gate:

The NOR gate is a digital logic gate with n inputs and one output, that performs the operation
of the OR gate followed by the NOT gate. NOR gate is designed by combining the OR and
NOT gate.

DE Morgan’s First Theorem

According to DE Morgan’s first theorem, a NOR gate is equivalent to a bubbled AND gate.
The Boolean expressions for the bubbled AND gate can be expressed by the equation shown
below. For NOR gate, the equation is
DE Morgan’s Second Theorem
DE Morgan’s Second Theorem states that the NAND gate is equivalent to a bubbled OR gate.

The Boolean expression for the NAND gate is given by the equation shown below.

The Boolean expression for the bubbled OR gate is given by the equation shown belo

Since NAND and bubbled OR gates are interchangeable, i.e., both gates have identical outputs
for the same set of inputs. Therefore, the equations become as given below.

SOP (SUM OF PRODUCT) AND POS (PRODUCT OF SUMS)

The main difference between SOP and POS is that the SOP is a way of
representing a Boolean expression using min terms or product terms while the
POS is a way of representing a Boolean expression using max terms or sum terms.

Min Terms:

A minterm l is a product (AND) of all variables in the function, in direct or

complemented form.
A minterm has the property that it is equal to 1 on exactly one row of the truth
table.

Max Terms:

For a Boolean function of n variables, a sum term in which each of the n variables appears once
(either in its complemented or un-complemented form) is called a maxterm.

K-Map (Karnaugh Map):

In many digital circuits and practical problems we need to find expression with
minimum variables. We can minimize Boolean expressions of 3, 4 variables very
easily using K-map without using any Boolean algebra theorems

MULTIPLEXER
An electronic multiplexer makes it possible for several signals to share one device
or resource, for example, one A/D converteror one communication line, instead
of having one device per input signal.

DEMULTIPLEXER
A demultiplexer (or demux) is a device that takes a single input line and routes it
to one of several digital output lines. A demultiplexer of 2 n outputs has n select
lines, which are used to select which output line to send the input. A demultiplexer
is also called a data distributor.

FLIP-FLOP
In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be
used to store state information – a bistablemultivibrator. The circuit can be made
to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one
or two outputs.
COUNTERS
Counter is a digital device and the output of the counter includes a predefined
state based on the clock pulse applications. The output of the counter can be used
to count the number of pulses. Generally, counters consist of a flip-flop
arrangement which can be synchronous counter or asynchronous counter. In
synchronous counter, only one clock i/p is given to all flip-flops, whereas in
asynchronous counter, the o/p of the flip flop is the clock signal from the nearby
one.

SHIFT REGISTERS
Flip flops can be used to store a single bit of binary data (1or 0). However, in
order to store multiple bits of data, we need multiple flip flops. N flip flops are to
be connected in an order to store n bits of data.
 Street light project

ABSTRACT
This report will explain the street light circuit system we had to build as well as
the technique we had to implement and efficiently completing this as a team.

INTRODUCTION

The mini project we built is an electronic system, like many others it uses an
InputProcessingOutput structure. The first system had an output of a flashing
LED. The second system, the output was a speaker. Both were processed by a 555
Integrated Circuit. The report explains how to build the circuit, the problems that
may arise, and the lessons learned.

LESSONS LEARNED
From Felder’s learning style inventory, when describing components and circuit
functions, our team were more visual than verbal. The visual representations of
the circuits [2] we built were a valuable aid in understanding the
configurations[3] as well as the function. The organization of information we
gathered adhered closely to the inductive method—that is to be given facts and
observations. As a team, we progressed towards understanding sequentially
rather than globally, following step-by-step procedural methods.
FIGURE
The pyramid represents Bloom’s six functions that represent the “Cognitive
Domain”.

According to Benjamin Bloom [1], there exist domains of education activities. In

regards to theCognitive domain in FIGURE , we found that our team went through
each level in order.

Evaluation – We focused on the materials we needed, as well as the

instructions, and sorting it out in a manner which expedited different
responsibilities to each team member.

Synthesis – Putting together the circuit, and combining our equipment to make
a different device.

Analysis – This step involved our team troubleshooting the kinks in our circuit
when it wasn’t functioning as it should.

Application – We observed that our circuit could be used with different outputs
media.
Comprehension – Understanding what various components do, where analysis
assisted significantly in this understanding.

Knowledge – Knowing how to build the circuit, learning the behavior of

currents within, the function of new devices, and the ability to rebuild without
instruction.

TEAM BUILDING

Leading a team requires excellent communication, organizing meeting times and

expediting responsibilities to team members. As well as overseeing the overall
progress of the project, our leader spent time in each task assigned to ensure the
project would be complete in a timely manner.
Certifying the circuit required focus and determination, which meant building the
circuit first hand. This gave a better intuition of the circuit’s function and how it
can be modified, as well as learning several common mistakes made in building
it and how to troubleshoot for these mistakes. This task also required
communication, in learning about components and explaining to the team how
they work.
Required hardware

• Transistor

• LED
• Relay
• Resistor
• Potentiometer
• jumper wire
• AC supply

Required software
 • Kell compiler

Advantages of street light

• Complete elimination of manpower.

• Reduce energy costs . Reduce green house gas emission Reduce
maintenance costs.
• Higher community satisfaction.
• Fast payback.

Application of street light

• Street light .
• Garden light.

Block diagram
When LDR allows the current to flow this block diagram of circuitry goes into
working condition. IR sensors start emitting IR rays via IR transmitters. As soon
as any vehicle crosses or obstructs the path of IR rays and prohibits it to reach at
IR receivers the microcontroller starts getting the blockage signals. The
programming installed in microcontroller starts running which basically
presented here allows three street lights to glow that are- the light in front of
vehicle, behind the vehicle and parallel to vehicle making backward and forward
street visible. Transformer converts the high 230V AC to 12V AC, Rectifier
converts it into DC. For voltage regulation we are using LM 7805 and 7812 to
produce ripple free 5 and 12 volts DC constant supply. Emitting Diode (LED)
replaces HID lamps by engaging a programmable microcontroller that controls
the street light on/off conditions.
 CONCLUSION
We learned the importance of time-management, how Felder’s learning style
inventory applied to how we approached the task. It was easy to build the circuit
by using the workbook, which demonstrates how we lean more towards visual-
style learning, rather than verbally. In Bloom’s taxonomy, we actually went down
the pyramid in order of the “Cognition” domain. Multisim™ allowed us to
simulate the circuit without the potential of damaging any components in the
process. Through teamwork, we learned about the components needed to
construct two different IPO systems. The first was an LED flasher with a
frequency controlled by a potentiometer. The second was a system using an
audible output (speaker).