BLOOD

• Blood transports everything that must be carried from one place to another
through blood vessels, such as:
– Nutrients
– Wastes
– Hormones
– Body heat
2 Components of Blood (1 of 2)
• Blood is the only fluid tissue, a type of connective tissue, in the human body
• Components of blood
– Formed elements (living cells)
– Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix)
3 Components of Blood (2 of 2)
• When blood is separated:
– Plasma rises to the top (55 percent of blood)
– Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, sink to the bottom (45 percent of
blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
– Buffy coat contains leukocytes, or white blood cells, and platelets
(less than 1 percent of blood)
▪ Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the erythrocytes and plasma

4 Physical Characteristics and Volume (1 of 2)

1 • Blood characteristics
– Sticky, opaque fluid
– Heavier and thicker than water
– Color range
▪ Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
▪ Oxygen-poor blood is dull red or purple
– Metallic, salty taste
– Blood p H is slightly alkaline, between 7.35 and 7.45
– Blood temperature is slightly higher than
2 body temperature, at
5 Physical Characteristics and Volume (2 of 2)
• Blood volume
– About 5–6 liters, or about 6 quarts, of blood are found in a healthy adult
– Blood makes up 8 percent of body weight
6 Plasma (1 of 3)
• 90 percent water
• Straw-colored fluid
• Includes many dissolved substances
– Nutrients
– Salts (electrolytes)
– Respiratory gases
– Hormones
 – Plasma proteins
– Waste products
7 Plasma (2 of 3)
• Plasma proteins
– Most abundant solutes in plasma
– Most are made by the liver
– Include:
▪ Albumin—an important blood buffer and contributes to osmotic pressure
▪ Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
▪ Antibodies—help protect the body from pathogens
8 Plasma (3 of 3)
• Blood composition varies as cells exchange substances with the blood
– Liver makes more proteins when levels drop
– Respiratory and urinary systems restore blood p H to normal when
blood becomes too acidic (acidosis) or alkaline (alkalosis)
• Plasma helps distribute body heat
9 Formed Elements (1 of 15)
• Erythrocytes
– Red blood cells (R B Cs)
• Leukocytes
– White blood cells (W B Cs)
• Platelets
– Cell fragments

10 Formed Elements (2 of 15)

1 •Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or R B Cs)
– Main function is to carry oxygen
– R B Cs differ from other blood cells
▪ Anucleate (no nucleus)
▪ Contain few organelles; lack mitochondria
▪ Make ATP by anaerobic means
▪ Essentially “bags” of hemoglobin (H b)
▪ Shaped like biconcave discs
– Normal count is 5 million R B Cs per cubic
2 millimeter of blood

11 Formed Elements (3 of 15)

• Erythrocytes
– Hemoglobin is an iron-bearing protein
▪ Binds oxygen
▪ Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4 oxygen molecules
▪ Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
▪ Normal blood contains 12–18 grams of hemoglobin per 100 milliliters
(m l) of blood
12 Concept Link 1
 Recall that hemoglobin is an example of a globular protein (look back at Figure
2.19b, p. 71). Globular, or functional, proteins have at least tertiary structure,
meaning that they are folded into a very specific shape. In this case, the
folded structure of hemoglobin, which has quaternary structure, allows it to
perform the specific function of binding and carrying oxygen. The structure of
globular proteins is also very vulnerable to pH changes and can be denatured
(unfolded) by a pH that is too high (basic) or low (acidic); denatured
hemoglobin is unable to bind oxygen.
13 Formed Elements (4 of 15)
• Homeostatic imbalance of R B Cs
– Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood due to:
▪ Lower-than-normal number of R B Cs
▪ Abnormal or deficient hemoglobin content in the R B Cs
– Sickle cell anemia (S C A) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin
14 Homeostatic Imbalance 10.1 Comparison of (a) a Normal Erythrocyte
to (b) a Sickled Erythrocyte

left parenthesis 6,550 times right parenthesis

15 Formed Elements (5 of 15)
• Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs
– Polycythemia
▪ Disorder resulting from excessive or abnormal increase of R B Cs due to:
–Bone marrow cancer (polycythemia vera)
–Life at higher altitudes (secondary polycythemia)
▪ Increase in R B Cs slows blood flow and increases blood viscosity
16 Table 10.1 Types of Anemia
17 Formed Elements (6 of 15)
1 • Leukocytes (white blood cells, or W B Cs)
– Crucial in body’s defense against disease
– Complete cells, with nucleus and organelles
– Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
– Respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues (known as
positive chemotaxis)
– Move by amoeboid motion by forming cytoplasmic extensions to help them
move
2 – 4,800 to 10,800 W B Cs per
3 of blood

18 Formed Elements (7 of 15)

1 •Homeostatic imbalance of W B C s
– Leukocytosis
2 ▪ Normal response to an infection but excessive production of abnormal
W B C s during infectious mononucleosis or leukemia is pathological
– Leukopenia
▪ Abnormally low W B C count
 ▪ Commonly caused by certain drugs, such as corticosteroids and
anticancer agents
– Leukemia
▪ Bone marrow becomes cancerous
▪ Numerous immature W B C are produced
19 Formed Elements (8 of 15)
• Types of leukocytes
– Granulocytes
▪ Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
▪ Possess lobed nuclei
▪ Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
– Agranulocytes
▪ Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
▪ Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
▪ Include lymphocytes and monocytes
20 Formed Elements (9 of 15)
1 • List of the W B Cs, from most to least abundant
– Neutrophils
– Lymphocytes
– Monocytes
– Eosinophils
– Basophils
2 • Easy way to remember this list
– Never
– Let
– Monkeys
– Eat
– Bananas
21 Formed Elements (10 of 15)
1 •Granulocytes
– Neutrophils
▪ Most numerous W B C
▪ Multilobed nucleus
▪ Cytoplasm stains pink and contains fine granules
▪ Function as phagocytes at active sites of infection
▪ Numbers increase during infection
2 ▪ 3,000–7,000 neutrophils
3 per of blood (40–70
4 percent of W B Cs)

22 Formed Elements (11 of 15)

1 •Granulocytes
– Eosinophils
▪ Nucleus stains blue-red
▪ Brick-red cytoplasmic granules
 ▪ Function is to kill parasitic worms; play a role in allergy attacks
2 ▪ 100–400 eosinophils
3 per of blood (1–4
4 percent of W B C s)
23 Formed Elements (12 of 15)
1 • Granulocytes
– Basophils
▪ Rarest of the W B Cs
▪ Large histamine-containing granules that stain dark blue to purple
▪ Contain heparin (anticoagulant)
2 ▪ 20–50 basophils
3 per of blood (0–1
4 percent of W B Cs)

24 Formed Elements (13 of 15)

1 • Agranulocytes
– Lymphocytes
▪ Large, dark purple nucleus
▪ Slightly larger than R B Cs
▪ Reside in lymphatic tissues
▪ Play a role in immune response
2 ▪ 1,500–3,000 lymphocytes
3 per of blood
4 (20–45 percent W B Cs)
25 Formed Elements (14 of 15)
1 •Agranulocytes
– Monocytes
▪ Largest of the white blood cells
▪ Distinctive U- or kidney-shaped dark purple nucleus
▪ Function as macrophages when they migrate into tissues
▪ Important in fighting chronic infection
2 ▪ 100–700 monocytes
3 per of blood (4–8 percent
4 of W B Cs)

26 Formed Elements (15 of 15)

1 • Platelets
– Fragments of megakaryocytes (multinucleate cells)
– Needed for the clotting process
2 – Normal platelet count is 300,000 platelets
3 per of blood

27 Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell Formation)

• Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation
 • Occurs in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue)
• All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
• Hemocytoblasts form two types of descendants
– Lymphoid stem cell, which produces lymphocytes
– Myeloid stem cell, which can produce all other formed elements

28 Formation of Red Blood Cells (1 of 2)

• Since R B Cs are anucleate, they are unable to divide, grow, or synthesize
proteins
• R B Cs wear out in 100 to 120 days
• When worn out, R B Cs are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver
• Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow
• Reticulocytes are young RBCs which enter the blood to become oxygen-
transporting erythrocytes
29 Formation of Red Blood Cells (2 of 2)
• Rate of R B C production is controlled by a hormone called erythropoietin
• Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen
levels in the blood
• Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels
30 Concept Link 2
Recall the concept of negative feedback control (see Chapter 1, p. 41). In this
case, erythropoietin is released in response to a low blood oxygen level,
which stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. With their
numbers increased, the red cells carry more oxygen, increasing the blood
oxygen level and reducing the initial stimulus.
• W B C and platelet production is controlled by hormones
– Colony stimulating factors (C S Fs) and interleukins prompt bone
marrow to generate leukocytes
– Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets from megakaryocytes
31 Hemostasis (1 of 6)
• Hemostasis is the process of stopping the bleeding that results from a
break in a blood vessel
• Hemostasis involves three phases
1. Vascular spasms
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation (blood clotting)
32 Hemostasis (2 of 6)
• Step 1: Vascular spasms
– Immediate response to blood vessel injury
– Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm
– Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss

33 Hemostasis (3 of 6)
• Step 2: Platelet plug formation
– Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel
 – Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
– Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets
– Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

34 Hemostasis (4 of 6)
• Step 3: Coagulation
– Injured tissues release tissue factor (T F)
– P F3 (a phospholipid) interacts with T F, blood protein clotting factors, and
calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
– Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
35 Hemostasis (5 of 6)
• Step 3: coagulation
– Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hairlike molecules of insoluble fibrin
– Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)
– Within the hour, serum is squeezed from the clot as it retracts to pull
edges of the blood vessel together
▪ Serum is plasma minus clotting proteins

36 Hemostasis (6 of 6)
• Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
• The clot remains as endothelium regenerates
• The clot is broken down after tissue repair
37 Disorders of Hemostasis (1 of 3)
• Undesirable clotting
– Thrombus
▪ A clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel
▪ Can be deadly in areas such as the lungs
– Embolus
▪ A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream
▪ Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain
38 Disorders of Hemostasis (2 of 3)
• Bleeding disorders
– Thrombocytopenia
▪ Insufficient number of circulating platelets
▪ Arises from any condition that suppresses the bone marrow
▪ Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood
vessels that require platelets for clotting
▪ Evidenced by petechiae (small purplish blotches on the skin)
39 Disorders of Hemostasis (3 of 3)
• Bleeding disorders
– Hemophilia
▪ Hereditary bleeding disorder
▪ Normal clotting factors are missing
▪ Minor tissue damage can cause life-threatening prolonged bleeding
40 Blood Groups and Transfusions
 • Large losses of blood have serious consequences
– Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes pallor and weakness
– Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, which can be fatal
• Blood transfusions are given for substantial blood loss, to treat severe
anemia, or for thrombocytopenia
41 Human Blood Groups (1 of 8)
• Blood contains genetically determined proteins known as antigens
• Antigens are substances that the body recognizes as foreign and that the
immune system may attack
– Most antigens are foreign proteins
– We tolerate our own “self” antigens
• Antibodies are the “recognizers” that bind foreign antigens
• Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain
proteins to clump (agglutination) and lyse
42 Human Blood Groups (2 of 8)
• Transfusion reactions
– Lysed red blood cells release hemoglobin into the blood stream
– Freed hemoglobin may block kidney tubules, causing kidney failure and death
– Fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting can also result
• There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens
• The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by A B O and R h
blood group antigens
43 Human Blood Groups (3 of 8)
• A B O blood group
– Blood types are based on the presence or absence of two antigens
1. Type A
2. Type B
44 Human Blood Groups (4 of 8)
• A B O blood group
– Presence of both antigens A and B is called type A B
– Presence of antigen A is called type A
– Presence of antigen B is called type B
– Lack of both antigens A and B is called type O
45 Human Blood Groups (5 of 8)
• A B O blood group
– Type A B can receive A, B, A B, and O blood
▪ Type AB is the “universal recipient”
– Type B can receive B and O blood
– Type A can receive A and O blood
– Type O can receive O blood
▪ Type O is the “universal donor”

46 Human Blood Groups (6 of 8)

1 • R h blood group
 – Named for one of the eight R h antigens (agglutinogen D) identified in
Rhesus monkeys
2 – Most Americans are
3 (R h-positive), meaning they
4 carry the R h antigen
5 – Anti-Rh antibodies are not automatically formed in the blood of Rh-
negative individuals (unlike the antibodies of the A B O system)
47 Human Blood Groups (7 of 8)
1 • If an
2 person receives
3 – The immune system becomes sensitized and begins producing antibodies;
hemolysis does not occur, because as it takes time to produce antibodies
– Second, and subsequent, transfusions involve
4 antibodies attacking donor’s
5 R B Cs, and hemolysis
6 occurs (rupture of R B
7 Cs)
8 • R h-related problem during pregnancy
9 – Danger occurs only when the
10 mother is the father is
11 and the child inherits the
12 – R h o G A M® shot can prevent
buildup of antibodies in mother’s blood
48 Human Blood Groups (8 of 8)
1 • The mismatch of
2 an mother carrying
3 an baby can
4 cause problems for the unborn child
5 – The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems; the immune
system is sensitized after the first pregnancy
– In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune
6 system produces antibodies to attack the
7 blood (hemolytic
8 disease of the
newborn)
49 Blood Typing
• Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum
• Agglutination or the lack of agglutination leads to identification of blood type
• Typing for A B O and R h factors is done in the same manner
• Cross matching—testing for agglutination of donor R B Cs by the recipient’s
serum, and vice versa
50 Developmental Aspects of Blood (1 of 3)
• Sites of blood cell formation
 – The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation
– Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month
51 Developmental Aspects of Blood (2 of 3)
• Congenital blood defects include various types of hemolytic anemias and
hemophilia
• Incompatibility between maternal and fetal blood can result in fetal
cyanosis, resulting from destruction of fetal blood cells
• Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth
• Physiologic jaundice occurs in infants when the liver cannot rid the
body of hemoglobin breakdown products fast enough
52 Developmental Aspects of Blood (3 of 3)
• Leukemias are most common in the very young and very old
– Older adults are also at risk for anemia and clotting disorders