Science Training System - TPS 3720-3717

Science Training
Systems with
TPS-3720
TPS-3730
TPS-3712
TPS-3714
TPS-3719
TPS-3717
Arieh Nachum
Solar Energy
TPS-3720
Scientific Educational Systems

Arieh Nachum
Solar Energy
TPS-3720
4_5
© All rights reserved to SES Scientific Educational Systems Ltd.
The material in this book may not be copied, duplicated, printed,

translated, re-edited or broadcast without prior agreement in writing
from SES.
 www.ses.co.il 
Forward
Technology drives the acquisition and development of knowledge-based enterprises. The various
stakeholders agree that the future of Nigeria’s industrialization has no alternative other than the
pursuit of technical training of our youths. The neglect and failure to acknowledge this important
aspect of Education by previous administrations has led to the present low national productivity.
The 2010 Board of Trustee’s Special Intervention project of Tertiary Education Trust Fund
(TETFUND) has the main objective of addressing the basic needs of Universities in Nigeria
through the provision of laboratory and workshop equipment to state and Federal Government
universities in Nigeria. The equipment supply includes the development of appropriate training
manuals designed to facilitate self-study as well as combing practice with theoretical knowledge.
It is expected that this project will change the mode of operation of Universities, as the use of
these equipment will stimulate real production activities and micro processes thereby exposing
and preparing students early enough for real life challenge ahead.
The backbone of this project is a collaborative partnership between NUC and Skill ‘G’ Nigeria
Ltd as technical service providers, the beneficiary institutions as users and the Tertiary Education
Trust Fund (TETFUND) as sponsor/founders. The objective is to promote and sustain Technical,
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Nigeria.
The project components from concept planning, through the supply of equipment to Universities,
the installation of the Equipment to all the beneficiary institutions, the training of Technical staff
of the 73 universities on equipment usage to monitoring and evaluation by NUC/TETFUND and
renovation of 4 nos workshop/laboratories in each university will definitely impact the growth of
TVET in Nigeria.
Once more, we thank Mr. President, the TETFUND and all stakeholders who have worked
relentlessly on this project which is aimed at putting Nigeria in the forefront of technology drive
in the years to come.
Mallam Ibrahim Shekarau

Minister of Education
Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Acknowledgement
About 16 years ago, our company set goal in providing effective Teaching/Learning technique in
Nigeria with a view to revamping and redressing the gap that exist among Schools, Colleges and
Tertiary Institution in the lack of equipment to use in delivery of Technology skill, and in not having
standardized workshop teaching and learning equipment for the conduct of Science, Mathematics,
Engineering and Technological practical by both Lecturers and students is by this initiative proofing
rewarding as all stakeholders the FME, STAN, NERDC, NCCE, NBTE, NUC and above all
UNESCO who together developed and reviewed our old curriculum to meet with 21st century
demand are indeed happy with today outcome.
The assemblage and adoption of Best Practice from all over the world leading to the design,
manufacture of these instructional materials/Aids, laboratory, and workshop equipment for Nigeria in
line with our curricular has been testified by these project acceptability among Educationist.
The Federal Government is most appreciated and acknowledged for the foresight in adopting Skill
‘G’ equipment in government intervention to improve the study of Science, Mathematics,
Engineering and Technological subject in Nigeria at all levels. The transformation in education
sector attested to it.
We wish to thank the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Dr. Goodluck Ebele Jonathan
GCFR, for his singular decision to embark on this laudable project in addition to other project that
our equipment has been deployed in the past. This project is meant to deliver equipment and
improved laboratories to 73nos. state and federal universities through TETFUND as recommended
by NUC, the Federal Ministry of Education and executed by Tertiary Education Trust Fund
(TETFUND). The Universities who are the beneficiaries of this project and many others who are to
derive benefit from this initiative, FGN - on improvement of Science, Engineering and Technology
Education are duly acknowledged.
This teaching and learning laboratories/workshop manuals is meant to assist the teacher to carry out
effective teaching technique and for the students to get effective Hand – on learning and training in
Automotive, Electronics, Mechatronics Engineering, Science, Agriculture and ICT.
These training manuals will help in research and production process in all our Institution of higher
learning, promoting growth in knowledge leading to production in the area of Science and
Technology.
We wish the teachers and students well in the use of these manuals.
Chief (Dr.) Gregory Ibe PhD, OFR

Managing Director Skill ‘G’ Nigeria Limited
Introduction
In response to the presidential initiative to revitalise Science, Engineering and Technology Education
and Training (SET) in Nigeria, the National Universities Commission embarked on a series of
activities aimed at addressing the observed problems in SET Education and to expand/complete the
TETFund intervention in Special Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) project - involving
educational training laboratories and workshop/equipment - to include all public universities.
Education, particularly Science, Engineering and Technology, is the “factory” for the production of
the needed Technologists, Technicians, Engineers and Craftsmen as well as skilled artisans who are
required to turn the nation’s economy around and usher in the desired technological advancement
necessary to elevate Nigeria from a “consumer nation” to a “producer nation” and from a “developing
nation” to a “developed nation.” Acquisition of appropriate Science, Engineering and Technology
skills is necessary to cope with challenges presented by the dynamic needs of available working
places in our industries and ever-growing non-formal sector.
Education and training systems that respond adequately to these demands will, therefore, contribute to
the effort to overcome the growing unemployment and marginalisation of young people and adults in
the country. Providing access to appropriate learning experiences designed to broaden skills and
knowledge can increase productivity and significantly improve the fortunes of the unemployed,
thereby reducing poverty and unemployment among our youth.
You cannot learn how to drive a car or play the violin by reading books and watching videos. It is the
same with Science, Engineering and Technology! You have to drive the car, play the violin and
conduct practical experiments. The Skill ‘G’ Science, Engineering and Technology programmes
enable every Lecturer/Technologist and student to demonstrate and carry out the activities described
in the manuals bringing the concepts “alive.”
This led to the initiation of an intervention programme in special Science, Engineering and
Technology (SET) – educational training laboratories and workshop/equipment for 73 Nigerian public
universities (federal and state).
The workshop/equipment to be supplied to the beneficiary universities will include appropriate

training manuals in Automotive, Engineering, Electronics, Mechatronics, Science and ICT.
It is our hope that the equipment will serve as resources for developing the needed knowledge and
practical skills that will empower young Nigerians to engage in innovative production activities and
give true meaning to the Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) reforms and
educational developmental efforts of the government.
Professor Julius A. Okojie, OONExecutive

Secretary,
National Universities Commission (NUC)
PREFACE
Society has placed a great deal of responsibility on schools for teaching and training children for
their roles in society. One of the important roles is their economic role. Societies have relied on
schools to prepare youth for employment. The kind of educational experience they have is to a
large measure designed to be consistent with the requirements of the economy. But the economic
institutions, like scientific technical communities, are changing and changing rapidly, what the
economy needs in the 21st century are individuals who are skilled and who can fit into the
modem knowledge-based workplace. To achieve this, the teaching and learning of Science,
engineering and Technology subjects must become practical and problem/project based; it must
be active and with all other components of an effective learning approach.
It is settled preposition that human capital is far more important than physical capital and that a
nation cannot grow beyond the capacity of its citizen.
It is within this context that Tertiary Education Trust Fund in pursuance of the realization of its
core mandate, sponsor the publications of relevant up-to-date text books, innovations and
techniques in Science, engineering and Technology for distribution to Tertiary Institutions.
The fund intervenes to improve the foundation for the understanding and learning of Science,
Engineering and Technology, which is the cornerstone from which capacity, will be built in the
years to come.
It is our belief and expectation that the texts would be immense value to our institutions of
learning in our quest to improve the quality of education in our country.
Consequently, I have no hesitation in recommending the texts and find our participation in its
developments and dissemination a pride to the Tertiary Education trust fund.
Professor Suleiman Elias Bogoro

Executive Secretary
TETFUND, Abuja, Nigeria
I
Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................... II
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Solar Energy ................................................... 1
1.1 Gravitational potential energy ............................................................. 1
1.2 Kinetic energy ..................................................................................... 3
1.3 Solar energy ........................................................................................ 4
1.4 Wind energy ........................................................................................ 5
1.5 Hydro energy ....................................................................................... 5
1.6 Chemical energy .................................................................................. 6
1.7 Nuclear energy .................................................................................... 7
1.8 Work and energy ................................................................................. 7
Experiment 1.1 – Units and Measurements ................................................. 9
Experiment 1.2 – The TPS-3720 System .................................................... 23
Experiment 1.3 – Solar cells Output........................................................... 31
Experiment 1.4 – Energy Conversion ........................................................ 39
1.4.1 The LED............................................................................................ 40
1.4.2 The incandescent lamp ...................................................................... 40
1.4.3 The buzzer ......................................................................................... 40
1.4.4 The Electric motor ............................................................................. 41
Experiment 1.5 – Energy Storage ............................................................... 49
1.5.1 The capacitor ..................................................................................... 49
1.5.2 Batteries and rechargeable batteries ................................................... 50
SES
II
Preface
The laboratory experiments in this book "Experiments in Solar Energy" are
meant to run on SES (Scientific Educational Systems) Solar Energy Trainer
TPS-3720.
TPS-3720 includes:
 Two 20W halogen lamps as energy source.

 Solar cells.
 Voltage meter.
 A motor.
 A buzzer.
 A LED.
 Rechargeable batteries.
 A capacitor.
 Power main switch.
 Energy source lamp switch.
 Capacitor switch.
Accessories:
 Power supply.
 Digital multimeter.
 9V battery with connector.
 Wire LED.
 Banana wire.
Note:
Remember to turn off the lamps at the end of every experiment.
SES
1
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Solar

Energy
Solar energy reminds us of several things such as sun, light, greenhouses,
greenhouse effect, water heaters and more.
In this book we will deal with other concepts related to solar energy – energy,
power, work, energy conversion and applications of solar energy using the
TPS-3720 system.
In our everyday lives we use the term energy in different situations. For
example, when we say: "he is an energetic person" – we mean that this person
is vigorous and is able to do a lot of work. When we are tired, we say that we
do not have energy.
"Energy is the ability to perform work". Energy and work are related terms.
Different forms of energy surround us. Here are some examples:
1.1 Gravitational potential energy

When we raise a certain body, we invest effort and actually perform work in
order to add gravitational potential energy to the body. The reason for our
effort and work is that we move the body against the earth's gravity. Potential
energy is according to the body's height.
SES
2
When we leave the body, it falls down and pick up speed. The body's potential
energy decreases and is replaced with another kind of energy called Kinetic
Energy.
When the body hits the ground and stops, it will lose its potential and kinetic
energy all together. While losing its energy it will work on itself or another
body, which will cause a change in form or heating.
SES
3
1.2 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. It is equal to the work that we should
invest in order to bring the body from rest into motion.
Kinetic energy occurs according to the body's velocity.
When a body in motion hits another body, it transfers part or all its energy to
the other body, which moves or changes its shape. In other words, a body in
motion has the capacity to perform work (it has energy).
SES
4
1.3 Solar energy

Solar energy is light from the sun. We know that the sun rays are heating?and
tanning (this is also a kind of form change). In other words, the sun's rays have
the ability to perform work (the heat and form change are examples for this
kind of work).
The light is also essential to the plants’ growth. If we burn a tree, we will get
back the energy that the tree got from the sun's rays. We will get this energy in
the form of heat.
We usually convert the solar energy to heat (greenhouses and water heaters) or
directly to electricity via solar cells.
Greenhouse Water Heater Solar Cell
SES
5
1.4 Wind energy

The power of the wind is widely used to generate electricity and to operate
windmills. Wind can uproot trees, blow objects; sail boats and ships, and in
storms such as a hurricane can easily destroy poorly constructed buildings. In
other words, wind has energy called wind energy.
1.5 Hydro energy

Water that move (rivers, falls, waves) have energy. It can move boats on the
river, operate flour mills and so on. In order to increase the water’s power, the
water should fall from a certain height. The water energy is also used in
electric generators for the production of electricity.
SES
6
1.6 Chemical energy

Energy is stored in every matter. When some materials are combined, they
discharge energy. The fire resulting from burning wood is a combination of
the wood's carbon with the air's oxygen. This combination causes the energy
stored in the carbon and oxygen to be discharged as light and heat.
The food products, which we eat, breakdown in our body and by chemical
reactions turn into matter that build our body, like protein and bone tissue.
Some materials, due to chemical reaction, can cause electrons to move, thus
getting direct electric energy.
The electric battery also has chemical energy, which turns into electricity
when we connect it to an electric circuit.
SES
7
1.7 Nuclear energy

Every matter is composed of atoms. Every atom holds enormous energy.
Some atoms can be split into smaller parts (nuclear fission) releasing a
tremendous amount of energy. The matter turns directly into energy, in the
form of radioactive radiation and heat.
This energy is in form of radioactive radiation and heat.
We use the nuclear energy to produce heat that creates steam which operates
electric generators. It is also used, unfortunately, to produce atomic bombs for
destruction.
1.8 Work and energy

We've seen that energy has many forms. The energy can change its form. The
terms energy and work are related to each other.
In order to understand energy conversion, we have to use energy terms used

by scientists and engineers.
Energy and work are measured in units that are called Joule.
We do work when we add energy to a body.
When a body loose energy, it does work.
When energy only changes form, any work is not done.
Another term related to work is power.
SES
8
Power is work per second.
Usually it is easier to measure power, so we can calculate work by multiplying

the power by the time it is done.
The power units are called Watt.
SES
9
Experiment 1.1 – Units and Measurements
Objectives:
 Introduction to electric units.
 Electric measurements.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3720
 Battery with connector
 A multimeter
 Wired LED
Discussion:
Most of the activities measurements are electric measurements. We use
electronics and electric components and electric measurements in order to
measure solar or mechanical energy.
The basic electric units are Volt, Ampere and Ohm.
Volt:
Volt is a measurement unit, which indicates an electric voltage between two
points in an electric circuit.
The electric voltage is associated with attraction and repelling of electric

charges.
SES
10
If there is an electric conductor between two points with electric voltage,

electron movement is created, which is called electric current.
9V Battery 1.5V Battery
Ampere:
Ampere is a measurement unit, which defines the electric current intensity in
an electric conductor.
The current intensity is the quantity of charges that flow in the conductor per
second.
Electric charges are measured in Colomb.
Ampere is a current of one Colomb of charge per second.
SES
11
Ohm:
Ohm is a measurement unit, which indicates the resistance of a matter to
electric current through it.
Every matter has different electric conductivity or in other words, different

electric resistance.
1 Volt of electric current in an electric conductor that has an electric resistance

of 1 Ohm, creates a current of 1 Ampere.
A multimeter:
Voltage is measured by using a voltmeter, current by an Amperemeter and
resistance by an ohmmeter. Usually, all these instruments are included in one
instrument called multimeter, like the one included in the TPS-3720.
The multimeter that comes with the trainer is a digital multimeter. The
measurement results are shown in the form of numbers on a display. The
digital multimeter has two probes (red and black), that are attached to the
measuring points in the circuit.
SES
12
The digital multimeter mainly measures voltage. The current is calculated by

measuring voltage on small internal resistor. Resistance is measured by
applying known current to the load and measuring voltage.
In order to receive constant measuring tolerance, the multimeter works in

different ranges. Some multimeters change ranges automatically and some
depend on the user to do it.
Probes connection is of an importance. The black probe is always connected

to the common socket. For voltage and resistance measurement, the red probe
is connected to the V socket. For measuring current, the red probe is
connected to the A socket.
The multimeter has various measuring ranges: direct voltage (DC V), alternate
voltage (AC V), direct current (DC A), alternate current (AC A), and
resistance (ohm – ).
One or two additional sockets are for the current measurements. One of them
is for the low current and the other for high current, which is usually
unprotected. All the other inputs are protected by fuses. All measurements
should begin from the greatest range, so there will be no harm done for the
instrument. Then the user should decrease the range until the maximum
accuracy is accomplished.
In order to simplify work with large and small units the usage of prefixes was
established. The most popular prefixes are:
Prefix
Pico p 0.000000000001 10-12
Nano n 0.000000001 10-9
Micro  or u 0.000001 10-6
Mili m 0.001 10-3
Kilo k 1000 103
Mega M 1000000 106
Giga G 1000000000 109
SES
13
Power:
The electric power in an electric load equals the electric voltage developed on
it multiplied by the current that flows through it.
P  V I
The power units are called Watt (W).
Watt can be also defined as an energy flow, which delivers one Joule of
energy in one second. The energy can be calculated by:
W  Pt
The relationship between voltage, current and resistance is given by a law that
is called Ohm's Law:
V  IR
Most of the energy transforms are to electric energy and from electric energy,
thus we need to know how to perform electric measurements.
In this activity, we use a multimeter for electric measurements.
We can express this law in two other formulas:
V V
I and R 
R I
SES
14
Preparation questions:
1. If the lamp voltage is 12V and the current through it is 0.5A, what is the
lamp resistance?
(a) 12
(b) 24
(c) 6
(d) 24V
2. If the lamp voltage is 12V and the current through it is 2A, what is the
power P of the lamp?
(a) 6W
(b) 24A
(c) 24W
(d) 12W
3. If the power of the lamp is 10W, what will be the energy spent in 1
minute?
(a) 600 Joul

(b) 10 Joul
(c) 60 Joul
(d) 100 Joul
SES
15
Procedure:
The LED:
Step 1: Set the multimeter to measure resistance in the 2000 range.
Make sure that its probes are connected properly – the red one to the
voltage and resistance measurement (V) socket, and the black one
to the common (COM) socket.
Step 2: The kit includes a LED (Light Emitting Diode) with two bananas
wires at its ends.
A resistor is connected to the LED. The LED's resistance reduces

the current which flows through it, so it will not burn.
Identify the LED and its resistor.
Red
R LED
Wire
Black
Wire
SES
16
Connect the multimeter probes to the LED's resistor terminals and

measure its resistance.
Multimeter
Black COM V
Probe
Red
Probe
R LED
Write the reading in your notebook:
RLED = _________
Step 3: Set the multimeter to measure direct (DC) voltage in the 20V range.
Step 4: The kit includes a 9V battery with battery holder and banana plugs.
Connect the red probe to the positive output of the battery (the red
wire) and the black probe to the negative output (the black wire).
Multimeter
Black COM V
Probe
Red
Probe
Black Wire Red Wire

9V
Battery
SES
17
Write down the reading:
Vopen = __________V
This measurement is the battery voltage without any electric load.
Step 5: Switch between the two probes. The red probe to the black output
and the black probe to the red output.
How it effect the reading?
Step 6: Connect the LED's banana plugs to the battery holder connector (red
wire to red wire and black wire to black wire).
The LED should turn ON.
Red
R LED Red Wire
Wire
Black
Wire
Black 9V
Wire Battery
Step 7: Measure again the battery voltage and write it down:
V = __________V
The chemical reaction in the battery produces 9V voltage. That is

why even used battery shows 9V when it is not connected to an
electric load.
When we connect an electric load to a battery, the voltage of used

battery drops significantly.
SES
18
Step 8: Measure now the LED's resistor voltage (while the LED is ON).
Connect the multimeter probes to the resistor terminals and write

down its voltage:
Multimeter
Black COM V
Probe
Red
Probe
Red
LED Red Wire
Wire
R Black
Wire
Black
Wire 9V
Battery
VR = __________V
Note that the voltage on the resistor is lower than the battery
voltage.
Step 9: In order to measure electric current, we connect the multimeter in

series with the electric consumer, so the current which flows
through the consumer, will flow through the multimeter.
Connect the red probe of the multimeter to the A socket of the

multimeter.
Step 10: Set the multimeter to measure current in the DC 20mA range.
Step 11: Disconnect the LED's red wire from the battery holder red wire.
Step 12: Connect the red probe of the multimeter to the red wire of the
battery holder.
SES
19
Step 13: Connect the black probe of the multimeter to the red wire of the
LED and measure the current.
Multimeter
A COM
Red
Wire
Red Black
LED R
Red Probe Probe
Wire
Black
Wire
Black
9V Wire
Battery
I = _________A
Step 14: Check if your measurements establish the Ohm's Law:
VR  I  R = ________V
Step 15: Calculate the power that is developed on the component according
to the formula:
P  V  I = _________W
Step 16: Calculate the work being done on the component for 30 seconds
according to the formula:
W  P  t = ___________J
SES
20
The Motor:
Step 17: The training system has a small DC motor. The motor terminals are
connected to the banana sockets (MOTOR IN and GND).
Identify the motor.
Step 19: Check that the training system is switched OFF.
Step 20: Return the multimeter's red probe to the V socket.
Step 21: Connect the multimeter probes to the motor sockets (MOTOR IN
and GND) and measure its resistance.
Rmeasured = _________
SES
21
Step 22: Plug the battery holder banana plugs into the MOTOR IN socket
(the red wire) and the GND socket (the black wire).
Red
Wire Black
9V Wire
Battery
The motor should rotate.
Step 24: Connect the red probe to the positive output of the battery holder
and the black probe to the negative output. Write down the reading:
VM = __________V
Step 25: Change the battery connection to the motor. Plug the battery holder
banana plugs into the motor IN socket (the black wire) and the GND
socket (the red wire).
How the motor reacts?
Step 26: Disconnect the battery holder from the motor.
Step 27: Calculate the motor current and write it down:
V
I = __________A
R
SES
22
Step 28: Calculate the power that is developed on the motor according to the
formula:
P  V  I = _________W
Step 29: Calculate the work being done on the motor for 30 seconds
W  P  t = ___________J
Summary questions:
1. What is the LED resistance you have measured?
(a) About 100Ω

(b) About 1000Ω
(c) About 500Ω
(d) About 10000Ω
2. When the LED is connected to the 9V battery its measured voltage is:
(a) Higher than Vopen.

(b) Lower than Vopen.
(c) The same as Vopen.
3. What was the measured VR?
(a) Above 9V.

(b) Below 4V.
(c) Below 9V and above 7V.
(d) Below 7V.
4. How the voltage polarity of the motor affects its rotation?
(a) It does not affects its rotation

(b) It changes its rotation direction
(c) At negative polarity the motor stops
(d) At negative polarity the motor slows down
SES
23
Experiment 1.2 – The TPS-3720 System
Objectives:
 Introduction to TPS-3720.
 Effect of the distance and angle on the solar cell's output voltage.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3720
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 Banana wires
SES
24
Discussion:
TPS-3720 consists of several components. Read the following component’s
short description and identify them. In this experiment we will check how
distance and angle affect the solar cell voltage.
Motor
Solar Halogen
Cells Lamps
Battery
Energy
In/Out
Out Socket
Lamp
Voltmeter
Buzzer
Ampere-meter
Lamps' Light Intensity

angle control Control Potentiometer
Voltage
LED display
Power Energy
Emergency Source Lamp Capacitor
Main
Button Switch Switch
Switch
 Halogen lamps – 2 halogen lamps (10 watt each) in a lamp house located
on a track which enable to distance the lamp from the solar cells and to
change its direction angle.
 Solar cells – The solar cells convert the light on it directly to electric
energy. It acts as a voltage source. The electric voltage is outputted to the
ENERGY OUT Socket.
 Voltage LED display – An electronic circuit which measures the solar cell
voltage and lights the LED correspondingly.
SES
25
 Voltmeter and Ampere-meter – LCD display with a probe socket for

voltage measurement and two probe sockets (A+ and A-) for current
measurement (mA).
 A motor – A small DC motor on the panel as an example for electric load.
 A buzzer – Another electric load.
 A lamp – Another electric load.
 Power main switch – Turns ON and OFF all the systems of TPS-3720.
 Energy source lamp switch – The energy source lamps ON/OFF switch.
 Capacitor switch – The capacitor is used as temporary energy storage for

output voltage stabilization. The capacitor is under the panel. The switch
connects the capacitor in parallel to the energy source.
 Lamps' angle control – With this potentiometer the angle of the halogen
lamps can be changed.
 Light intensity control potentiometer – With this potentiometer the light

intensity of the halogen lamps can be changed.
 Battery In/Out – Rechargeable batteries for energy storage located under

the panel.
 An external power supply – Converts the Mains voltage to low DC

voltage.
 Emergency button – This button is used to stop all electrical power to the
system in case of an emergency. If you feel that something is very wrong,
press this button and contact your instructor immediately.
SES
26
1. What is the right order for the electricity to reach from the external power
supply to the Energy Out voltage?
(a) External power supply  halogen lamps  Solar cells  main

switch  source switch  Energy Out
(b) External power supply  main switch  source switch  halogen
lamps  Solar cells  Energy Out
(c) External power supply  main switch  halogen lamps  source
switch  Solar cells  Energy Out
(d) External power supply  source switch  halogen lamps  Solar
cells  main switch  Energy Out
2. What is the purpose of the motor on the panel?
(a) To add energy to the solar cells.

(b) To increase the system current.
(c) The motor is not used.
(d) To be used as an electric load.
SES
27
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect TPS-3720 to the power supply inlet sockets.
Step 2: Connect the power supply to the Mains.
Step 3: Turn ON the POWER main switch of TPS-3720 and the ENERGY
SOURCE switch.
The halogen lamps should turn ON.
Step 4: Set the halogen lamp intensity to maximum (5) and the angle to 0o.
Step 5: The output of the solar cells is connected to the input of the
voltmeter located on the system panel.
We use the 0-5V scale.
Another switch is located on the front panel marked CAPACITOR

ON/OFF.
This switch connects and disconnects a capacitor in parallel to the

solar cells output (ENERGY OUT).
This capacitor store electric charges and stabilizes the solar cells
output voltage.
Disconnect the capacitor (switch OFF the CAPACITOR).
Step 6: Change the halogen lamps' intensity (1-5) and angle and observe the
reaction on the voltmeter.
SES
28
Step 7: Connect the capacitor.
Turn ON its switch.
Step 8: Change the halogen lamps' intensity (1-5) and the angle, and
observe the reaction on the voltmeter.
Use the multimeter in order to measure the ENERGY OUT voltage

(between the ENERGY OUT and GND sockets).
Step 9: Write down the intensity (1-5) at which the solar cells output
voltage is 3.2V.
0 angle 20 angle 40 angle
Step 10: As you could see, the output voltage of the solar cells depends on
the distance and the angle.
Connect the multimeter in a voltage measurement mode at 20V

range as follows: the red probe to the solar cell output socket
(ENERGY OUT) and the black probe to the ground socket (GND).
Check that the capacitor switch is in the OFF position.
Step 11: Measure the voltage produced by the solar cells for different
distances and angles once when the distance decreases (DOWN) and
once when it increases (UP):
Intensity 0 angle 20 angle 40 angle

Up Down Up Down Up Down
1
2
3
4
5
SES
29
Step 12: Mark these points on the following graph. Use three different colors
for each angle. Connect these points with lines according to the
distance changing course.
6
Voltage [V] F
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Intensity
Step 13: Turn OFF the Energy Source Lamp switch.
SES
30
Summary questions:
(a) External power supply  halogen lamps  Solar cells  main

(b) External power supply  main switch  source switch  halogen
lamps  Solar cells  Energy Out
(c) External power supply  main switch  halogen lamps  source
switch  Solar cells  Energy Out
(d) External power supply  source switch  halogen lamps  Solar
cells  main switch  Energy Out
2. How does the distance of the lamps affect the output voltage of the solar
cells?
(a) It does not affect the output voltage.

(b) The output voltage increases while the distance increases.
(c) The output voltage increases while the distance decreases.
(d) It depends on only on the angle.
3. How does the angle of the lamps affect the output voltage of the solar
cells?

(b) The output voltage increases while the angle increases.
(c) The output voltage increases while the angle decreases.
(d) It depends on only on the distance.
4. What happens to the output voltage of the solar cells at 130mm distance
while the distance goes up and goes down?
(a) It stays the same.

(b) It is lower while going up than going down.
(c) It is lower while going down than going up.
SES
31
Experiment 1.3 – Solar Cell
Objectives:
 The solar cell’s Electric Motive Force.
 Measurement of the internal resistance.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3720
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 Banana wires
Discussion:
Every voltage source has internal resistance. We can not see this resistance but
we can see its effect. Usually this resistance is marked with the letter r.
The output voltage of an electric battery without any electric load is higher
than its voltage when it is connected to an electric load.
The reason is that the load current flows also through the internal resistance
and cause an internal voltage drop, according to the Ohm's Law:
Vr  I  r
The internal voltage of the electric battery is caused by chemical reaction and
is called Electro Motive Force and is marked by the letter E.
r I
E V Load
SES
32
The output voltage is equal to:
V  E  Ir
The higher the current is and the higher the internal resistance is, the lower the
output voltage is.
An 'empty' electric battery means that its internal resistance is so high that its
output voltage is very small for even small currents.
That is the reason why we should check batteries only with electric load.
The solar cell is similar to an electric battery. It has Electro Motive Force
(EMF) and internal resistance. The EMF is created when the light energy that
hits its cells is converted to electric voltage.
The solar cell is made of many small cells. Each cell is based on electronic
component which is exposed to light. Light on the solar cell causes the
electrons to move from one side of the cell to the other side. This movement
creates excess of electrons in one side and lack of electrons on the other side
which creates electric voltage (small EMF).
Some of the solar cells are connected in series to create larger EMF. Many
chains of cells in series are connected in parallel to enable high current and
power and to decrease the internal resistance.
In this experiment we will measure the Electro Motive Force and the internal
resistance of the solar cells in the trainer.
SES
33
1. What will be the measured voltage in the following circuit when
EMF = 5V and r = 2?
r I
E V
(a) 10V
(b) 5V
(c) 1V
(d) 4V

EMF = 5V, r = 2 and I = 2A?
r I
E V Load
(a) 10V
(b) 5V
(c) 1V
(d) 4V
SES
34
3. What will be the measured current in the following circuit when

r I
E A
(a) 5A
(b) 2A
(c) 2.5A
(d) 1A
SES
35
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect TPS-3720 to the banana sockets of the power supply.
Step 3: Turn ON the POWER main switch of TPS-3720.
Step 5: Locate the halogen lamps opposite the solar cells and set the light
intensity to 5 and the angle to 0.
Step 6: Turn OFF the capacitor and turn ON the ENERGY SOURCE
LAMP switch.
The lamps should turn ON and light the solar cells.
Step 7: In this experiment we will measure the internal resistance of the

solar cells.
First measure the voltage on the solar cells output with the panel's
voltmeter.
Connect a banana wire between the V+ socket and the ENERGY

OUT socket.
Write the measured voltage:
Vopen-circuit = ________V
This voltage is the Electro Motive Force (EMF) of the solar cells.
SES
36
Step 8: Use banana wires to connect the panel Ampere meter A+ socket to
the ENERGY OUT socket, and the A- socket to the GND socket.
Write the measured current:
Ishort-circuit = _________A
The internal resistance is:
Vopen circuit
r = _________
I short circuit
What did we measure here? Every voltage source has an internal

resistance, which we can't see, but can feel its outcome.
When a voltage source is not connected to an electric consumer,

current does not flow through the internal resistor and electric
voltage is not developed on it (according to the Ohm's Law). Thus,
the output voltage is equal to the internal voltage of the source.
E Vopen-circuit
Vopen-circuit = EMF
When an electric consumer is connected to a voltage source, current

flows in the circuit. This current also flows through the internal
resistance and causes electric voltage to drop on it. The voltage
between the source's probes (the voltage that will reach the
consumer) will be equal to the internal voltage (EMF) minus the
voltage drop on the internal resistance.
As bigger the internal resistance is, the voltage that reaches the
consumer is smaller. We wish that the internal resistance will be as
small as possible.
SES
37
When we connect a current meter without an electric consumer

between the solar cells probes, we cause all the internal voltage to
drop on the internal resistance. It allows us to measure the internal
resistance:
Vopen circuit
r
I short circuit
Step 9: Repeat these measurements for different distances and different

levels of light intensities and fill in the following tables:
Short-circuit current
Intensity 1 2 3 4 5
Angle
0o
Electro motive force (EMF)

Intensity 1 2 3 4 5
Angle
0o
Calculated internal resistance (r)

Intensity 1 2 3 4 5
Angle
0o
SES
38
Summary questions:
1. What is the EMF voltage of the solar cells at maximum light?
(a) 12V
(b) 3V
(c) 2V
(d) 30V
2. How did you calculate the internal resistance of the solar cells?
(a) Vopen circuit  I short  circuit

Vopen circuit
(b)
I short  circuit
I short  circuit
(c)
Vopen circuit
I open  circuit
(d)
Vshort  circuit
3. Is the EMF affected by the distance of the lamp?
(a) Yes.
(b) No.
4. Is the internal resistance affected by the distance of the lamp?
(a) Yes.
(b) No.
SES
39
Experiment 1.4 – Energy Conversion
Objectives:
 Converting the solar cells electric energy to light energy.
 Converting the solar cells electric energy to acoustic energy.
 Converting the solar cells electric energy to mechanical energy.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3720
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 Banana wires
Discussion:
In this experiment we will connect several consumers to the solar cells and
convert the solar cells energy into different types of energy.
SES
40
1.4.1 The LED

LED means Light Emitting Diode. The diode is a component which allows
current flow in one direction only.
When current flows through the LED, its electrons receive energy, which
causes them to move away from their core and go back to their original
location while emitting the energy in the form of light.
LEDs emit red, yellow or green light. The color is related to their chemical
construction.
The LED has a transparent cap, so we can see the emitted light. Usually, the
color of the cap suits the color of the emitted light, so we will be able to know
in advance what will be the light color.
1.4.2 The lamp

The lamp is based on a very thin metal wire placed in a glass cup with no
oxygen in it. The metal wire is a very strong wire that can bear high
temperature and is called Tungenstan.
The current, which flows through the lamp wire, heats it until it glows.
The system lamp is another type of LED.
1.4.3 The buzzer

The buzzer is composed of a small metal plate and a ceramic crystal attached
to it. The crystal has a very special character. When it gets an alternate electric
voltage, it contracts and expands accordingly.
The buzzer has an electronic circuit, which creates the above alternate electric
voltage, thus causing the crystal to contract and expand and the plate to swing.
The plate swinging causes the air to vibrate and this it the sound we hear.
The buzzer needs a very small current.
SES
41
1.4.4 The Electric motor

The electric motor is composed of an electromagnet, located on the central
axle (called rotor) and two rainbow shape magnets on the motor's surface.
Electromagnet is an electric coil, which turn into a magnet when current is

flowing through it.
When current is flowing through the motor's coil, the electromagnet rotor
wishes to arrange itself according to the two magnets on the motor's surface.
The South Pole is attracted to the magnet with the North Pole and the North
Pole is attracted to the magnet with the South Pole.
Fix Fix
Magnet Magnet
Rotor
N S N S N S
As soon as the electromagnet reaches this situation, the current direction in its
coil is changing and it keeps rotating in order to adjust itself to the new
situation. The current changes again and so on. This is how the motor rotates
when we supply it with an electric voltage.
The larger the voltage, the larger the current which flows through the coil, the
magnetic gravity will grow and the turning velocity will grow.
The motor of the TPS-3720 is uncovered, so we can see its components.
SES
42
1. The LED converts electric energy to:
(a) Sound.
(b) Light.
(c) Mechanical movement.
(d) None of the above.
2. The buzzer converts electric energy to:
(a) Sound.
(b) Light.
3. The motor converts electric energy to:
(a) Sound.
(b) Light.
SES
43
Procedure:
Step 3: Turn ON the POWER main switch of TPS-3720 without turning ON

the lamp’s ENERGY SOURCE switch.
Step 5: Check that the capacitor's switch is in the ON position.
Step 6: Turn ON the ENERGY SOURCE LAMP switch.
Step 7: Use a banana wire to connect V+ to ENRGY OUT and measure the
output voltage of the solar cells, and write it down.
This voltage is the EMF of the solar cells.
Step 8: What happens to the light intensity when you change the halogen
lamps' intensity?
Step 9: Return the lamps to intensity 5 and to angle 0o.
Step 10: Measure and write down the solar cells output voltage (ENERGY
OUT):
EMF = _________V
This voltage is the EMF of the solar cells.
SES
44
Step 11: The light energy is converted into electricity. Electric energy may be
converted to light.
Connect the external LED as follows: the red wire to the solar cells
output (ENERGY OUT) and the black wire to the ground (GND).
Also connect the multimeter probes (at 20V DC range) to these

points (ENERGY OUT and GND) by touching them with the LED
banana plugs.
The LED should start illuminating. You can see that the voltage of
the solar cells drops a little when you connect the LED.
Why did this happen?
Write down the output voltage.
V = _________V
Step 12: Disconnect the red wire of the LED from the ENERGY OUT socket
and connect it to the panel Ampere meter A-.
Step 13: Connect the panel Ampere meter A+ to ENERGY OUT socket.
Step 14: Write down the measured current:
I = _________mA
Step 15: Turn OFF the ENERGY SOURCE LAMP switch.
Step 16: Calculate the power developed on the LED system (the power
developed on the LED and on its resistance)
PL  V  I = _________mW
SES
45
Step 17: The light that falls on the solar cells is not changed. This is why its
EMF is the same.
The power of the solar cells is:
PE  EMF  I = _________mW
Step 18: Where do you think is the power that was developed on the solar
cells, and did not reach the LED system?
We mark this power as Pi (P internal).
Pi  PE  PL = _________mW
Step 19: Disconnect the external LED from the system panel.
Step 20: We will repeat this experiment with the system panel lamp. This
lamp is actually another type of LED mounted on the panel.
Connect the ENERGY OUT socket to the panel voltmeter V+

socket and to the panel Ampere meter A+.
Step 21: Connect the panel Ampere meter A- socket to the panel LAMP IN
socket.
The panel LCD display will show the voltage and the current of
ENERGY OUT.
Change the lamp's light intensity. What happens if you change the
angle?
Step 23: Return the halogen lamps to intensity 5 and angle 00.
Step 24: Measure and write down the solar cells output voltage:
V = _________V
SES
46
I = _________mA
Step 27: Calculate the power developed on the lamp:
PL  V  I = _________mW
Step 28: The electric energy may be converted to acoustic energy.
Leave the ENERGY OUT socket connected to the panel voltmeter

V+ socket and to the panel Ampere meter A+.
Step 29: Connect the panel Ampere meter A- socket to the panel BUZZER
IN socket.
ENERGY OUT.
Step 31: Change the sound's intensity by changing the lamps' intensity.
What happens if you change the angle?
Step 32: Return the lamps to intensity 5 and 0o angle.
Step 33: Measure and write down the solar cells output voltage (between
ENERGY OUT and GND):
V = _________V
I = _________mA
SES
47
Step 36: Calculate the power developed on the buzzer system (the power
developed on the buzzer and on its resistance)
PL  V  I = _________mW
Step 37: Disconnect the buzzer.
Step 38: Leave the ENERGY OUT socket connected to the panel voltmeter
V+ socket and to the panel Ampere meter A+.
Step 39: Connect the panel Ampere meter A- socket to the panel MOTOR IN
socket.
ENERGY OUT.
Step 41: Set the halogen lamps to intensity 5 and 0o angle.
The motor starts rotating.
Step 42: Measure and write down the solar cells output voltage (ENERGY
OUT):
V = _________V
I = _________mA
Step 45: Calculate the power developed on the motor:
PL  V  I = _________mW
SES
48
Summary questions:
1. Which of the loads consumes more power from the solar cells?
(a) The LED.

(b) The panel lamp.
(c) The buzzer.
(d) The motor.
2. Which of the loads consumes less power from the solar cells?
(a) The LED.

(b) The panel lamp.
(c) The buzzer.
(d) The motor.
3. What is the relationship between the solar cells power ( PE  EMF  I )

and the load power ( PL  Vout  I )?
(a) PE > PL
(b) PE < PL
(c) PE = PL
SES
49
Experiment 1.5 – Energy Storage
Objectives:
 Capacitor as temporary energy storage element.
 Rechargeable batteries as long time storage.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3720
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 Banana wires
Discussion:
In this experiment we will use a capacitor and rechargeable batteries for
energy storage.
1.5.1 The capacitor

The capacitor is a component which comprised of two metal plates with a very
thin insulator matter between them. The three layers are rolled into a small
cylinder.
When we connect the capacitor to a voltage source, its plates are charged with
opposite electric currents. One plate is with positive charge and the second
plate with negative charge.
A charged capacitor can function as an electric voltage source, for a very short
time, until it is discharged.
In this experiment we will see how the capacitor helps us to turn ON the
electric motor.
The electric motor requires more energy when it starts then when it rotates. In
some conditions, the solar cell can not supply the initial energy so we must
use the capacitor for that.
SES
50
1.5.2 Batteries and rechargeable batteries

The electric battery is composed of two different metal electrodes which are
located in solution which conduct electricity (called electrolyte). The electric
energy, which we get, comes from the chemical action between the electrodes
and the solution.
In most batteries, the battery body is used as one electrode and it contains the
solution. The second electrode is in the center of the solution and is immersed
in the solution.
In batteries from the old generation, the solution was liquid. Today the
solution is made of gelatin. This is why these batteries are called dry batteries.
In an ordinary battery, the chemical procedure is irreversible. In this

procedure, as long as we consume electricity from the battery, the electrodes
are spendable.
Besides the electrodes exhaustion, the internal resistance of the battery is

growing. This is why when we measure the voltage of an empty battery
without load; we will sometimes find a reasonable voltage. If we connect an
electric consumer to the battery, its voltage will drop drastically.
In a rechargeable battery, the procedure is bi-directional. When current is

consumed from the battery, the electrode does is not spendable, but changes
its form (becomes another compound).
When we charge the battery (with electric current), the electrodes return to
their earlier position.
The electric voltage in a rechargeable battery, when it is charged, is

approximately 1.2V. In our system, there are two batteries connected in series,
so both their voltages should reach 2.4V. In order to charge a rechargeable
battery, the charger voltage should be higher than the recharged voltage. This
is why we use the 2.4V rechargeable batteries in the trainer.
The difference between rechargeable batteries is in their electric capacity. The

maximum capacity of electric energy they can store. Electric capacity is
defined with the Ah (Ampere-hour) units.
SES
51
The electric capacity of the batteries in our system is measured in mAh. mAh
means one thousandth of an Ampere-hour. In other words, a 1300mAh
rechargeable battery can supply a 1300mA (1.3A) current during a full hour or
650mA during two hours and so on.
Do not try to discharge the batteries by shorting them to the

ground! The batteries may overheat and explode!
1. An electric energy storage unit saves:
(a) Current.
(b) Voltage.
(c) Power.
(d) Electric charges.
2. A rechargeable battery (of 1300mAh) has 1.2V voltage.

Power is measured in VA ( V  I ).
Energy storage is measured in VAh.
What is the energy storage when the battery is fully charged?
(a) 1.56VAh
(b) 1560VAh
(c) 1083VAh
(d) Cannot be calculated.
3. How long can a fully charged battery of 2500mAh supply current of 2A?
(a) 2.5 hours.

(b) 1.25 hours.
(c) 5 hours.
(d) 10 hours.
SES
52
Procedure:
Step 4: Connect the panel voltmeter V+ to the ENERGY OUT socket.
Observe the measured voltage in the following steps.
Step 6: Set the intensity to 5 and the angle to 0.
Check that the capacitor's switch is in the OFF position.
Step 7: Turn the Energy Source lamp switch ON, wait a while and turn it
OFF again.
Step 8: Connect the panel lamp (LAMP IN), which is actually a LED, to the
ENERGY OUT socket.
The LED is not illuminating.
Step 9: Disconnect the LAMP IN from the ENERGY OUT socket.
Step 10: Turn the capacitor switch ON.
Step 11: Turn the Energy Source lamp switch ON, wait a while and turn it
OFF again.
Step 12: Connect the LAMP IN to the ENERGY OUT socket.
Now the lamp (LED) illuminates (for a second) even though the
Energy Source lamp switch is OFF.
Watch the voltage decreases gradually and the LED’s light intensity.
SES
53
Step 14: Check that the capacitor switch is ON.
Step 15: Turn the ENERGY SOURCE LAMP switch ON, wait a while and
turn it OFF again.
Step 16: Connect the BUZZER IN to the ENERGY OUT socket.
Watch the voltage and the sound volume decrease gradually.
The buzzer operates longer then the LED. Why?
Step 17: Disconnect the BUZZER IN from the ENERGY OUT socket.
Step 19: Turn the ENERGY SOURCE LAMP switch ON, wait a while and
turn it OFF again.
Step 20: Connect the MOTOR IN to the ENERGY OUT socket.
The motor turns ON for a very short time.
The motor operates less time than either the buzzer or the LED.
Why?
Step 21: Switch OFF the capacitor.
Step 22: Direct the halogen lamps to the solar cells in intensity 2.
Step 23: Disconnect the MOTOR IN from the ENERGY OUT socket.
Step 24: Turn ON ENERGY SOURCE LAMP switch.
The motor will not rotate probably.
SES
54
If the motor rotates, distance the halogen lamps a little from the
solar cells, disconnect the motor and connect it again to the
ENERGY OUT socket.
Step 26: Disconnect again the motor from the ENERGY OUT socket.
Step 27: Turn ON the capacitor switch.
Now the capacitor is connected to the ENERGY OUT socket and is

charged by the solar cells.
This time the motor should rotate.
The capacitor supplied the motor the initial energy.
Step 29: Do steps 22-28 several times with different intensities.
Step 31: Connect the BATTERY IN/OUT socket to the ENERGY OUT
socket.
Step 32: Measure the battery voltage.
It should increase very slowly.
Wait until it reaches the solar cells EMF voltage.
Step 33: Disconnect the ENERGY OUT from the BATTERY IN/OUT
socket.
Step 34: Connect the LAMP IN to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket.
It should drop slowly.
SES
55
socket.
socket.
Step 40: Connect the BUZZER IN to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket.
It should drop slower than with the LAMP IN.
socket.
socket.
Step 46: Connect the MOTOR IN to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket.
Step 47: Measure the voltage.
It should drop faster.
SES
56
Step 49: Turn OFF the Energy Source lamp switch and the POWER main
switches.
Summary questions:
1. Is the voltage of the capacitor stays constant while its energy goes down?
(a) Yes.
(b) No.
2. Is the voltage of the battery stays constant while its energy goes down?
(a) Yes.
(b) No.
SES
Arieh Nachum
Wind Energy
TPS-3730

SES
Arieh Nachum
Wind Energy
TPS-3730
4_3
© All rights reserved SES Scientific Educational Systems Ltd.

from SES.
I
Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................... II
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Wind Energy................................................... 1
1.1 Gravitational potential energy ............................................................. 1
1.2 Kinetic energy ..................................................................................... 3
1.3 Solar energy ........................................................................................ 4
1.4 Wind energy ........................................................................................ 5
1.5 Hydro energy ....................................................................................... 5
1.6 Chemical energy .................................................................................. 5
1.7 Nuclear energy .................................................................................... 6
1.8 Work and energy ................................................................................. 7
Experiment 1.1 – Units and Measurements ................................................. 9
Experiment 1.2 – The TPS-3730 System .................................................... 24
Experiment 1.3 – Wind Electric Generator Output .................................. 32
Experiment 1.4 – Energy Conversion ........................................................ 41
1.4.1 The LED............................................................................................ 42
1.4.2 The incandescent lamp ...................................................................... 42
1.4.3 The buzzer ......................................................................................... 42
1.4.4 The electric motor ............................................................................. 43
Experiment 1.5 – Energy Storage ............................................................... 51
1.5.1 The capacitor ..................................................................................... 51
1.5.2 Batteries and rechargeable batteries ................................................... 52
SES
II
Preface
The laboratory experiments in this book are meant to run on SES (Scientific
Educational Systems) Wind Energy Trainer TPS-3730.
TPS-3730 includes:
 A wind generator (fan).

 Wind electric generator.
 Voltage meter.
 A motor.
 A buzzer.
 A lamp.
 Rechargeable batteries.
 A capacitor.
 Power main switch.
 Energy source switch.
 Capacitor switch.
Accessories:
 Power supply.
 9V battery with connector.
 Wire LED.
 Banana wire.
SES
1
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Wind

Energy
Wind energy reminds us several things such as storms, sea waves, windmills,
hair dryers and more.
In this book we will deal with other concepts related to wind energy – energy,
power, work, energy conversion and applications of wind energy with the
TPS-3730 system.
In our everyday lives we use the term energy in different situations. For
example, when we say: "he is an energetic person" – we mean that this person
is vigorous and is able to do a lot of work. When we are tired, we say that we
do not have energy.
"Energy is the ability to perform work". Energy and work are related terms.
Different forms of energy surround us. Here are some examples:
1.1 Gravitational potential energy

When we raise a certain body, we invest effort and actually perform work in
order to add gravitational potential energy to the body. The reason for our
effort and work is that we move the body against the earth's gravity. Potential
energy is according to the body's height.
SES
2
When we leave the body, there is no need to perform work to go down. When
the body falls in free-falling, it accelerates and its velocity increases. The body
converts its Potential Energy with Kinetic Energy.
When the body hits the ground and stops, it will lose its potential and kinetic
energy all together. While losing its energy it will work on itself or another
body, which will cause a change in form or heating.
SES
3
1.2 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. It is equal to the work that we should
invest in order to bring the body from rest into motion.
Kinetic energy occurs according to the body's velocity.
When a body in motion hits another body, it transfers part or all its energy to
the other body, which moves or changes its shape. In other words, a body in
motion has the capacity to perform work (it has energy).
SES
4
1.3 Solar energy

Solar energy is light from the sun. We know that the sun rays are heating?and
tanning (this is also a kind of form change). In other words, the sun's rays have
the ability to perform work (the heat and form change are examples for this
kind of work).
The light is also essential to the plants’ growth. If we burn a tree, we will get
back the energy that the tree got from the sun's rays. We will get this energy in
the form of heat.
We usually convert the solar energy to heat (greenhouses and water heaters) or
directly to electricity via solar cells.
Greenhouse Water Heater Solar Cell
SES
5
1.4 Wind energy

The power of the wind is widely used to generate electricity and to operate
windmills. Wind can uproot trees, blow objects; sail boats and ships, and in
storms such as a hurricane can easily destroy poorly constructed buildings. In
other words, wind has energy called wind energy.
1.5 Hydro energy

Water that move (rivers, falls, waves) have energy. It can move boats on the
river, operate flour mills and so on. In order to increase the water’s power, the
water should fall from a certain height. The water energy is also used in
electric generators for the production of electricity.
SES
6
1.6 Chemical energy

Energy is stored in every matter. When some materials are combined, they
discharge energy. The fire resulting from burning wood is a combination of
the wood's carbon with the air's oxygen. This combination causes the energy
stored in the carbon and oxygen to be discharged as light and heat.
The food products, which we eat, breakdown in our body and by chemical
reactions turn into matter that build our body, like protein and bone tissue.
Some materials, due to chemical reaction, can cause electrons to move, thus
getting direct electric energy.
The electric battery also has chemical energy, which turns into electricity
when we connect it to an electric circuit.
SES
7
1.7 Nuclear energy

Every matter is composed of atoms. Every atom holds enormous energy.
Some atoms can be split into smaller parts (nuclear fission) releasing a
tremendous amount of energy. The matter turns directly into energy, in the
form of radioactive radiation and heat.
This energy is in form of radioactive radiation and heat.
We use the nuclear energy to produce heat that creates steam which operates
electric generators. It is also used, unfortunately, to produce atomic bombs for
destruction.
1.8 Work and energy

We've seen that energy has many forms. The energy can change its form. The
terms energy and work are related to each other.
In order to understand energy conversion, we have to use energy terms used

by scientists and engineers.
Energy and work are measured in units that are called Joule.
We do work when we add energy to a body.
When a body loose energy, it does work.
When energy only changes form, any work is not done.
Another term related to work is power.
SES
8
Power is work per second.
Usually it is easier to measure power, so we can calculate work by multiplying

the power by the time it is done.
The power units are called Watt.
SES
9
Experiment 1.1 – Units and Measurements
Objectives:
 Introduction to electric units.
 Electric measurements.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3730
 Battery with connector
 A multimeter
 Wired LED
Discussion:
Most of the activities measurements are electric measurements. We use
electronics and electric components and electric measurements in order to
measure solar or mechanical energy.
The basic electric units are Volt, Ampere and Ohm.
Volt:
Volt is a measurement unit, which indicates an electric voltage between two
points in an electric circuit.
The electric voltage is associated with attraction and repelling of electric

charges.
SES
10
If there is an electric conductor between two points with electric voltage,

electron movement is created, which is called electric current.
9V Battery 1.5V Battery
Ampere:
Ampere is a measurement unit, which defines the electric current intensity in
an electric conductor.
The current intensity is the quantity of charges that flow in the conductor per
second.
Electric charges are measured in Colomb.
Ampere is a current of one Colomb of charge per second.
SES
11
Ohm:
Ohm is a measurement unit, which indicates the resistance of a matter to
electric current through it.
Every matter has different electric conductivity or in other words, different

electric resistance.
1 Volt of electric current in an electric conductor that has an electric resistance

of 1 Ohm, creates a current of 1 Ampere.
A multimeter:
Voltage is measured by using a voltmeter, current by an Amperemeter and
resistance by an ohmmeter. Usually, all these instruments are included in one
instrument called multimeter, like the one included in the TPS-3720.
The multimeter that comes with the trainer is a digital multimeter. The
measurement results are shown in the form of numbers on a display. The
digital multimeter has two probes (red and black), that are attached to the
measuring points in the circuit.
SES
12
The digital multimeter mainly measures voltage. The current is calculated by

measuring voltage on small internal resistor. Resistance is measured by
applying known current to the load and measuring voltage.
In order to receive constant measuring tolerance, the multimeter works in

different ranges. Some multimeters change ranges automatically and some
depend on the user to do it.
Probes connection is of an importance. The black probe is always connected

to the common socket. For voltage and resistance measurement, the red probe
is connected to the V socket. For measuring current, the red probe is
connected to the A socket.
The multimeter has various measuring ranges: direct voltage (DC V), alternate
voltage (AC V), direct current (DC A), alternate current (AC A), and
resistance (ohm – ).
One or two additional sockets are for the current measurements. One of them
is for the low current and the other for high current, which is usually
unprotected. All the other inputs are protected by fuses. All measurements
should begin from the greatest range, so there will be no harm done for the
instrument. Then the user should decrease the range until the maximum
accuracy is accomplished.
In order to simplify work with large and small units the usage of prefixes was
established. The most popular prefixes are:
Prefix
Pico p 0.000000000001 10-12
Nano n 0.000000001 10-9
Micro  or u 0.000001 10-6
Mili m 0.001 10-3
Kilo k 1000 103
Mega M 1000000 106
Giga G 1000000000 109
SES
13
Power:
The electric power in an electric load equals the electric voltage developed on
it multiplied by the current that flows through it.
P  V I
The power units are called Watt (W).
Watt can be also defined as an energy flow, which delivers one Joule of
energy in one second. The energy can be calculated by:
W  Pt
The relationship between voltage, current and resistance is given by a law that
is called Ohm's Law:
V  IR
Most of the energy transforms are to electric energy and from electric energy,
thus we need to know how to perform electric measurements.
In this activity, we use a multimeter for electric measurements.
We can express this law in two other formulas:
V V
I and R 
R I
SES
14
4. If the lamp voltage is 12V and the current through it is 0.5A, what is the
lamp resistance?
(a) 12
(b) 24
(c) 6
(d) 24V
5. If the lamp voltage is 12V and the current through it is 2A, what is the
power P of the lamp?
(a) 6W
(b) 24A
(c) 24W
(d) 12W
6. If the power of the lamp is 10W, what will be the energy spent in 1
minute?
(a) 600 Joul

(b) 10 Joul
(c) 60 Joul
(d) 100 Joul
SES
15
Procedure:
The LED:
Make sure that its probes are connected properly – the red one to the
voltage and resistance measurement (V) socket, and the black one
to the common (COM) socket.
Step 2: The kit includes a LED (Light Emitting Diode) with two bananas
wires at its ends.
A resistor is connected to the LED. The LED's resistance reduces

the current which flows through it, so it will not burn.
Identify the LED and its resistor.
Red
R LED
Wire
Black
Wire
SES
16
Connect the multimeter probes to the LED's resistor terminals and

measure its resistance.
Multimeter
Black COM V
Probe
Red
Probe
R LED
Write the reading in your notebook:
RLED = _________
Step 4: The kit includes a 9V battery with battery holder and banana plugs.
Connect the red probe to the positive output of the battery (the red
wire) and the black probe to the negative output (the black wire).
Multimeter
Black COM V
Probe
Red
Probe
Black Wire Red Wire

9V
Battery
SES
17
Vopen = __________V
This measurement is the battery voltage without any electric load.
Step 5: Switch between the two probes. The red probe to the black output
and the black probe to the red output.
How it effect the reading?
Step 6: Connect the LED's banana plugs to the battery holder connector (red
wire to red wire and black wire to black wire).
The LED should turn ON.
Red
R LED Red Wire
Wire
Black
Wire
Black 9V
Wire Battery
Step 7: Measure again the battery voltage and write it down:
V = __________V
The chemical reaction in the battery produces 9V voltage. That is

why even used battery shows 9V when it is not connected to an
electric load.
When we connect an electric load to a battery, the voltage of used

battery drops significantly.
SES
18
Step 8: Measure now the LED's resistor voltage (while the LED is ON).
Connect the multimeter probes to the resistor terminals and write

down its voltage:
Multimeter
Black COM V
Probe
Red
Probe
Red
LED Red Wire
Wire
R Black
Wire
Black
Wire 9V
Battery
VR = __________V
Note that the voltage on the resistor is lower than the battery
voltage.
Step 9: In order to measure electric current, we connect the multimeter in

series with the electric consumer, so the current which flows
through the consumer, will flow through the multimeter.
Connect the red probe of the multimeter to the A socket of the

multimeter.
Step 10: Set the multimeter to measure current in the DC 20mA range.
Step 11: Disconnect the LED's red wire from the battery holder red wire.
Step 12: Connect the red probe of the multimeter to the red wire of the
battery holder.
SES
19
Step 13: Connect the black probe of the multimeter to the red wire of the
LED and measure the current.
Multimeter
A COM
Red
Wire
Red Black
LED R
Red Probe Probe
Wire
Black
Wire
Black
9V Wire
Battery
I = _________A
Step 14: Check if your measurements establish the Ohm's Law:
VR  I  R = ________V
Step 15: Calculate the power that is developed on the component according
to the formula:
P  V  I = _________W
Step 16: Calculate the work being done on the component for 30 seconds
W  P  t = ___________J
SES
20
The Motor:
Step 17: The training system has a small DC motor. The motor terminals are
connected to the banana sockets (MOTOR IN and GND).
Identify the motor.
Step 19: Check that the training system is switched OFF.
Step 20: Return the multimeter's red probe to the V socket.
Step 21: Connect the multimeter probes to the motor sockets (MOTOR IN
and GND) and measure its resistance.
Rmeasured = _________
SES
21
Step 22: Plug to the battery holder banana plugs into the MOTOT IN socket
(the red wire) and the GND socket (the black wire).
Red
Wire Black
9V Wire
Battery
Step 24: Connect the red probe to the battery positive output and the black
probe to the battery negative output, and measure the voltage at the
battery outputs.
VM = __________V
Step 25: Replace the battery motor connections – connect the battery banana
sockets to the MOTOR IN socket (black wire) and to the GND
socket (red wire).
How the motor reacts?

Step 26: Disconnect the battery sockets from the motor.
SES
22
Step 27: Calculate the motor current and write it down:
V
I = __________A
R
Step 28: Calculate the power developing on the motor according to the
formula:
P  V  I = _________W
Step 29: Calculate the work being done on the motor for 30 seconds
according to the following formula:
W  P  t = ___________J
SES
23
Summary questions:
5. What is the LED resistor R resistance you have measured?
(a) About 100Ω

(b) About 1000Ω
(c) About 500Ω
(d) About 10000Ω
6. When the LED is connected to the 9V battery its measured voltage is:
(a) Higher than Vopen.

(b) Lower than Vopen.
(c) The same as Vopen.
7. What was the measured VR?
(a) Above 9V.

(b) Below 4V.
(c) Below 9V and above 7V.
(d) Below 7V.
8. How the voltage polarity of the motor affects its rotation?
(a) It does not affects its rotation

(b) It changes its rotation direction
(c) At negative polarity the motor stops
(d) At negative polarity the motor slows down
SES
24
Experiment 1.2 – The TPS-3730 System
Objectives:
 Introduction to TPS-3730.
 Effect of the distance and angle on the wind electric generator's output
voltage.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3730
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 Banana wires
SES
25
Discussion:
TPS-3730 consists of several components. Read the following component’s
short description and identify them. In this experiment we will check how
distance and angel affect the electric generator voltage.
Wind Electric Fan

Generator Battery Motor
In/Out
Lamp
Energy
Out Socket
Buzzer
Fan Angle
Control
Voltmeter
Ampere-
meter
Fan Intensity Control
Potentiometer
Voltage
LED
display
Power Main Energy Capacitor

Emergency Source Fan
button Switch Switch
Switch
 A fan – Used as a wind generator and located on a track which enable to

distance the fan from the wind electric generator and to change its
direction angle.
 A wind electric generator – A motor with a propeller that converts the

wind directly to electric energy. It acts as a voltage source. The electric
voltage is outputted to the ENERGY OUT Socket.
 Voltage LED display – An electronic circuit which measures the solar cell
voltage and lights the LED correspondingly.
SES
26
 Voltage and Ampere-meter – LCD display with a probe socket for

voltage measurement and two probe sockets (A+ and A-) for current
measurement (mA).
 A motor – A small DC motor on the panel as an example for electric load.
 A buzzer – Another electric load.
 A lamp – Another electric load.
 Power main switch – Turns ON and OFF all the systems of TPS-3730.
 Energy source switch – The energy source fan ON/OFF switch.
 Capacitor switch – The capacitor is used as temporary energy storage for

output voltage stabilization. The capacitor is under the panel. The switch
connects the capacitor in parallel to the energy source.
 Fan angle control – With this potentiometer the angle of the fan can be
changed.
 Fan intensity control potentiometer – With this potentiometer the

intensity of the fan can be changed.
 Battery In/Out – Rechargeable batteries for energy storage located under

the panel.
 An external power supply – Converts the Mains voltage to low DC

voltage.
 Emergency button – This button is used to stop all electrical power to the
system in case of an emergency. If you feel that something is very wrong,
press this button and contact your instructor immediately.
SES
27
(a) External power supply  Fan  wind electric generator  main

(b) External power supply  main switch  source switch  Fan 
wind electric generator  Energy Out
(c) External power supply  main switch  Fan  source switch 
(d) External power supply  source switch  Fan  wind electric
generator  main switch  Energy Out
4. What is the purpose of the motor on the panel?
(a) To add energy to the electric generator.

(b) To increase the system current.
(c) The motor is not used.
(d) To be used as an electric load.
SES
28
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect TPS-3730 to the power supply inlet sockets.
Step 3: Turn ON the POWER main switch of TPS-3730 and the ENERGY
SOURCE FAN switch.
The fan should rotate.
Step 4: The output of the wind electric generator is connected to the input of
the LED voltmeter located on the system panel.
Another switch is located on the front panel marked CAPACITOR

ON/OFF.
This switch connects and disconnects a capacitor in parallel to the

wind electric generator output.
This capacitor stores electric charges and stabilizes the wind electric
generator output voltage.
Disconnect the capacitor (switch OFF the CAPACITOR).
Step 5: Change the fan speed, its intensity (1-5) and its angle and observe
the reaction on the voltmeter.
The wind electric generator does not create a stable voltage.
Step 6: Connect the capacitor.
Turn ON its switch.
Step 7: Connect the V+ socket to the LCD panel voltmeter to the ENERGY
OUT socket.
Step 8: Change again the fan intensity and angle, and observe the reaction
on the voltmeter.
SES
29
Step 9: Write down the intensity (1-5) at which the wind electric generator
output voltage is 6.5V.
0 angle 20 angle 40 angle
Step 10: As you could see, the output voltage of the wind electric generator
depends on the distance and the angle too.
Connect the multimeter in a voltage measurement mode at 20V

range as follows: the red probe to the wind electric generator output
socket (ENERGY OUT) and the black probe to the ground socket
(GND).
Check that the capacitor switch is in the OFF position.
Step 11: Measure the voltage produced by the wind electric generator for
different distances and angles once when the distance decreases
(DOWN) and once when it increases (UP):
Intensity 0 angle 20 angle 40 angle

Up Down Up Down Up Down
1
2
3
4
5
SES
30
Step 12: Mark these points on the following graph. Use three different colors
for each angle. Connect these points with lines according to the
distance changing course.
6
Voltage [V] F
0
0 L1 L2 3 4 5
Intensity
Step 13: Turn OFF the ENERGY SOURCE FAN switch.
SES
31
Summary questions:
(a) External power supply  Fan  wind electric generator  main

(b) External power supply  main switch  source switch  Fan 
(c) External power supply  main switch  Fan  source switch 
(d) External power supply  source switch  Fan  wind electric
generator  main switch  Energy Out
6. How does the distance of the fan affect the output voltage of the wind
electric generator?

(b) The output voltage increases while the distance increases.
(c) The output voltage increases while the distance decreases.
(d) It depends only on the angle.
7. How does the angle of the fan affect the output voltage of the wind
electric generator?

(b) The output voltage increases while the angle increases.
(c) The output voltage increases while the angle decreases.
(d) It depends on only on the distance.
8. What happens to the output voltage of the wind electric generator at

130mm distance while the distance goes up and goes down?
(a) It stays the same.

(b) It is lower while going up than going down.
(c) It is lower while going down than going up.
SES
32
Experiment 1.3 – Wind Electric Generator

Output
Objectives:
 The wind electric generator's Electro Motive Force.
 Measurement of the internal resistance.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3730
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 Banana wires
Discussion:
Every voltage source has internal resistance. We can not see this resistance but
we can see its effect. Usually this resistance is marked with the letter r.
The output voltage of an electric battery without any electric load is higher
than its voltage when it is connected to an electric load.
The reason is that the load current flows also through the internal resistance
and cause an internal voltage drop, according to the Ohm's Law:
Vr  I  r
The internal voltage of the electric battery is caused by chemical reaction and
is called Electro Motive Force and is marked by the letter E.
r I
E V Load
SES
33
The output voltage is equal to:
V  E  I r
The higher the current is and the higher the internal resistance is, the lower the
output voltage is.
An 'empty' electric battery means that its internal resistance is so high that its
output voltage is very small for even small currents.
That is the reason why we should check batteries only with electric load.
The wind electric generator is similar to an electric battery. It also has Electro
Motive Force (EMF) and internal resistance. The EMF depends on the wind
intensity of the wind electric generator.


flowing through it.
Fix Fix
Magnet Magnet
Rotor
N S N S N S
SES
34
The larger the voltage, the larger the current, which flows through the coil, the
When we rotate the shaft of the DC motor mechanically, an electric voltage

induces into the rotor coil.
The DC motor acts as an electric generator.
This voltage is the generator EMF and depends on the rotation speed. The
EMF creates an electric current through a load, which is connected to the
generator poles.
The generator has internal resistance. As we know, the load current depends
on the generator EMF and the internal resistance.
The interesting point is that the internal resistance depends on the load current.
This current flows through the electromagnet coils, turns it into electromagnet,
creates mechanical load and reduces the EMF.
In this experiment, we will measure the Electro Motive Force and the internal
resistance of the wind electric generator in the trainer.
SES
35
r I
E V
(e) 10V
(f) 5V
(g) 1V
(h) 4V

EMF = 5V, r = 2 and I = 2A?
r I
E V Load
(e) 10V
(f) 5V
(g) 1V
(h) 4V
SES
36
6. What will be the measured current in the following circuit when

r I
E A
(e) 5A
(f) 2A
(g) 2.5A
(h) 1A
SES
37
Procedure:
Step 4: Locate the fan opposite the wind electric generator and set the
intensity to 5 and the angle to 0.
Step 5: Turn OFF the capacitor and turn ON the ENERGY SOURCE FAN
switch.
The fan should rotate, and after some time the wind electric
generator propeller should rotate too.
Step 6: In this experiment we will measure the internal resistance of the

wind electric generator.
First measure the voltage on the wind electric generator's output

with the multimeter (between the ENERGY OUT and GND
sockets).
Vopen-circuit = ________V
This voltage is the Electro Motive force (EMF) of the wind electric
generator.
SES
38
Step 7: Turn the multimeter into a current measuring mode, DCA 200mA
range. Connect it between the wind electric generator's output and
the ground.
Ishort-circuit = _________A
The internal resistance:
Vopen circuit
r = _________
I short circuit
What did we measure here? Every voltage source has an internal

resistance, which we can't see, but can feel its outcome.
When a voltage source is not connected to an electric consumer,

current does not flow through the internal resistor and electric
voltage is not developed on it (according to the Ohm's Law). Thus
the output voltage is equal to the internal voltage of the source.
E Vopen-circuit
Vopen-circuit = EMF
When an electric consumer is connected to a voltage source, current

flows in the circuit. This current also flows through the internal
resistance and causes electric voltage to drop on it. The voltage
between the source's probes (the voltage that will reach the
consumer) will be equal to the internal voltage (EMF) minus the
voltage drop on the internal resistance.
As bigger the internal resistance is, the voltage that reaches the
consumer is smaller. We wish that the internal resistance will be as
small as possible.
SES
39
When we connect a current meter without an electric consumer

between the wind electric generator's probes, we cause all the
internal voltage to drop on the internal resistance. It allows us to
measure the internal resistance:
Vopen circuit
r
I short circuit
Step 8: Repeat this measurement for different distances and different levels
of intensities and fill in the following tables:
Short-circuit Current
Intensity 1 2 3 4 5
Angle
0o
Electro Motive Force (EMF)

Intensity 1 2 3 4 5
Angle
0o
Calculated Internal Resistance (r)

Intensity 1 2 3 4 5
Angle
0o
SES
40
Summary questions:
5. What is the maximum EMF voltage of the electric generator?
(a) 12V
(b) 4V
(c) 2V
(d) 30V
6. How did you calculate the internal resistance of the electric generator?
(a) Vopen circuit  I short  circuit

Vopen circuit
(b)
I short  circuit
I short  circuit
(c)
Vopen circuit
I open  circuit
(d)
Vshort  circuit
7. Is the EMF affected by the distance of the fan?
(a) Yes.
(b) No.
8. Is the internal resistance affected by the distance of the fan?
(a) Yes.
(b) No.
SES
41
Experiment 1.4 – Energy Conversion
Objectives:
 Converting the wind electric energy to light energy.
 Converting the wind electric energy to acoustic energy.
 Converting the wind electric energy to mechanical energy.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3730
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 Banana wires
Discussion:
In this experiment we will connect several consumers to the wind electric
generator and convert the wind electric generator energy into different types of
energy.
SES
42
1.4.1 The LED

LED means Light Emitting Diode. The diode is a component which allows
current flow in one direction only.
When current flows through the LED, its electrons receive energy, which
causes them to move away from their core and go back to their original
location while emitting the energy in the form of light.
LEDs emit red, yellow or green light. The color is related to their chemical
construction.
The LED has a transparent cap, so we can see the emitted light. Usually, the
color of the cap suits the color of the emitted light, so we will be able to know
in advance what will be the light color.
1.4.2 The lamp

The lamp is based on a very thin metal wire placed in a glass cup with no
oxygen in it. The metal wire is a very strong wire that can bear high
temperature and is called Tungenstan.
The current, which flows through the lamp wire, heats it until it glows.
The system lamp is another type of LED.
1.4.3 The buzzer

The buzzer is composed of a small metal plate and a ceramic crystal attached
to it. The crystal has a very special character. When it gets a changing electric
voltage, it contracts and expands accordingly.
The buzzer has an electronic circuit, which creates the above changing electric
voltage, thus causing the crystal to contract and expand and the plate to swing.
The plate swinging causes the air to vibrate and this it the sound we hear.
The buzzer needs a very small current.
SES
43
1.4.4 The electric motor


flowing through it.
Fix Fix
Magnet Magnet
Rotor
N S N S N S
The larger the voltage, the larger the current which flows through the coil, the
The motor of the TPS-3730 is uncovered, so we can see its components.
SES
44
4. The LED converts electric energy to:
(a) Sound.
(b) Light.
5. The buzzer converts electric energy to:
(a) Sound.
(b) Light.
6. The motor converts electric energy to:
(a) Sound.
(b) Light.
SES
45
Procedure:
Step 3: Turn ON the POWER main switch of TPS-3730 without turning ON

the fan's ENERGY SOURCE switch.
Step 4: Set the intensity to 5 and the angle to 0.
Check that the capacitor's switch is in the ON position.
Step 5: Turn ON the ENERGY SOURCE FAN switch.
Step 6: Use a banana wire to connect the V+ socket to the ENERGY OUT
socket, measure the output voltage of the wind electric generator
(between ENERGY OUT and GND) and write it down.
This voltage is the EMF of the wind electric generator.
Step 7: What happens to the wind electric generator voltage when you
change the fan intensity?
Step 8: Return the fan intensity to 5 and angle to 0o.
Step 9: Measure and write down the wind electric generator output voltage
(ENERGY OUT):
This voltage is the EMF of the wind electric generator.
EMF = _________V
Step 10: The wind energy is converted into electricity. Electric energy may
be converted to light.
Connect the external LED as follows: the red wire to wind electric
generator's output (ENERGY OUT) and the black wire to the
ground (GND).
SES
46
Also connect the multimeter probes (at range 20V DC) to these
points (ENERGY OUT and GND) by touching the LED banana
plugs.
The LED should start illuminating. The voltage of the wind electric
generator may drop a little when you connect the LED.
Why did this happen?
Write down the output voltage.
V = _________V
Step 11: Disconnect the LED's red wire from the ENERGY OUT socket and
connect it to the panel's Ampre meter A-.
Step 12: Connect the panel's Ampre meter A+ to the ENERGY OUT socket.
I = _________mA
Step 15: Calculate the power of the LED system (the power developed on the
LED and on its resistance)
PL  V  I = _________mW
Step 16: The wind on the wind electric generator is not changed. This is why
its EMF is the same.
The power of the wind electric generator is:
PE  EMF  I = _________W
SES
47
Step 17: Where do you think is the missing part of the wind electric
generator power?
We mark this power as Pi (P internal).
Pi = PE - PL = _________W
Step 18: Disconnect the external LED from the system's panel.
Step 19: We will repeat this experiment with the system panel lamp. This
lamp is actually another kind of a LED mounted on the panel.
Connect the ENERGY OUT socket to the panel voltmeter V+

socket and to the panel Ampere-meter A+.
Step 20: Connect the panel Ampere-meter A- socket to the panel LAMP IN
socket.
ENERGY OUT.
Step 21: Turn ON the ENERGY SOURCE switch.
Change the wind intensity by retracting and advancing the fan.
What will happen if you change the angle?
Step 22: Return the fan intensity to 5 and angle 00.
Step 23: Measure and write down the wind electric generator output voltage:
V = _________V
Touch the screw of the banana plug with the red probe and the GND
socket with the black probe.
I = _________mA
SES
48
Step 26: Calculate the power of the lamp.
PE  EMF  I = _________mW
Step 27: The electric energy may be converted to acoustic energy.
Connect ENERGY OUT socket to the panel voltmeter V+ socket

and to the panel Ampere-meter A+.
Step 28: Connect the panel Ampere-meter A- socket to the panel BUZZER
IN socket.
ENERGY OUT.
Step 30: Change the sound's intensity by retracting and advancing the fan.
What happens if you change the angle?
Step 31: Return the fan intensity to 5 and angle 00.
(between ENERGY OUT and GND):
V = _________V
I = _________mA
Step 34: Turn OFF the ENERGY SOURCE switch.
Step 35: Calculate the power of the buzzer.
PL  V  I = _________mW
SES
49
Step 36: Disconnect the buzzer.
Step 37: Connect ENERGY OUT socket to the panel voltmeter V+ socket
and to the panel Ampere-meter A+.
Step 38: Connect the panel Ampere-meter A- socket to the panel MOTOR IN
socket.
ENERGY OUT.
Step 40: Return the fan intensity to 4 and angle 0o and turn ON the ENERGY
SOURCE FAN switch.
The motor starts rotating (if not, help it with your finger a little).
Again observe voltage reduction when the load is connected.
(ENERGY OUT):
V = _________V
I = _________mA
Step 44: Calculate the power of the motor.
PL  V  I = _________mW
SES
50
Summary questions:
4. Which of the loads consumes more power from the wind electric
generator?
(a) The LED.

(b) The panel lamp.
(c) The buzzer.
(d) The motor.
5. Which of the loads consumes less power from the wind electric
generator?
(a) The LED.

(b) The panel lamp.
(c) The buzzer.
(d) The motor.
6. What is the relationship between the electric generator power

( PE  EMF  I ) and the load power ( PL  Vout  I )?
(a) PE > PL
(b) PE < PL
(c) PE = PL
SES
51
Experiment 1.5 – Energy Storage
Objectives:
 Capacitor as temporary energy storage element.
 Rechargeable batteries as long time storage.
Equipment required:
 TPS-3730
 Power supply
 A multimeter
 Banana wires
Discussion:
In this experiment we will use a capacitor and rechargeable batteries for
energy storage.
1.5.1 The capacitor

The capacitor is a component which comprised of two metal plates with a very
thin insulator matter between them. The three layers are rolled into a small
cylinder.
When we connect the capacitor to a voltage source, its plates are charged with
opposite electric currents. One plate is with positive charge and the second
plate with negative charge.
A charged capacitor can function as an electric voltage source, for a very short
time, until it is discharged.
We will see how the capacitor helps us to turn ON the electric motor.
The electric motor requires more energy when it starts then when it rotates. In
some conditions, the wind electric generator can not supply the initial energy
so we must use the capacitor for that.
SES
52
1.5.2 Batteries and rechargeable batteries

The electric battery is composed of two different metal electrodes which are
located in solution which conduct electricity (called electrolyte). The electric
energy which we get comes from the chemical action between the electrodes
and the solution.
In most batteries, the battery's body is used as one electrode and contains the
solution. The second electrode is in the center of the solution and is immersed
in the solution.
In batteries from the old generation, the solution was liquid. Today the
solution is made of gelatin. This is why these batteries are called dry batteries.
In an ordinary battery, the chemical procedure is nonreversible. In this

procedure, as long as we require electricity from the battery, the electrodes
will expend.
Besides the electrodes wastage, the internal resistance of the battery is

growing. This is why when we measure the voltage of a waste battery without
load; we will sometimes find a reasonable voltage. If we connect an electric
consumer to the battery, its voltage will drop drastically.
In a rechargeable battery, the procedure is bi-directional. The electrode does

not expend, but changes its form (becomes another compound), when current
is consumed from the battery.
When we charge the battery (with electric current), the electrodes return to
their earlier position.
The electric voltage in a rechargeable battery, when it is charged, is

approximately 1.2V. In our system, there are two batteries connected in a row,
so both their voltages should reach 2.4V. In order to charge a rechargeable
battery, the charger voltage should be higher than the recharged batteries. This
is why we use in the system the 2.4V rechargeable batteries.
The difference between rechargeable batteries is in their electric capacity. The

maximum capacity of electric energy they can store. Electric capacity is
defined with the Ah (Ampere-hour) units.
SES
53
The electric capacity of the batteries is measured in mAh. mah means one
thousandth of an Ampere-hour. In other words, a 1300mAh rechargeable
battery can supply a 1300mA (1.3A) current during a full hour or 650mA
during two hours and so on.
Do not try to discharge the batteries by shorting them to the

ground! The batteries may overheat and explode!
4. An electric energy storage unit saves:
(a) Current.
(b) Voltage.
(c) Power.
(d) Electric charges.
5. A rechargeable battery (of 1300mAh) has 1.2V voltage.

Power is measured in VA ( V  I ).
Energy storage is measured in VAh.
What is the energy storage when the battery is fully charged?
(a) 1.56VAh
(b) 1560VAh
(c) 1083VAh
(d) Cannot be calculated.
6. How long can a fully charged battery of 2500mAh supply current of 2A?
(a) 2.5 hours.

(b) 1.25 hours.
(c) 5 hours.
(d) 10 hours.
SES
54
Procedure:
Connect the power supply to the Mains.
Step 3: Set the fan intensity to 5 and the angle to 0.
Check that the capacitor's switch is in the OFF position.
Step 4: Turn the ENERGY SOURCE FAN switch ON, wait a while and
turn it OFF again.
Step 5: Connect the panel lamp (LAMP IN), which is actually a LED, to the
ENERGY OUT.
The LED is not illuminating.
Step 7: Turn the capacitor switch ON.
turn it OFF again.
Step 9: Connect the LAMP IN to the ENERGY OUT socket.
Now the lamp (LED) illuminates (for a second) even though the fan
has stopped.
Watch the voltage decreases gradually and the LED’s light intensity.
turn it OFF again.
SES
55
Step 13: Connect the BUZZER IN to the ENERGY OUT socket.
Watch the voltage and the sound volume decrease gradually.
The buzzer operates longer then the LED. Why?
turn it OFF again.
The motor turns ON for a very short time.
The motor operates less time than either the buzzer or the LED.
Why?
Step 18: Switch OFF the capacitor.
Step 19: Direct the fan to the wind electric generator in fan intensity 5.
Step 21: Turn the ENERGY SOURCE FAN switch ON.
The motor probably will not rotate.
If the motor rotates, distance the fan from the wind electric
generator, disconnect the motor and connect it again to the
ENERGY OUT socket.
Step 23: Disconnect again the motor (MOTOR IN) from the ENERGY OUT
socket.
SES
56
Step 24: Switch ON the capacitor.
Now the capacitor is connected to the ENERGY OUT socket and is

charged by the wind electric generator.
Step 25: Connect the motor (MOTOR IN) to the ENERGY OUT socket.
This time the motor should rotate.
The capacitor supplied the motor the initial energy.
Step 26: Do steps 19-25 several times with different fan intensities.
Step 27: Disconnect the motor (MOTOR IN) from the ENERGY OUT
socket.
socket.
Step 29: Observe the battery voltage.
Wait until it reaches the wind electric generator EMF voltage.
Step 30: Disconnect ENERGY OUT from the BATTERY IN/OUT socket.
Step 31: Connect the LAMP IN to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket while V+
is still connected to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket.
It should drop slowly.
Step 33: Disconnect the LAMP IN from the BATTERY IN/OUT.
SES
57
socket.
Step 37: Connect the BUZZER IN to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket while
V+ is still connected to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket.
It should drop slower than with the lamp.
Step 39: Disconnect the BUZZER IN from the BATTERY IN/OUT socket.
socket.
Step 43: Connect the MOTOR IN to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket while
V+ is still connected to the BATTERY IN/OUT socket.
It should drop much faster.
Step 45: Disconnect the MOTOR IN from the BATTERY IN/OUT.
SES
58
Step 46: Turn OFF the ENERGY SOURCE FAN and the POWER main
switches.
Summary questions:
3. Is the voltage of the capacitor stays constant while its energy goes down?
(a) Yes.
(b) No.
4. Is the voltage of the battery stays constant while its energy goes down?
(a) Yes.
(b) No.
SES
Arieh Nachum
TPS-3712
Popular Electronics
Technology

Arieh Nachum
TPS-3712
Popular Electronics
Technology
2_8
© All rights reserved SES - Scientific Educational Systems Ltd.

translated, re-edited or transmitted without prior agreement in writing
from SES.
I
Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................... II
Chapter 1 – Electronic Systems .................................................................... 1
1.1 Electrical and electronic systems ......................................................... 1
1.2 Logic gates .......................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2 – Inputs and Outputs ................................................................... 5
Wet in the Cellar ............................................................................................. 5
Light Alarm................................................................................................... 10
Temperature Controlled Fan .......................................................................... 12
Inverting Sensors ........................................................................................... 14
A Flower Pot Control .................................................................................... 18
Chapter 3 – Logic Gates.............................................................................. 20
Aquarium Pump Control ............................................................................... 20
Entrance Door Control .................................................................................. 24
Car Light Control .......................................................................................... 28
Pump Control ................................................................................................ 31
Toy Car Control ............................................................................................ 34
Chapter 4 – Latch and Magnetic Switch .................................................... 36
Calling a Nurse.............................................................................................. 36
Unexpected Visitors Alarm ........................................................................... 39
Range Control ............................................................................................... 41
Chapter 5 – Counter and Timer ................................................................. 43
Electric Train Control.................................................................................... 43
Irrigation System ........................................................................................... 47
Automatic Irrigation System ......................................................................... 49
Quiz Timer .................................................................................................... 52
Chapter 6 – Challenge Exercises ................................................................ 54
System Design .............................................................................................. 54
An Alarm System (example of design report)................................................ 56
SES
II
Preface
The Popular Electronics Technology training system enables everyone to be
familiar with electronic components, simple and complex electronic systems,
sensors and consumers, digital systems and to perform measurements in
electronic systems.
The studying method is built from the system to the component; need 
demand  solution and theoretical background – summary, system's
documentation and "What we have learned" sentences for the students to fill.
The curriculum is accompanied with challenge exercises for the students to

plan and build relying on the knowledge they acquired.
This book comprises 6 chapters. The first chapter is an introduction to

electronics and digital systems. The students may read it at their own pace. It
can be used as an introductory chapter given by the teacher to the whole class
at once or may be recommended as a summary.
Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 contain experiments. In each chapter we implement

various applications and various digital systems.
Chapter 2 – Inputs and Outputs.

Chapter 3 – Logic Gates.
Chapter 4 – Latch and Magnetic switch.
Chapter 5 – Counter and Timer.
The relevant theory is given in small portions in a unique way while

experimenting.
Chapter 6 is a challenge exercises for the student.
SES
1
Chapter 1 – Electronic Systems

1.1 Electrical and electronic systems
In an electrical system we close an electrical circuit made up of a power
source (battery), a switch and a load (consumer).
Switch
Power +
Source - Lamp
Figure 1-1
When the switch is closed, the same current flows through the three
components – from the power source, to the switch, to the lamp and back to
the power source.
In an electronic system we use a variety of components, each having a special

function. These components transfer various signals from one to the other
according to their functions.
An electronic system includes a device which supplies electrical energy to all

the system's components. This device is called the Power Supply.
SES
2
Besides the power supply, every electronic system comprises three elementary
parts in the following way:
+V
+
Power Input Processing Output
Supply Units Units Units
-
GND
Figure 1-2
We can see that all the system's units are connected in parallel to the power
supply and it supplies energy to all of them.
We call the positive line of the power supply the +V line and the negative line
– the GND line. GND is short for the word GrouND.
A system that is built with units having various functions is called a modular
system. We call each unit a module.
The signal that comes out of a module is called Signal Out (S.OUT) and the
signal that goes into the module is called Signal In (S.IN).
S.OUT of one module is the S.IN of the next module.
The input unit:

The input unit signals the processing unit when an event occurs.
For example:
 The switch unit signals when a button is pressed.

 The light sensor signals when there is light.
 The wet sensor signals when the sensor is wet.
SES
3
The processing unit:

The processing unit accepts the signal coming in from the input, processes it
according to its special function, and outputs the resulting signal to the output
unit.
The simplest processing unit is a unit which does nothing more than to operate
the output unit. This unit is called a Driver.
Other processing units for example are:
 An amplifier which amplifies the signal.

 Logic units which operate the consumer according to a certain conditions.
 A counter which counts the signals.
The output unit:

The output unit includes the consumer components - a buzzer, a lamp or a
motor.
Here is a diagram of a system which drives a pump motor when a wet sensor
is wet.
Power Wet
Supply Sensor Driver Motor
Figure 1-3
To simplify the circuit, we draw a thick arrow coming out from the power
supply. This arrow indicates that the power supply is connected to all the
modules.
The wet sensor signals the driver when it is wet and the driver operates the
motor accordingly.
We can’t build an electrical system with a wet sensor. A wet sensor can’t
operate a motor, and that is why we have to build an electronic circuit.
SES
4
1.2 Logic gates

Logic gates are the building blocks of digital systems. They are located
between the inputs and the outputs and combine logic conditions and
decisions in the system.
We can treat a logic component as a black box which has several inputs (one,
two or three) and one output as described in the following figure.
A
B Y
C
Figure 1-4
The output is a function of the input condition.
In digital systems, the outputs and the inputs have two states – ON and OFF.
We describe theses states with the digits '0' and '1' accordingly.
There are a huge number of logic devices. These devices are based on a small
group of components called logic gates.
SES
5
Chapter 2 – Inputs and Outputs

Introduction
Tom and his computer are the neighborhood's problem solvers.

Usually, Tom presents the problem to his talking computer and the
computer suggests a solution with the relevant background
information. Tom's computer nickname is "Tomputer".
Tomputer
Tom
Wet in the Cellar
"Tomputer, my friend, my mother keeps potatoes in our cellar and

we need an alarm system, which turns ON a buzzer when water gets
into the cellar."
"No problems. With the TPS-3712 modules we can build many

types of systems. For this application we need a Wet Sensor, a
Driver, a Buzzer and a Power Supply."
Power Wet
Sensor Driver Buzzer
Supply
SES
6
Did you know?

"What is a wet sensor?"
Pure water does not
conduct electric
current, but because tap
"The wet sensor is the touch switch water contains salts and
which consists of two exposed leads. minerals it is a very
When water appears between the leads, good conductor.
conductivity occurs and the system
reacts."
Touch Switch (Wet Sensor):

The touch switch consists of two exposed leads. +V +V
When water appears between the leads,
conductivity occurs and the system reacts.
S. Out
A variable resistance (called a potentiometer) is
connected between one switch leads and GND.
This potentiometer enables us to adjust the
GND GND
switch sensitivity.
The touch switch module also includes a switch Touch Switch (Wet sensor)
parallel to the two exposed leads, so this module
can also be used as a regular switch module. The Buzzer:
The buzzer consists of a special
electronic circuit. When it is ON,
"What is the purpose of the other it electrically vibrates a ceramic
device, which mechanically
units?"
vibrates a metal plate, which
vibrates the air. We hear the air
vibrations as a tone.
"The buzzer's purpose is obvious –
to make a noise when water gets
into the cellar.
"The problem is that the wet

sensor cannot turn the buzzer ON
and that's why we use the driver
module."
The Buzzer
SES
7
The Driver:
The driver consists of a transistor called a FET.
+V +V
This transistor operates as an electronic switch
between the lines S.OUT (Signal Out) and
GND. Its condition depends on its gate (G), S. In S. Out
connected to S.IN (Signal In). G D
S
When S.IN is connected to +V, the switch is
closed (ON). When S.IN is connected to GND, GND GND
the switch is open (OFF).
The driver circuit enables us to operate The Driver Module
electrical consumers from sensors such as:
Light sensor, Temperature sensor, Wet sensor,
Magnetic sensor etc.
Q "The power supply supplies voltage to all the modules."
Did you know?

The Power Supply:
The Mains voltage is too high for electronic
The power supply consists of two components and is too dangerous for the user.
units. The first unit is the adapter It is also an alternating current source which
which transforms the Mains changes direction 50 (or 60) times in a second.
voltage to a low voltage and
converts it from alternating The power supply transforms the Mains
current (AC) to direct current voltage into a low voltage and converts it from
(DC). Alternating Current (AC) into a Direct
Current (DC).
The second part of the power
supply is the Power Supply
Module. This module regulates
the voltage and stabilizes it and
provides the power voltage to all
the other modules through a
special 3 terminal connector. This
kind of connector is found on
every module.
Power Supply Module
SES
8
"The complete system is as follows:Q
+V +V +V +V +V +V
S. In S. Out
S. Out S. Out G D S. In
S
GND
GND GND GND GND
Power Supply Touch Switch (Wet Sensor) Driver Buzzer
Do the following steps in order to implement the alarm system:

Step 1: Implement the above system.
Step 2: Connect the power supply to the mains and to the Power Supply
module.
Step 3: Wet your finger and touch the two exposed leads of the touch
switch.
The buzzer should turn ON.
If not, rotate the potentiometer clockwise and touch the leads again
with your wet finger, until the buzzer turns ON.
SES
9
Step 4: Take your finger off the leads and dry them. The buzzer should turn
OFF
Note:
The touch switch also includes a standard switch. Some of the
following experiments need two switches and we will use this
module in addition to the switch module.
Step 5: Press the switch and check the system reaction.
"We can use the system we have to test other electrical consumers -
a motor, a lamp, a relay."
The Lamp: The Motor: The Electromagnet:

Thomas Edison invented the The Motor consists of a coil The electromagnet consists of
electric lamp in 1879. The surrounded by a fixed a coil around an armature.
lamp consists of a filament magnet. When current flows through
inside a glass globe. the coil, the armature
When current flows becomes a magnet and pulls a
Current through the through its coil, it becomes lever. When the current
filament causes it to heat up an alternating magnet stops, the lever is returned by
to a very high temperature rotated by the fixed magnet a spring.
and to glow radiating light driving the motor's shaft
and heat. with it.
"These components in an electronic system are called Output units

because they are connected to the output of the system."
"Probably the sensors and the switches are called Input units for a
similar reason."
Continue with the following step:
Step 6: Replace the buzzer with other consumers such as a motor, a lamp,
an electromagnet, and observe their reaction to the switch.
SES
10
Light Alarm
"Hey Tomputer, have my mother's thanks for the system. She said
that the cellar is quite dry but it should be kept dark. She wants us to
change the system to warn when light gets in."
"It is simple. You can replace the wet sensor with a light sensor."
Light Sensor:
The light sensor is a phototransistor. This is a
transistor which changes the resistance between its +V +V
terminals according to the light intensity.
The light sensor can act as a switch. When we S. Out
illuminate the sensor with bright light, it acts as a
closed switch.
GND GND
When we darken the sensor, it acts as an open
switch. Light Sensor

connected between one lead of the phototransistor
and GND. This potentiometer enables us to adjust
the sensor sensitivity.
SES
11
Do the following steps in order to implement the alarm system:
Step 1: Implement the following system.
+V +V +V +V +V +V
S. In S. Out
S
GND GND GND

GND GND
Power Supply Light Driver Buzzer

Sensor
module.
Step 3: Direct the light sensor to a light source.
The buzzer should buzz.
If not, turn the potentiometer clockwise until the buzzer turns ON.
Step 4: Darken the light sensor. The buzzer turns OFF.
Step 5: Replace the buzzer with a motor and repeat steps 3 and 4.
Step 6: Play with the adjusting potentiometer and check how it affects the
sensitivity of the system.
Step 7: Replace the motor with a lamp and repeat steps 3 and 4.
SES
12
Temperature Controlled Fan
"The potatoes in the cellar should be kept in a cool place."
"Let's build an automatic fan which turns ON when the temperature

is high and OFF when the temperature drops."
"The system is based on a temperature sensor."
Temperature Sensor (Thermistor):

The temperature sensor is a resistor which changes
the resistance between its terminals according to +V +V
the temperature. This sensor is called NTC
(Negative Temperature Coefficient). The resistance
goes down when the temperature goes up and vice- S. Out
versa.
When the temperature goes up, the S.OUT voltage GND GND
rises.
Temperature Sensor
When the temperature goes down, the S.OUT
voltage drops.
connected between one lead of the thermistor and
GND. This potentiometer enables us to adjust the
thermistor sensitivity.
SES
13
Do the following steps in order to implement the temperature-

controlled system:
+V +V +V +V +V +V
S. In S. Out
S
GND GND GND

GND GND
Power Supply Temperature Driver Buzzer

Sensor
module.
Step 3: Rotate the sensor potentiometer clockwise until the motor goes ON.
Now rotate it a little counterclockwise until the motor stops.
If the motor does not turn ON, turn the potentiometer maximum
clockwise.
Step 4: Hold the sensor (it is a black component) between your thumb and
forefinger (but do not bend it) and wait a little or blow on (your
breath is warmer than the surrounding air). The sensor heats up, its
resistance will fall and the S.OUT voltage rises.
At a certain moment, the motor will start working.
Check that.
Step 5: Leave the sensor.
Touch it with something cold (a metal ruler or something similar).
The motor should stop when the sensor is cold.
SES
14
Inverting Sensors
"Tomputer, Mr. Saver, my neighbor, asked me to build him an

electronic system, which automatically turns ON a lamp when it is
dark. He wants to place this lamp over his front door"
QSo?Q
"The problem is that we have a light sensor and not a dark sensor.Q
"You can turn the light sensor into a dark sensor by using a NOT
logic gate.Q
"What is a logic gate?Q
"Logic gates are the building blocks of digital systems. They are
located between the inputs and the outputs and combine logic
conditions and decisions in the system."
"In digital systems the outputs and the inputs have two states - ON
and OFF. We describe theses states with the digits '0' and '1'
accordingly."
SES
15
"Right, and each gate are described by a symbol and a truth table. In
the truth table we can see the value of the gate's output for every
condition of its inputs."
NOT gate:
The NOT gate symbol is:L A Y
A is an input and Y is an output.

Y is ON when A is OFF and Y is OFF when A is ON.
The truth table of the NOT gate is shown below:
A Y
0 1
1 0
The output Y is '1' (ON) when A is '0' (OFF).
SES
16
Do the following steps in order to implement the automatic light

control system:
Step 1: Observe the NOT module and compare it with the following
diagram:
+V +V
S. In S. Out
GND GND
+V +V +V +V +V +V +V
+V
S. In S. Out
S. Out S. Out S.I S.O D
G S. In
S
GND GND GND G G

GND GND
Power Supply Light NOT Gate Driver Lamp

Sensor
module.
Step 4: Direct the light sensor to a light source.
Check that the lamp is extinguished.
If not, rotate the light sensor potentiometer clockwise a little.
Step 5: Shade the light sensor with your hand and block the light.
Check that the lamp is now ON.
SES
17
"The NOT gate help us to change the sensor behavior, for

example:
A light sensor becomes a dark sensor.
A wet sensor becomes a dry sensor."
SES
18
A Flower Pot Control
"That reminds me. Mrs. Flower asked me if I could do something

for her flower pots. Sometimes she forgets to irrigate them and
sometimes she irrigates too many times."
"You can build a system with a wet sensor in the flower pot and a
lamp. The system turns ON a lamp when the ground is dry until the
ground is wet again."
"That's a good exercise for the reader."
Design and implement a system that solves the above problem

using a block diagram:
Implement your designed system and check it.
SES
19
What have we learned:
 The power supply converts the high Mains voltage into _______ voltage.
 The driver consumes high/low current as its input signal.
 When the buzzer is ON, it vibrates a metal plate, which vibrates the
_____________. We hear the air vibrations as a tone.
 When current flows through the electromagnet coil, the armature becomes
a _________ and pulls a lever.
 When current flows through the motor coil, it ___________ driving the
motor's shaft with it.
 Current through the lamp filament causes it to _________ up to a very

high temperature and to glow, radiating light and heat.
 The light sensor is a phototransistor. This is a transistor which changes the

resistance between its terminals according to the ____________ intensity.
 The temperature sensor is a resistor which changes the ___________

between its terminals according to the temperature.
 Pure water does not conduct electric current, but because tap water
contains _________ and ___________, it is a very good conductor.
 When water appears between the exposed leads of the wet sensor,
_____________ occurs and the system reacts.
 The truth table of the NOT gate is shown below:
A Y
0
1
SES
20
Chapter 3 – Logic Gates

Introduction
Tom and his talking computer (called Tomputer) are the neighborhood's
problem solvers. In this chapter, they will solve more complicated problems
with logic gates.
Tom Tomputer
Aquarium Pump Control
"Tomputer, the water pump of our aquarium was ruined because we

tried to operate it without water. My father wants me to build some
control system that will disable operation if there is no water."
"You need an AND gate."
"How does it control the pump?"
"The AND gate has two inputs and one output. Its output turns ON
only when both its inputs are simultaneously ON."
Switch
A
Power Wet AND
Sensor Driver Motor
Supply Gate
B
SES
21
AND Gate:
A
The AND gate symbol is: Y
?
? B
A and B are inputs and Y is an output.
The truth table of an AND gage is:
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
The output Y is '1' (ON) only when A AND B are '1' (ON).
"Wonderful, the system prevents the operation of the pump motor

while there is no water in the aquarium."
"Right, and as we have said, this kind of diagram is called a block

diagram or a Logic Diagram."
Do the following steps in order to implement the automatic pump control

system:
Step 1: Observe the AND module and compare it with the following
diagram:
+V +V
S. In S. Out
GND GND
The module includes one output connector and two input connectors
for connecting two different modules, which supply two different
input signals.
SES
22
Step 2: Implement the following system:

Switch A
GND +V
GND S. Out +V
+V +V +V +V +V +V +V
+V
S. In S. Out
S. Out S. Out S.I S.O G D S. In
S
GND G G
GND GND GND GND
Power Supply Wet Sensor AND Gate Driver Motor

Switch B
Step 3: To identify the state table of the AND gate, we will use two switch
modules – the switch and the touch switch (wet sensor) modules.
The touch switch includes a switch parallel to the two exposed

leads, so this module can also be used as a switch module.
We will call the standard switch, switch A and the touch switch,
switch B. The output (the motor) will be indicated by the letter Y.
Step 4: Copy the following table into your notebook:
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
The OFF condition of a switch or the motor is indicated as '0' and

ON condition as '1'.
SES
23
Press the switches to turn them ON and release to turn them OFF.
Observe the motor reaction and fill in the table accordingly.
Step 5: Try to operate the motor when the wet sensor is dry. Draw your
conclusions.
SES
24
Entrance Door Control
"Tomputer, Mrs. Marpel, our elderly neighbor, has a door opened by

an electromagnet, controlled by a switch. She wants to be able to
open it either from the living room or from the kitchen."
"As you have just said, we need two switches. In addition we

require an OR gate."
"Oh, the OR gate will let us to switch the electromagnet when

switch A or switch B are ON."
"Exactly, and also when they are both ON. The following is the
block diagram."
Switch A
A
Power OR
Switch B Driver Motor
Supply Gate
B
SES
25
OR gate:
A
The OR gate symbol is: B
Y

The truth table of an OR gate is:
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
The output Y is '1' (ON) when A OR B OR both are '1' (ON).
"These gates are interesting elements."
SES
26
Do the following steps in order to implement the entry control

system:
Step 1: Observe the OR module and compare it with the following diagram:
+V +V
S. In S. Out
GND GND
input signals.

Switch A
GND +V
GND S. Out +V
+V +V +V +V +V +V +V
+V
S. In S. Out
S
GND G G
GND GND GND GND
Power Supply Wet Sensor OR Gate Driver Electromagnet

Switch B
SES
27
Step 3: To identify the state table of the OR gate, we will use two switch
modules - the switch and the touch switch modules.
We will call the standard switch, switch A and the touch switch,
switch B. The output (the electromagnet) will be indicated by the
letter Y.
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Observe the electromagnet reaction and fill in the table accordingly.
A relay is used as an electromagnet. The relay is covered so we can

hear the click of its lever, but we can’t see its movement.
SES
28
Car Light Control
"Do you know Tomputer, Mr. Marpel's car light is broken. He

asked me to build a new system which turns ON the light in the
car when the one of the doors opens."
"We will take two switches, one for each door and a logic gate.
When the door is closed, the switch is pressed and ON. But what
kind of gate do you think?"
"Let's see. When a switch is OFF we want the light ON. An AND
gate's output is OFF when one of its inputs is OFF. Maybe we can
take an AND gate and connect its output to a NOT gate?"
"Excellent. But we have a gate which is equivalent to this

combination. It is called a NAND gate and its symbol is:"
Switch A
A
Power NAND
Switch B Driver Lamp
Supply Gate
B
SES
29
NANDL
Gate:
A
The NAND gate symbol is: Y
B
The truth table of a NAND gate is:
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
The output Y is '1' (ON) when A OR B OR both are '0' (ON).
Do the following steps in order to implement the car light

control system:
Step 1: Observe the NAND module and compare it with the following
diagram:
+V +V
S. In S. Out
GND GND
input signals.
SES
30

Switch A
GND +V
GND S. Out +V
+V +V +V +V +V +V +V
+V
S. In S. Out
S
GND G G
GND GND GND GND
Power Supply Wet Sensor NAND Gate Driver Lamp

Switch B
Step 3: To identify the state table of the NAND gate, we will use two switch
modules – the switch and the touch switch modules.
We will call the standard switch – switch A and the touch switch –
switch B. The output (the lamp) will be indicated by the letter Y.
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Observe the lamp reaction and fill in the table accordingly.
Step 5: Replace the NAND gate with AND and NOT gates and repeat step
4. Do you have the same results?
SES
31
Pump Control
"My father wants to use the aquarium pump to fill a water reservoir
in our garden automatically. He wants to use the wet sensor and a
switch. The pump should be OFF when the wet sensor is wet (the
reservoir is full) or when we press the switch."
"Have I heard you saying the word 'OR'?"
"Yes, but it can't be a standard OR gate, because the output is OFF

when one of its inputs is ON. I know! We can take an OR gate and
connect its output to a NOT gate, or could it be that we have a NOR
gate?"
"Yes, we have and its symbol is:"
Switch A
Power A
Switch B NOR
Supply Gate
Driver Motor
B
SES
32
NOR Gate:
The NOR gate symbol is: A
Y
B
The truth table of a NOR gate is:
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
The output Y is '0' (OFF) when A OR B OR both are '1' (ON).
Do the following steps in order to implement the car light

control system:
Step 1: Observe the NOR module and compare it with the following
diagram:
+V +V
S. In S. Out
GND GND
input signals.
SES
33

Switch A
GND +V
GND S. Out +V
+V +V +V +V +V +V +V
+V
S. In S. Out
S
GND G G
GND GND GND GND
Power Supply Wet Sensor NOR Gate Driver Motor

Switch B
Step 3: To identify the state table of the NOR gate, we will use two switch
modules – the switch and the touch switch modules.
We will call the standard switch - switch A and the touch switch –
switch B. The output (the motor) will be indicated by the letter Y.
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Observe the motor reaction and fill in the table accordingly.
Step 5: Replace the NOR gate with OR and NOT gates and repeat step 4.
Do you have the same results?
SES
34
Toy Car Control
"My brother Danny has an electrical car with an operation switch.

Many times when it plays with it on the table, it falls down. He
asked me to limit the car lane with a light sensor and a lamp against
it. When the car cross the light line and block it, the motor stops,
even if he presses the switch."
"It will be sound less complicated if you phrase the problem

differently. The motor should be ON when the switch is ON and the
light sensor is OFF."
"It is simple now. We will leave this problem to the reader."

using a block diagram.
SES
35
 The output of an AND gate is ON only when its two inputs are _________.
 The truth table of an AND gate is:
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
 The truth table of an OR gate is:
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
 The truth table of an NAND gate is:
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
 The truth table of an NOR gate is:
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
SES
36
Chapter 4 – Latch and Magnetic

Switch
Introduction
In this chapter Tom and his talking computer (called Tomputer) will solve
problems with memory and counting elements.
Tom Tomputer
VWSUT RSTSUT
Calling a Nurse
"Tomputer, My mother is a nurse. She has a problem on night duty.

She needs a system which lets the patient call her silently."
"O.K. Use a switch and a lamp."
"I thought about it. The problem is that when the patient presses the
switch he doesn't know if she sees it or not. He can't hold the switch
pressed for very long."
"You have to add a latch module."
"Is this another gate?"
SES
37
"It is based on gates but operates differently. In gates, for each input
condition you have a certain output condition. When you change the
latch input, its output changes and stays in the new condition even if
the input is changed back."
"For how long?"
"The latch has another input which is called a RESET input (or in
short RST). When we signal this input, the latch output is cleared.
The system will look like this:"
RST
Power Inverter Latch Driver

Switch Lamp
Supply NOT Module Module
Do the following steps in order to implement the nurse call

system:
Step 1: Observe the LATCH module and compare it with the following
diagram:
+V +V
S. In S. Out
RST
GND GND
Step 2: Implement the above block diagram with the TPS-3712 modules.
Step 3: Press the RST button on the latch module to clear its output.
SES
38
Step 4: Press the switch on the switch module and observe its LED and the
LEDS of the latch.
The latch input's LED will go ON and OFF like the switch LED.
The latch output's LED and the lamp will turn ON and they will
remain on.
Step 5: Press on the switch button again.
This does not affect the latch output.
Step 6: Press on the RST button of the latch module.
The output LED and the lamp turn OFF.
After the patient presses the switch, the lamp goes ON until the
nurse comes, attends to the patient and presses the RST key which
turns OFF the lamp.
"The lamp wires can be laid so that the lamp is at the nurse station.
We can put an electronic circuit beside every patient and patient
names beside every lamp. This way, the nurse knows who calls her.
There is a system like that in airplanes."
SES
39
Unexpected Visitors Alarm
"I have another problem. I would like to know is someone entered

into my room when I haven't been there. I can’t put the light sensor
behind my door."
"It is better to use the magnetic sensor."
"What is magnetic sensor?"
"The magnetic sensor (called also magnetic switch) is located in a

small glass tube. The module comes with a small magnet. When we
bring the magnet near the magnetic switch, it closes."
"I know! I’ll put a magnet on the door and the magnetic sensor near
the door. When the door is opened, the magnetic switch will be off."
Do the following steps in order to implement the improved

alarm system:
Step 1: Observe the Magnetic switch module and compare it with the
following diagram:
+V +V
S. In S. Out
GND GND
SES
40
Step 2: Implement the following block diagram with the TPS-3712

modules.
Power Magnetic Inverter Driver

Supply NOT Latch Module Lamp
Sensor
Step 3: Place the Magnet near the magnetic switch, until the left LED of the
latch is ON.
Press the RST button on the latch module to clear its output.
Step 4: Remove the magnet from the magnetic sensor and observe the LEDs
on the latch.
The latch input's LED will go OFF.
The latch output's LED and the lamp will turn ON and they will
remain on.
Step 5: Bring the magnet close to the magnetic sensor again.
The lamp keeps ON.
Step 6: Press the RST button on the latch module.
The output LED and the lamp turn OFF.
SES
41
Range Control
""Are there other applications for the magnetic sensor?"
"Usually, we use it as a proximity sensor. For example, in an

elevator system or even in a dentist chair"
"In dentist chair?"
"To raise the chair we use an electric motor controlled by electronic

switch and a driver. To stop the motor when the chair is at its
maximum height, we can use a magnet, magnetic sensor and gates."
"Let's give this mission to the reader."

SES
42
 When the latch input is changed, its output changes and stays in the new
condition even if the input is changed back, until a ________ button is
pressed.
 The latch has a __________ input line and a __________ input line.
Circle the correct answers:
 The monostable turns ON for a limited/unlimited period of time.
 The monostable may be used as an electronic delay unit. True/False
SES
43
Chapter 5 – Counter and Timer

Introduction
Tom and Tomputer are very busy in this chapter solving problems with a pulse
generator and a counter.
Tom Tomputer
Electric Train Control
"Tomputer, can we build an electronic system that counts?"
"Yes, why?"
"My brother has an electric train. He wants to stop it automatically

after 10 laps."
"For sensing the train we will use a light sensor opposite a light
source. This will signal whenever the train crosses the light line. For
counting we use a counter."
"Probably it counts in binary numbers – '0' and '1'."
SES
44
"Yes, but because it is difficult to read binary numbers, the counter

module has also 7 segment display and a decoder unit. The decoder
turns on the display's segments to display decimal numbers
according to the binary numbers."
"The display segments are LEDs organized as seven lines as in the

figure 8. This configuration enables us to display the digit figures."
The Counter:
The counter is composed of small memory cells called Flip-Flops (in short F-F). The
F-F has an input (called clock input like in the latch) and an output. The output
changes its condition every time the input goes from High to Low ('1' to '0').
The counter we use has four F-F cells connected in a series as in the following figure:
Clock CY
Input
0 1 2 3
Every time the clock input changes from '1' to '0' the first cell output (marked 0)
changes its condition. Thus every second change of the clock, the first cell output
changes from '1' to '0' and the second F-F output changes its condition and so on. The
third cell output changes every 4 clocks and the fourth cell output changes every 8
clocks.
For every clock signal, we will find a different binary number (a number comprises
the digits '0' and '1' only) on the clock outputs. Our counter has ten possible binary
numbers representing the decimal numbers 0-9.
The counter has an additional output marked CY. This output goes to '1' when the
counter reaches the number 9, to indicate that the counter is at the last number
before it goes to 0 again.
The counter has also a RST input which clears its outputs and brings it to 0.
Another input marked U/D tells the counter how to counts: Up (from 0 to 9) or Down
(from 9 to 0).
SES
45
Do the following steps in order to implement the electrical train

control system:
Step 1: Observe the Counter module and compare it with the following
diagram:
+V +V
S. In S. Out
GND GND
Step 2: Implement the following block diagram with the TPS-3712

modules.
Power Switch Inverter Counter Driver

Motor
Supply Module NOT Module Module
For the time being, we will use the switch module as a sensor for
testing the counter's behavior.
The NOT gate has an additional function besides inverting the

switch/sensor signal. The voltage at the switch/sensor output does
not changed at once from high to low and from low to high but
gradually. This causes bouncing at the counter input. The NOT
module is built using special technology, called a Schmitt Trigger,
that eliminates this problem.
Step 3: On the counter module there are two pins marked "U/D", with a
jumper.
Check that the jumper is located on one pin only. When it is on both
pins, it will short circuits them and the counter will count down.
SES
46
Step 4: Press the push button switch on the switch module and observe the
counter display.
Observe that when the counter reaches 9, the motor turns OFF until
it goes to 0. From 0 to 8 the motor is ON.
Step 5: While counting, press the RST key and the display clears.
Step 6: Place the jumper on the two U/D pins. Press the pushbutton switch
and observe the counter display.
The counter counts down.
Check when the motor is ON and when it is OFF.
Step 7: Replace the switch with the light sensor module. Place the light
sensor opposite a light source.
Step 8: Move your hand over the light sensor to shade it and observe the
counter's display and the motor's reaction.
SES
47
Irrigation System
"I want to build an irrigation system which will operate an electric

tap for one second every ten seconds. The counter counts clock
signals. Can we supply it signals at a constant rate?"
"Yes. Signals of this kind are called pulses and they are created by a
Pulse Generator."
"By connecting the pulse generator to a counter we can count the

pulses."
This way the counter measures time and this why we call this
system a Timer."
Among the TPS-3712 modules you can find a pulse generator:

Pulse Generator: +V +V
A pulse is a signal which goes high

('1') for a period of time and then
goes low ('0'). P S. Out
The pulse generator generates LED

C1 C2
pulses at a certain frequency which
GND GND
can be changed. The pulse rate is
determined by a potentiometer and
two capacitors.
Turning the potentiometer changes
the charging rate and the pulse rate
accordingly.
When the switch is open, only one The Capacitor:
capacitor is connected and time
delays are short so that we get high The capacitor is a component which limits
frequency. When the switch is fast voltage changes in electronic systems. It
closed, both two capacitors are consists of two plates which can be charged.
connected and we get a low The capacitor voltage changes according to
frequency.L this charge.
SES
48
Do the following steps in order to create an automatic irrigation

system:
Step 1: Connect the pulse generator module to the power supply module.
+V +V
+V
S. Out P S. Out
LED
GND C1 C2
GND GND
Step 2: Set the pulse generator's selector switch to the low frequency
position (low pulse rate). Observe the flashing LED on the pulse
generator module.
Step 3: Turn the potentiometer and increase the pulse rate. Then decrease
the rate to one pulse per second.
Step 4: Connect the driver module and the solenoid to the pulse generator.
The solenoid should go ON and OFF once every second.
Step 5: Add the NOT and the counter modules to operate the solenoid once
every 10 seconds.
Power Pulse Inverter Counter Driver Electro-

Supply Generator NOT Module Module Magnet
Step 6: Observe the system reaction.
SES
49
Automatic Irrigation System
"I gave the irrigation system to Mrs. Flower and she wasn't satisfied.
She wants a system that irrigates only when it does not rain."
"We will use the pulse generator and the solenoid. To control the
system we will block the pulses with a logic gate when the wet
sensor is wet."
Switch
A
Power Pulse AND Counter
Supply Generator Gate Module
B
"When the switch is OFF, the output of the AND gate is ‘0’
regardless the state of the pulse generator output. The pulses pass
the gate only when the switch is ON."
gate as a switch:
ANDL
A
The AND gate symbol is: Y
B
Y is ON only when its two inputs (A and B) are ON.
A logic gate can be used as a real gate which blocks signal transfer from
one system to another as in the following system:
Enable
Input
Pulse
Generator
When the enable input is '0', the AND gate's output is '0' no matter what
is on the second input line (the line carrying the pulses).
When the enable inputs is '1', the pulses appear at the output of the
AND gate.
SES
50
Do the following steps in order to understand the gate switching

system:
Step 1: Implement the system according to the above block diagram using
the touch switch (wet sensor) as a switch.
Step 2: Calibrate the pulse generator rate to on pulse per second.
Step 3: Check that the counter reacts when we press the touch switch.
"But it irrigates when it rains, when the wet sensor is wet."
"O.K. Use the NOT gate."
Step 4: Add the NOT gate as shown in the following diagram.
Wet
Sensor
A
Power Pulse AND Counter
Supply Generator Gate Module
B
Step 5: Wet the touch switch or press the pushbutton and check if the
counting stops."
SES
51
"We can block the pulses with an OR gate."
Enable Input
Pulse
Generator
"When the enable input is '1', the OR gate output is '1' regardless of
what is on the other input line."
"When the enable input is '0', the pulses pass through the OR gate."
Step 6: Implement this system with the OR gate, check its reaction and find
the difference between the two systems.

SES
52
Quiz Timer
Q "My teacher asked me to build a timer that turns ON a lamp after 5

seconds. Our counter counts up to 10."
"So set the generator rate to 2 pulses per second. Our reader is a
clever student. Give him this challenge."

SES
53
 Binary counting is based on the numbers ______ and __________.
 The counter has ______ outputs which create binary numbers with _____
bits.?
 The counter outputs are connected to 7 segment display and a decoder unit.
The decoder turns on the display's segments to display __________
numbers according to the binary numbers."?
 The display segments are LEDs organized as seven lines as in the figure
_________.
 The counter may count _________ and __________.
 A component which changes its output at a fixed rate is called ________

___________.
 The Potentiometer and the ____________ determine the pulse rate of the
pulse generator.
 By connecting a pulse generator to a counter we construct a ___________.
SES
54
Chapter 6 – Challenge Exercises

Introduction
Tom and Tomputer have helped us to understand and to implement
many digital systems. In this chapter, it is your turn to integrate all
your knowledge and to help them to solve some problems with
digital systems.
Tom Tomputer
System Design
"I have learned a lot about digital electronic systems. I like it and I
collected a list of problems to solve from my friends."
"That's a very nice challenge. Do that but do not forget one of the
most important parts of every system."
"Which is?"
"The design report."
"What!? Isn't enough that the system works and answers the
problem."
SES
55
"The design report is not only necessary just because it is required

by your teacher or by your boss in the future. It is very important
because it is the shortest and the clearest way to describe a system."
"It is important for you also to remind you of what you have done
and how. Two weeks after we build something, we may not
remember how and why (even if we have a good memory)."
"I'll give this mission to the reader."
System Design:
A system design starts with the subject title and then the system requirements. We
start with the design only after completely understanding the requirements.
The design starts with a block diagram and a short description of the system and
how it works.
After the design, we implement the system, test its performance, and compare this
with the requirements.
Sometimes, while implementing the system, might have some ideas which improve
the system requirements. This dictates a new system. We determine the new
requirements and start the design from the beginning. This has been the method of
system development since the first invention in human history.
As a final stage, we can draw the electronic circuits of the modules.
SES
56
An Alarm System (example of design report)
The Requirement: A system consisting of a light sensor opposite a light

source. When a burglar crosses the light line, a lamp
should turn ON in a control room.
The Design:
Light Light Inverter Driver Lamp

Source Sensor NOT Module Module
When light falls on the light sensor, the lamp turns OFF
because of the NOT gate which inverts the light sensor
reaction.
When the light is blocked and does reach the light
sensor, the lamps turns ON.
Performance:
1) The light sensor potentiometer should be calibrated
for highest sensitivity.
2) To improve the light sensor reaction it is better to
put it in some tube (a hard paper tube for example),
to block the surrounding light and to react only to
the light that comes from the light source.
3) A problem:
When a burglar crosses the light line quickly, the
lamp flashes for a very short time which is hardly
noticeable. The guard must keep his eyes on the
lamp all the time.
Improvements:
1) To add a memory element, that latches the
triggering of the light sensor.
2) To replace the lamp with a buzzer.
SES
57
Design and implement systems that solve the following problems

with design reports.
System 1 – A dark room timer:
Pressing a switch operates a timer for a certain time, which can be determined
by a potentiometer. When the time limit is reached, a buzzer turns ON for a
short time.
System 2 – A conveyor controller:
A system used for counting the products on a conveyor. Every 10 products it

turns ON a solenoid which operates an automatic tying machine. Counting is
done with a light sensor and a light source.
System 3 – A carousel controller:
A magnet is located on the carousel and a magnetic proximity sensor is

located at a fixed point adjacent to the carousel. A count is registered every
time the magnet passes by the proximity sensor. The carousel motor turns ON
when we press a button and stops after 10 rounds.
System 4 – A random number generator:
Pressing a button causes the counter to run at a very high speed, so that we
can't see the numbers on the display. When we release the button, we see the
last number that was registered on the counter display.
System 5 – A wiper timer:
A system which turns ON the car window wiper automatically for one second
every 10 seconds, when it is rainy (a wet sensor is wet).
SES
Arieh Nachum
Communication Systems
TPS-3714

Arieh Nachum
Communication Systems
TPS-3714
1_8
© All rights reserved to SES Scientific Educational Systems Ltd.

from SES.
I
Contents
Preface ......................................................................................................... II
Chapter 1 – Signals and Codes .................................................................... 1
1.1 Characters and symbols ...................................................................... 1
1.2 Signals and Codes .............................................................................. 3
Chapter 2 – Telegraph Communication ..................................................... 5
Signaling Systems .......................................................................................... 5
Morse Code .................................................................................................. 11
A Telegraph System ..................................................................................... 15
Chapter 3 – Telephone Communication ................................................... 17
A Simple Telephone System ........................................................................ 17
An Electric Telephone .................................................................................. 19
An Intercom System ..................................................................................... 23
The Intercom Telephone............................................................................... 28
Chapter 4 – Frequency and Volume ......................................................... 31
Sound, Frequency and Volume..................................................................... 31
Dialing and Telephone Exchanges ............................................................... 35
Routing Signals ............................................................................................ 38
Chapter 5 – Light, Laser and the Optic Fiber .......................................... 44
Light and Laser ............................................................................................ 44
Mirror Games ............................................................................................... 47
Reflection and Fraction ................................................................................ 50
The Optic Fiber ............................................................................................ 52
Chapter 6 – Optical Communication ........................................................ 57
Wireless Communication ............................................................................. 57
Computer Communication ........................................................................... 65
SES
II
Preface
This book covers the subject "Communication Systems" using TPS-3714 as an
experiment platform. The book comprises of 6 chapters. The first chapter is an
introduction. The students may read it at their own pace. It can be used as an
introductory chapter given by the teacher to the whole class at once or may be
recommended as a summary.
Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 contain experiments. In each chapter we implement

various applications and communication systems in different communication
fields:
Chapter 2 – Telegraph Communication.

Chapter 3 – Telephone Communication.
Chapter 4 – Frequency and Volume.
Chapter 5 – Light, Laser and the Optic Fiber.
Chapter 6 – Optical Communication.
The relevant theory is given in small portions in a unique way while

experimenting.
SES
1
Chapter 1 – Signals and Codes

1.1 Characters and symbols
Communication is the transfer of information and it takes many forms.
Communication can happen between people, between machines, between a
person and a machine and the other way around. Communication may be
direct or indirect.
To communicate we use different symbols. For example, in verbal

communication, the symbols are the syllables that we speak, which make up
words and sentences. Facial expressions are also symbols, which
communicate agreement, anger, joy and so on.
Man has always aspired to increase his capability to communicate beyond the
limits of sight and sound. Many different devices have been put to this use.
These devices require the use of additional symbols.
Prehistoric man drew pictures on the walls of caves to describe his

experiences. The ancient Egyptians and Chinese used pictures as writing
symbols (Hieroglyphics). With its invention, writing soon became the most
popular form of long distance communication and still is. Writing is used to
convey information - letters, books and newspapers. It is also used to store
information - books, encyclopedias and libraries.
Letters and books have an advantage over other methods of communications

in the vast amount of information that they can convey. However the response
to them is slow. They require us to use a postman or a messenger and a
vehicle. Companies such as the Wild Western Pony Express were already
established long ago, to provide a rapid and efficient mail service. Today these
private courier companies maintain fleets of vehicles and airplanes.
Man used additional methods to improve the response time. Fires, which
could be seen far away, were lit on mountaintops to convey important
messages. American Indians used smoke signals to communicate over
distances. Africans used Tom-Tom drums. Ships and armies used flags or
special levers, called "Semaphores".
SES
2
Communications in the western world developed rapidly with the discovery of

electricity and electrical inventions. Samuel Morse developed the Telegraph,
which operated on the principle of a push-button operating a remote bell. To
transfer messages, Morse developed a code of signals made up of short rings
and long rings - dots and dashes. Later a pencil attached to a lever was
connected to an electromagnet, to mark the dots and dashes on a moving paper
strip. Morse code became very popular and is still used today, with signaling
devices such as: signal lamps to signal between ships at sea, wireless signaling
and more.
With the next stage in development of communication, came the telephone,

radio and television, which reverted to direct communication, not requiring
any intermediate symbols.
At the same time the need for rapid written communications increased
communication between computers, communication between machines and
electronic mail. The largest consumers of this kind of communication were the
newspapers and various financial markets (for trade in stocks, currency,
commodities and materials).
First there was Morse's telegraph. Then came the teleprinters. The teleprinter
was a kind of typewriter. Each key pressed punched holes in a paper strip, in
different combinations, according to the characters. Each combination
corresponded with one character. These punched holes were converted into
current/no current electrical signals. At the receiver, these currents were
converted into signals to operate an automatic electric typewriter, which
printed the messages.
SES
3
1.2 Signals and Codes

The teleprinter was the beginning of binary communication. It became
apparent that it is easier and more reliable to build an electronic system that
can identify two states - current/no current, voltage/no voltage, switch
open/switch closed, hole/no hole. These states were designated with the digits
'0' and '1' and were called "Binary Digits" or simply "Bits".
The teleprinter code required 5 bits (for up to 5 punched holes in a line) and
was called Baudot code (Baudot, a Frenchman, was the inventor). The 5 bits
had 32 different combinations. This code enabled transfer of all the letters of
the Alphabet, numbers and some punctuation marks.
Every combination of binary terms (bits) forms a binary number. Computers

also use binary terms grouped in bunches of eight bits. An eight bit number is
called a "Byte". Two byte form a 16 bit binary number called a "Word".
Each memory cell in the computer holds one byte. The number of bytes it
holds measures the size of the computer’s memory. KB = Kilo Bytes = 1000
bytes. MB = Mega Bytes = a million bytes. GB = Giga Bytes = a billion bytes.
The communication rate between computers is measured in bits per second
(BPS).
Man can sense continuous signals, called analog signals. For example, sound
(magnitude and frequency), light and its colors, temperature etc. On the other
hand, computers process digital signals (0 or 1).
Most modern electronic systems incorporate a computer, as it is much easier

and more reliable to process digital information. If the signal reaching a
system is an analog signal (a continuous signal such as sound, temperature or
light) it is converted into a digital form. The device, which performs the
conversion, is called "ADC – Analog to Digital Converter". If the system
needs to produce an analog output signal (current or voltage), it converts the
digital output number into an analog signal using a device called "DAC –
Digital to Analog Converter".
SES
4
Old time gramophones processed the signals received from the pickup needle,
directly. The vibrations from the record were converted into electrical
currents, then electronically amplified and finally broadcast as sound waves
through the air. The sounds were stored as fluctuations in the tiny grooves on
the plastic surface of the record.
Today, the sounds are converted into binary numbers. The bits forming these
numbers are etched into the surface of a compact disk. When the disk is
played back, a thin laser beam scans the surface. The disk surface either
reflects the beam (symbolizing '0') where it not etched, or does not reflect the
beam (symbolizing '1') where it is etched. The stored binary numbers are read
in this way and converted into sound. Binary storage requires less space and
maintains data for much longer with greater reliability. Additional data can be
stored, for example to facilitate automatic playback.
Telephone, Radio and Television are also being transformed into digital
media. The signals are translated into binary numbers, are processed digitally
by a computer and are converted back into signals, which our senses can
receive. Binary numbers allow data to be compressed much more effectively,
increase reliability and enable additional processing of the information.
A picture created on a computer is made up of dots called pixels. In a color

picture each pixel is made up of three colors – Red, Green and Blue (RGB).
A Facsimile machine converts a document into black and white pixels, which
are transmitted as bits. A high density of black pixels creates a dark patch.
Electronic mail is effectively direct communication between computers

without using paper as a medium.
SES
5
Chapter 2 – Telegraph Communication
Introduction
Danny and Dana are very good friends who live in the same neighborhood.
They like electronics and through their experiments we will follow the
communication pioneers.
Danny's father Danny Dana
Signaling Systems
"Danny and Dana, you can't go like this. Whenever one of you has
an idea, he calls the other. It is costing us a lot of money".
"But how we can call each other".
"Build some signaling system".
"Wonderful. Let's build an electric circuit including a lamp, a push-

button switch and a power supply, as we have learned in school".
SES
6
Did you know?
Thomas Edison invented the electric

lamp in 1879. The lamp consists of a
filament inside a glass globe.
Current through the filament causes

it to heat up to a very high
temperature and to glow, radiating
light and heat.
"The TPS-3714 kit includes special connectors, lamps, push-button

switches, two wired terminal rulers and power supply sockets. You
can build the systems in the following way:"
Red wire
9V Power
Supply + Push-button Green wire
(Battery) - Switch
Lamp
Brown wire
Black wire
We can put the switch in Danny's house and the power supply and the lamp in
Dana's house. When Danny presses the switch, the lamp in Dana's house turns
ON.
SES
7
Build the system as follows:
Step 1: Two battery holders are soldered to the external terminals and are
used for plugging the 9V batteries to the system as 9V power
supply.
Connect one wire of the switch to the external terminal of the

terminal ruler.
Step 2: Connect the second wire of the switch to the central terminal of the
terminal's ruler.
Step 3: Connect the lamp to the two terminals that are connected to the
wires of the other terminal ruler.
Step 4: Install the 9V battery in to the battery holder.
Step 5: Press the switch at Danny's home. The lamp at Dana's home should
be ON.
Step 6: Pay attention. It is possible that you screwed the screw on the wire's
plastic insulation and that is why no electric contact was made.
"Now we have to build an Did you know?

additional system with a
switch in my house, so I can Copper wires are expensive.
call you." When we have distant
extensions, the wires become the
"And we use 4 wires?" most expensive part of the
system.
SES
8
Danny and Dana want to save their money. They don't mind if
both lamps turn ON when someone presses a switch. Try to
find a solution for them, using two switches, two lamps and two
batteries, but with only two wires.
"Why didn't we think of this before?"
SES
9
Did you know?
In order to save money, only one copper wire was extended between the
telegraph poles. So how the electrical circuit was closed?
In every telegraph station, there were electrical batteries. The negative

terminal was connected with an electrical conductor to the ground (very
deep or by wetting it).
The ground has a quality, to supply and receive any amount of charges
when it is wet. When we press the button at one side, charges are taken
from one wet ground and absorbed by the other side-wet ground. Thus
we can relate to the ground as the second conductor of the system.
Extension B Extension A
Ground
"What if I am in the other room? I will not be able to see the lamp
go ON."
"We can replace the lamp with a buzzer."
SES
10
Replace the lamps with buzzers and test the system.
The buzzer is a component with polarity. The current must flow

through it in a particular direction, otherwise it will not
function (the buzzer will not be damaged if we connect it in the
opposite direction).
Make sure to connect the red wire to the '+' (the brown wire)
and the black wire to '-' (the green wire).
Press the switches and check the system.
"Wonderful."
"You know, we can also connect the lamp parallel to the buzzer."
"Right. We will get a system which includes a buzzer and a lamp on

each side."
Connect the lamps parallel to the buzzers.
Press on each switch separately and observe that the two lamps
are ON and the two buzzers are buzzing with every pressing.
SES
11
Morse Code
"How does the system work?"
"Very well. The problem is that we can't transfer messages. We can

only signal each other."
"Why, you can use Morse code and use your system as a Telegraph.
Study this code and transfer messages to each other."
"Wonderful idea."
Did you know? Morse Code:

Michael Morse developed the telegraph The Morse code is composed of dots and
in 1836. He used a metal lever (which lines:
acted as a switch) to close an electric
A .- -.- ..- 0 -----
circuit which included an electric
battery and electric buzzer. K U
B -... L .-.. V …- 1 .----
Later on, an electromagnet replaced the -.-. -- .-- ..---
C M W 2
buzzer.
D -.. N -. X -..- 3 …--
The electromagnet actuated another E . O --- Y -.--- 4 ….-
metal lever which had a pencil attached F ..-. P .--- Z --. 5 …..
to it. Underneath the pencil a strip of G --. Q --.- 6 -….
paper was rolled. Each time the switch H …. R .-. 7 --…
was pressed, it caused a line to be drawn .. … ---..
I S 8
on the moving paper strip, for as long as
J .--- T - 9 ----.
the switch was pressed.
Morse's greatness was in his ability to The famous SOS (Save Our Souls)
complete his system by developing a message is used as a distress signal. This
code which enabled very quick message is very simple and clear to send
communication, and in his ability to in Morse code:
persuade the United States Government (S)... (O)--- (S)...
to connect cities with telegraph wires.
SES
12
Did you know?

A lot of skill was needed to operate a telegraph appliance quickly and
efficiently. Edison was a telegraph man and he told about the fast
transmitting and receiving competition that was going on between
telegraph men.
The telegraph became famous because of the following events:
In 1839, a murderer by the name John Towel from the town Slow
escaped on the train to London. At the same year, a telegraph line was
extended between Slow and London. He was amazed when he saw the
policemen that were waiting for him at the Peddington station in London
(his description was sent by telegraph). He was the first criminal caught
by electrical communication.
In 1844, the members of the United State of America were squeezed into
Morse's office to quickly get the results of the Democratic Convention
Use the buzzer's system and try to transfer Danny's message to

Dana.
Danny's message is:
-.. --- -.-- --- ..- .-- .- -. - - --- ... . . .- -- --- …- .. .

________________________________________________________________________
Write Danny's message and transmit it.
Dana wants to transmit the following answer:
"Yes, please come at 5."
Translate her message into Morse code and transmit it.
________________________________________________________________________
SES
13
"Pay attention – in sound communication we use two fast sounds as

a line: Da (short sound) – period. Da Da (two short and fast sounds)
– line."
Use this method to transfer a couple of messages.
"Do you know Dana, that we can transmit messages in Morse code
with a flashlight or with a mirror?"
"You are right, but I prefer the electrical system we built."
"Dear friends, your mission is not finished yet. Don't forget the most
important part of every system you build."
"And what is it?"
"The documentation. The description of the system."
"What?! Why? We build the system for ourselves and not for
anyone else."
"The system's documentation is written not because someone (your

teacher for example) asks you to do it. A proper documentation is
the shortest and clearest way to describe the system. It is also
important to you because it will remind you what and how you
build, when in the future you want to build another system or a
system with similar components. Two weeks after you build
something, you don't remember how you built it."
SES
14
"This is a good assignment for the students."
"But we will help them a bit."
System's Documentation:
System's documentation, also called system's file or system's book begins
with "system's definition" and afterwards comes the system's
requirements.
When the requirements are defined and clear, only then we start with the
design of the system. The system's requirements are important for
understanding the system and its function.
The next part in the report is the system's description including a block
diagram of the system, a short description of the system, how does it
works and a description of its performances in comparison to the
requirements.
The system's description varies according to the required detailing level.
If the requirement is to write a documentation, which allows building the
system, we add an electrical or electronic drawing.
Sometimes, while building or checking the system, new ideas arise for
improvement or problems arise which compel you to redesign. We record
these ideas and if we have to, we define a new system. This is how
SES
15
A Telegraph System
System's definition: A telegraph system for signaling in Morse code

between two extensions.
System's requirements: Each extension includes a push-button switch, a
buzzer and a power supply. The two extensions
are connected with only two wires.
System's description: Because each extension has its own power supply,
pressing the switch in the extension will cause two
electrical circuits to close, including its buzzer and
the other extension's buzzer.
Red wire Red wire
Push-button Push-button
Switch Switch
9V Power + Green wire + 9V Power
Supply - - Supply
Buzzer Buzzer
Brown wire
Black wire Black wire
Idea for improvement: You can exchange the buzzer with a lamp, in order
to create a more silent communication.
Copy the telegraph documentation to your notebook. Use it as

an example for future documentation.
SES
16
What we have learned:
 The Morse code converts letters and digits into ________ and ________.
 What is the following message?
-.. .- -. -. -.-- .- -. -.. -.. .- -. .-

______________ _______ __________
 Translate the word "Telegraph" into Morse code:

_______________________________________________________
 How do you transmit the signal S.O.S and what does it mean?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
SES
17
Chapter 3 – Telephone Communication
Introduction
In the first chapter, Danny and Dana built a Telegraph system and
communicated in Morse code. In this chapter, we can follow their
experiments in telephone communication.
A Simple Telephone System
"Dad, we already know the Morse code quite well, but we still
prefer to talk and not to signal."
"Very well, build a telephone system. The simplest system is to

connect two boxes (tin cans or match boxes) with a string. Any
string is good if it is pulled tight. You speak into one box and listen
at the other."
SES
18
"But this way we can't speak and listen at the same time".
"Absolutely, you have to determine a speech protocol. This kind of

communication system is called a Half Duplex System."
"But we can use two sets in parallel to create a Full Duplex

System."
Build the above system and communicate with your friends.
Make sure you pull the strings tight, otherwise the sounds will
not be heard well.
Did you know?

The voices that we hear are vibrations (oscillations) in the air, which vibrate
our ear-drum.
In order to carry those vibrations we require a medium, as sound does not
carry in vacuum. The air around us serves as a medium. Water and earth are
also mediums, which carry sound (in the same way that a string does). There
are well known tales of Indians placing their ear on the ground to hear the
galloping of horses far away or an approaching train.
War ships and sub-marines have a kind of electronic hearing device, which
recognize sounds, which are coming from other sub-marines. This means that
water also transfer sounds.
The strength of vibrations governs the volume of the sound. The frequency of
vibrations governs the pitch.
SES
19
An Electric Telephone
"The problem with the wire telephone is that we have to keep the
wires tight all the time. This is very inconvenient".
"O.K. Let's build a real telephone. The TPS-3714 kit includes a

telephone set. We will use two telephone sets and create a Full
Duplex System."
"Can you explain to us how the telephone is built?"
"The telephone is composed of an earphone and a microphone, as

described in the following figure:"
Earphone
Microphone
"And how does the telephone work?"
"When you connect the telephone to a power supply, speaking into

the microphone causes changes in the current in the electric circuit."
"So, the earphone, probably, translates the current changes into the
sound vibrations in the air."
"Correct. If you speak into the microphone and Dana will listen to
the earphone, she will hear you pretty well."
"But the microphone and the earphone are located in the same unit".
SES
20
"That's true. So we need to connect the two sets according to the

following:"
Phone A Phone B
"I know. When we speak into the microphone of Phone A, it causes

current changes in its earphone, but also in the earphone of Phone
B."
"Right. This system reminds me of the telegraph system we have

built. But why do I need to hear myself?"
"The first telephones included a speaking horn (for talking into) and
an earphone (for listening to the other party) which were not
connected. With time it became apparent that a person who cannot
hear himself tends to shout. To solve this, the microphone was then
connected to the earphone, so that the person speaking on the
telephone could hear himself. This type of connection is called Side
Tone."
SES
21
Alexander Graham Bell: Thomas Alva Edison:

The first telephone was invented by Thomas Edison (considered the greatest
Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. Bell inventor of all times) invented the carbon
(whose wife was deaf) taught deaf students microphone. These microphones can still
to communicate and investigated speech be found (150 years after they were
and hearing. invented) in many telephones.
He succeeded in building a device which He filled a tube with carbon grains and
consisted of a metal plate which was moved covered them with a metal plate. The
by an electromagnet according to the vibrations of the air pressed on the plate
current through the coil. The vibrations of had changed the density of the carbon in
the metal plate were carried through the air. the tube. This changing density of the
This was the first loudspeaker. carbon changed the conductivity of the
microphone and subsequently changed
He also noticed that vibrating the metal the current in the electrical circuit.
plate caused changes in the current in an
electrical circuit, so he built two Until very recently, most telephones
loudspeakers – the one acted as a included a microphone of this type.
microphone and the second as a speaker. Edison and Bell shared the profits from
selling telephones and became good
Bell was not the only scientist investigating friends.
this field but was the first to publish his
invention and to demonstrate it and so he is Most of Edison's inventions were based
considered the father of the Telephone. on endless study and research, until the
desired outcome was achieved.
Bell's telephone was clumsy, could not be
heard clearly enough and was not suitable
for mass production. Edison essentially
turned the telephone into a popular
appliance.
Condenser Microphone:
There are many kinds of microphones today. A simple one is called "Condenser
Microphone" and it is build as a capacitor.
The capacitor is made out of two metal disks with a thin insulator between them. The air
pressure changing on the disks (caused by sound waves) causes the distance between the
disks to change, hence changing the capacitance.
These capacitance variations are converted into an electrical signal.
This is the customary Microphone in telephones today.
SES
22
The telephone system we will build is described in the following figure:

Red wire Red wire
White wire White wire
Power Blue wire Green wire Blue wire Power
Supply Supply
Red wire Brown wire Red wire
Black wire Black wire
Build the system as follows:
Step 1: Connect the white wire of the phone to the upper terminal of the
terminal's ruler.
Step 2: Connect the blue wire of the phone to the central terminal of the
terminal's ruler.
Step 3: Connect the red wire of the phone to the bottom terminal of the
terminal's ruler.
Step 4: Connect the second phone and the second power supply in the same
way to the three terminals of the second terminal's ruler.
Step 5: Install the power supply butteries in their sockets.
Step 6: Pick up the phone sets and talk with each other.
Step 7: Remember to press the switch on the side of each phone set.
Write the documentation of the telephone system you have built,

including system's definition, system's requirements and
system's description.
SES
23
An Intercom System
"Dad, Dana and me argued, Can the speaker function as a

microphone?"
"I don't know what each of you claim, but the answer is yes. The
speaker is supposed to convert electrical signals to sound vibrations
in the air. But, the speaker can also convert sound vibrations into
electrical signals."
"And how the speaker does it?"
"In the speaker there is an electromagnet which attracts an iron

plate. The walls of the speaker are made of flexible sheet, which
increases the sounds but functions also as the plate's returning
spring. When the current in the electromagnet changes, the plate
moves back and forth, according to the current changes. The
movement of the plate causes the air vibrations that we hear."
"But how does the speaker function as a microphone?"
"The plate is made of iron; otherwise it would not be attracted to the

electromagnet. When you move a piece of iron near an
electromagnet, an electrical voltage appears (this phenomena is
called induction) in the coil's wires of the electromagnet. The sound
vibrations in the air reach the plate and induce electrical signals in
the speaker's wires accordingly."
SES
24
The Electromagnet:
When we take an insulated conductor (an electrical wire coated with lacquer)
and wrap it around an iron core, we create an electromagnet (an electrical
magnet).
When current is flowing through the conductor, a magnetic field is created
inside the coil and the core is magnetized.
When the current flow is stopped, it no longer functions as a magnet.
Interesting to know:
The core of the electromagnet in the speaker is a strong magnet, which
attracts the plate a little. The current, which changes in the speaker's coil,
makes the core magnetism stronger or weaker, but does not change the
magnet's polarity (north-south), although the current that reaches the speaker
changes its flow direction.
If the core was not a magnet, both the positive and negative currents would
have inverted it into a magnet and in both cases the plate would get closer.
"In that case, we can build a telephone by using two speakers, one
of them as a microphone and the other as an earphone."
"In principle – yes, but practically – no. The electrical signals in the
speaker, which function as a microphone, are very weak. They can't
operate the other speaker. In order to drive the speaker, we need to
use an audio amplifier."
"What is an audio amplifier?"
SES
25
"An audio amplifier is an electronic amplifier. It is designated to

amplify electrical signals originated in the sounds we can hear. In
order to understand it better, let's build an intercom system with the
TPS-3714 modules. We will use two speakers and an audio
amplifier as described in the following figure:"
In Audio Out
Speaker A Speaker B
Amplifier
"The amplifier amplifies the signals coming from speaker A (the

microphone) and outputs them to speaker B. To control the volume
of the sound, we use a potentiometer, which attenuates the signals
coming from speaker A"
Audio Amplifier
Selector
"What is the purpose of the Switch
switch on the audio amplifier
S. In S. Out
module?" GND
Amplifier
GND
Volume
Potentiometer
"The audio amplifier module includes a selector switch to determine

the amplifier's direction. In one position speaker A is connected to
the amplifier input and speaker B to its output. In the second
position the direction is inverted."
Audio
Speaker A Amplifier Speaker B
"Usually, an intercom system has two stations – a master station and

a slave station. The electronic circuit with the volume potentiometer
and the selector switch are at the master station. The slave station
has only a speaker."
SES
26
Do the following steps in order to implement an intercom.
Step 1: Observe the audio amplifier module.
Step 2: Connect the audio amplifier module to the power supply module.
Step 3: Connect one speaker to the output terminals of the audio amplifier
module, using a screwdriver.
Step 4: Connect the second speaker to the S.In and GND terminals of the
power supply module.
Step 5: Connect the power supply module to the voltage supply.
Power Supply Audio Amplifier

Selector
+V Switch
S. Out S. In S. Out
Amplifier
GND GND GND
Volume
Potentiometer
Step 6: Turn the volume potentiometer on the audio amplifier module to the
center of its scale.
Step 7: Talk into one of the speakers. If you do not hear anything, change
the selector switch to the other position.
Step 8: Change the selector switch to the second position and talk into the
second speaker.
SES
27
"O.K. You Dana, will be the master station but please don't call me
a slave. You have to keep the master station in listening mode, so I
can call you any time. When you want to talk, you change the
selector switch."
"We can use a pushbutton selector switch, which returns to the

normal position automatically when we finish talking at the master
station."
Interesting experiment:
Place the speakers opposite each other and close together. You
will hear a loud whistling sound.
This phenomenon is called "positive feedback". Random noise
created in the microphone passes through the audio amplifier into
the speaker. This is a very low level noise, but because the
speakers are close together, it goes back into the microphone to
be amplified again and so on. This is the reason why we do not
point a microphone at its speaker.
Write the documentation of the intercom system you built,

including system's definition, system's requirements and
In the system's description use a block diagram.
A block diagram is a diagram, which describe with blocks the

units that construct the system, without detailing the electrical
or electronic drawing.
SES
28
The Intercom Telephone
"How is the intercom at home is constructed?"
"The system is based on a telephone and a loudspeaker connected to

an audio amplifier in this way:"
Audio
Amplifier
Do the following steps in order to implement an intercom system

with a telephone.
Step 1: Observe the audio amplifier module.
Step 2: Connect the audio amplifier module to the power supply module.
Step 3: Connect one speaker to the output terminals of the audio amplifier
module to the two connecting points using a screwdriver.
Step 4: Connect the telephone to the power supply module as follows:
 The white wire to the +V terminal.

 The red wire to the GND terminal.
 The blue wire to the S.In terminal.
SES
29
Check that you have the following system:

Selector
White +V +V Switch
Blue S. In S. Out S. In S. Out
Amplifier
Red GND GND GND GND
Volume
Potentiometer
Step 5: Connect the power supply module to the Mains.
Step 6: Turn the volume potentiometer on the audio amplifier module to the
center of its scale.
Step 7: Talk into the telephone microphone and check if you can hear
yourself.
Step 8: Talk into the speaking horn and check if the sound is heard at the
speaker.
Step 9: Change the selector switch to the second position and talk into the
speaker. Check that the voice is heard at the telephone.
Write the documentation of the intercom telephone system you

built, including system's definition, system's requirements and
SES
30
 The loud speaker turns current changes into ______________ in the air.
 The speaker can also convert vibrations in the air into __________
changes.
 An audio amplifier amplifies signals in a frequency range which we can

__________.
 When we put a speaker against a microphone, we hear a shrieking sound

because of a phenomenon called _____________ feedback.
 The telephone is composed of a _____________ and a __________.
SES
31
Chapter 4 – Frequency and Volume
Introduction
Danny and Dana have implemented several communication systems. In this
chapter, we will follow their experiments in digital communication and
understand the modern telephone communication system.
Sound, Frequency and Volume
"Why do we call the amplifier that we used to build an intercom

system an audio amplifier?"
"As you saw, the sounds we hear are vibrations in the air. The
vibrations rate determines the sound we hear. This rate is called the
Sound Frequency."
"When the frequency (vibration per second) is smaller, the sound is

thicker (bass voice, the drum sound etc.). This is why these sounds
are called low pitch (low frequency)."
"And when the frequency is higher, the sound is thinner (like the
sound of the violin, soprano voice etc.). This is why these sounds
are called high pitch."
"O.K., but why is it called an audio amplifier?"
SES
32
"The human ear can hear sounds in the range between 50 vibrations
per second and 16,000 vibrations per second. This range is called
the Audio Range."
"The audio amplifier is an amplifier designated to amplify in a more

or less uniform fashion electrical signals in the audio range
frequency."
"In order to understand this better, we can use the Pulse Generator
module in the TPS-3714 kit."
Pulse
Pulse Generator:
Generator
+V +V A pulse is a signal, which goes high ('1') for a
S. Out period of time and then goes low ('0').
Generator
GND GND
P The pulse generator generates pulses at a
LED
C1 C2 certain frequency, which can be changed. The
pulse rate is determined by a potentiometer
and two capacitors.
The Capacitor: Changing the potentiometer changes the
The capacitor is a charging rate and the pulse rate accordingly.
component, which limits When the switch is opened, only one capacitor
fast voltage changes in is connected and time delays are short so that
electronic systems. It is we a get high frequency. When the switch is
composed of two metal closed, the two capacitors are connected and
plates, which can be we get a low frequency.
charged and the capacitor
voltage changes
accordingly.
SES
33
Do the following steps in order to generate low frequency pulses.
Step 1: Connect the pulse generator module to the power supply module.
Step 2: Connect the audio amplifier module to the pulse generator module.
Connect a speaker (both wires) to the audio amplifier terminals.
Step 3: Check that you get the following system:

Pulse Selector
Generator Switch
+V +V +V
S. Out S. Out S. In S. Out
Generator Amplifier
GND GND GND GND GND
P
LED
C1 C2
Volume
Potentiometer
Step 5: Set the audio amplifier's selector switch to the low frequency
position (low pulse rate). Observe the flashing LED of the pulse
generator.
Step 6: Turn the potentiometer and increase the flashing rate and then
decrease the flashing rate to one pulse per second. You will hear this
pulse rate on the speaker
Step 7: Move the selector switch to the high frequency (high pulse rate)
position. Observe the flashing LED on the pulse generator. You
can't see the LED flashing, but the light looks weaker.
Step 8: Turn the potentiometer. Increase the pulse rate and decrease it and
listen to the speaker. You should hear different sounds according to
the potentiometer position.
SES
34
"Is there a connection between the sound frequency and its

intensity?"
"No. The frequency and the volume are the sound characteristics,
but they are not depending on each other. A sound can be in high or
low frequency and in weak or strong intensity."
"In the audio amplifier there is a potentiometer which affects the

sound volume. How does it work?"
"The audio amplifier has a large but steady amplification. Every

signal which get into the input terminal of the amplifier is amplified
the same. The potentiometer allows us to reduce the incoming
signal, in order to get the desired signal volume at the amplifier
output."
Continue with the following steps:
Step 9: Aim the generator to get a certain sound on the speaker, which is
connected to the audio amplifier.
Step 10: Change the volume potentiometer at the audio amplifier. Check the
effect on the sound. Does it affect the sound frequency?
Step 11: Perform step 10 again on different sounds and draw your
conclusion.
SES
35
Dialing and Telephone Exchanges
"Now that we have our own intercom system, we would like to

know about the telephone exchanges and dialing."
"The first telephone exchanges were established with the invention

of the telephone and its introduction into public service".
"These first exchanges were manually operated by telephonists. The

telephone was hung on a hook. When the telephone was picked up
to call another subscriber, it signaled the exchange. The telephonist
plugged in a connection to the caller and asked him who he wished
to call and then connected him manually to the receiving
subscriber".
"Today it is done differently."
"Of course. The truth is that automatic telephone exchanges were

developed a long time ago. They were based on pulse dialing. In a
pulse telephone, the connection was made as follows – turning the
dial to the required digit and releasing it, made a switch open and
close the corresponding number of times. This resulted in pulses of
electrical current on the telephone line. The digit '0' opens and
closes the switch 10 times. I wonder why?"
"Because if '0' wouldn't create pulses, we wouldn't know if it was

because there was no dialing or because it was the digit '0'."
"Very good! Each series of pulses (representing a digit in the dialed

telephone number) moves a contact (called a selector) in the
automatic exchange to one of ten positions according to the
corresponding digit. Dialing the first digit selected all the
subscribers with that digit at the beginning of their telephone
number. Dialing the second digit narrowed down the selection to all
the subscribers with the same first two digits. Each corresponding
digit narrowed down the selection further until the required
subscriber was connected."
SES
36
"Are the modern telephone exchanges work like this?"
"Most of them are not. With time, mechanical exchanges were

replaced with digital exchanges based on computers and logic
components. Because the reaction of the digital system was a lot
faster, they searched a different way to indicate the number of the
switches to the system. Instead of using pulses and counting them,
tone dialing has become prevalent. Each digit transmits a different
tone (different frequency). A digital exchange identifies the tones
and reacts accordingly."
"Now I understand the purpose of the Pulse/Tone selector switch in

our phone."
" Yes, and we can hear the different tones of the dialing keys."
"Now try dialing in the two methods and hear the sounds."
Pulse and tone dialing:

In a pulse dialing the selector point had to move mechanically to its
required position, pulse by pulse. The pulses could not come in very fast.
Although an electronic pulse telephone could create current pulses at a
very high speed, the rate had to be slowed down to suite the mechanical
exchange.
Tone dialing is intended for an electronic telephone exchange. The dialing
could be very fast. Each pressing on a telephone switch creates two tones
which are transmitted together. One tone indicates the column and the
second tone indicates the row of the keyboard. The telephone exchange
knows how to recognize between the tones and identify the pressed switch.
SES
37
Did you know?

Tone dialing enables us to transmit numbers in answer to various queries.
Many telephone services operate by requesting the caller to key numbers
to perform different service functions (for example, the automatic wake up
call service). Often when we call large organizations, we are asked by an
automatic service to key in an extension number to reach the person we
want to talk with.
Even telephone games are played by keying numbers on the tone dialer.
"How can a computer switch our voice? Computers only deal with
digital numbers."
"A very good question. The exchange system converts the voice
signal from an analog (a continuous signal) to a digital signal
(numbers which represent the values of the signal). The device,
which performs the conversion, is called ADC – Analog to Digital
Converter."
"But we can't hear digital numbers."
"Right. The computer converts the digital output number back into
an analog signal using a device called DAC – Digital to Analog
Converter."
SES
38
Routing Signals
"For routing digital signals we use gates. For example, observe the
following system:"
Switch
Power A
Pulse AND Audio
Supply Generator Gate Amplifier
B
The AND gate is a component which disables or enables transfer of pulses

from one system to another.
When the switch is not pressed, input A becomes '0' and it forces '0' at the
gate's output no matter what is the status of input B. This is why the generator
pulses do not reach the audio amplifier.
When the switch is pressed, input A becomes '1' which causes the gate's
output to be the same as input B. This means that the pulses coming to input B
from the generator, will reach the audio amplifier and the speaker.
SES
39
AND gate as a switch:

The AND gate symbol is: A
Y
B
A and B are its inputs and Y is its output.
Y is ON only when its two inputs (A and B) are ON.
A logic gate can be used as a real gate which blocks signal transfer from one
system to another as in the following system:
Enable
Pulse
Generator
When the enable input is '0', the AND gate's output is '0' no matter what is on
the second input line (the line carrying the pulses).
When the enable input is '1', the pulses appear at the output of the AND gate.
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
The output Y is '1' (ON) only when A AND B are '1' (ON).
SES
40
Do the following steps in order to control the pulses.
Step 1: Observe the AND module. The module includes two input
connectors for connecting two different modules which supply the
AND module with two different output signals and one output
connector.
Step 2: Implement the system according to the block diagram.
GND +V
LED
S.
GND O +V

Pulse AND
Generator Selector
+V +V +V Switch
+V +V
S. Out S. Out S. Out S. In S. Out
Generator Amplifier
GND GND GND GND GND GND GND
P
LED LED
C1 C2 Volume
Potentiometer
Step 3: Calibrate the pulse generator rate to pulse per second. The LED at
the AND gate output will not flash.
Step 4: Press the switch. The AND LED will flash at the same rate as the
generator. You should only hear the pulses on the speaker when the
switch is pressed.
Step 5: Release the switch. The AND LED will stop flashing.
Step 6: Set the pulse generator rate to high frequency.
Step 7: Press the switch. You should hear the tone on the speaker. If not,
change the potentiometer switch on the audio amplifier.
SES
41
Step 8: Release the switch. The sound will stop. In this way we can switch
(connect and disconnect) sounds.
Step 9: Use this system for signaling in Morse code.
"If we want to transfer the pulses when the switch is OFF, we can
use a NOT gate. By the way, this kind of design is called a Logic
Diagram."
NOT
Gate
Switch
Power A
Pulse AND Audio
Supply Generator Gate Amplifier
B
NOT gate:
The NOT gate symbol is:L
LL
L
ALL
LL
LL
LL
LL
LL
LL
LL Y
A is its input and Y is its output.

Y is ON when A is OFF and Y is OFF when A
is ON.
The truth table of the NOT gate is shown
below:
A Y
0 1
1 0
The output Y is '1' (ON) when A is '0' (OFF).
SES
42
Build the above system and check its operation.
Step 1: Observe the NOT module.
Step 2: Implement the system according to the block diagram.
Step 3: Calibrate the pulse generator rate to pulse per second. The LED at
the AND gate output will flash. You should only hear knocking
sounds on the speaker.
Step 4: Press the switch. The AND LED will stop flashing.
Step 5: Release the switch. The AND LED will flash again.
Step 6: Set the pulse generator rate to high frequency and perform the test
again.
Design a system (logic diagram) which includes a switch, two

AND gates, a NOT gate and one pulse generator. While the
switch is not pressed, the pulses from the pulse generator are
transferred to the output of one AND gate. While the switch is
pressed, the pulses from the pulse generator are transferred to
the output of the other AND gate.
SES
43

 The range of frequency we can hear is from ____ pulses per second up to
____ pulses per second.
 A component which changes its output at a fixed rate is called

__________________.
 We can change the pulse rate in the generator with _______________.
 The Potentiometer and the ____________ determine the pulse rate of the
pulse generator.
 Connecting the pulse generator to an audio amplifier creates sounds

according to the ____________ of the generator.
 The output of an AND gate is '1' (ON) only when its two inputs are
_______.
 It is sufficient that one of the AND gate inputs will be '0' (OFF), in order
for its output to be _____.
 The state table of an AND gate is
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
 Connecting one of the AND gate input to '0', forces its output to be _____,
not depending the status of the other input.
 The output of the NOT gate is equal/inverted to its input.
 The state table of a NOT gate is
A Y
0
1
SES
44
Chapter 5 – Light, Laser and the Optic

Fiber
Introduction
In this chapter Dana and Danny will perform scientific experiments in light
and a laser beam in order to understand the workings of an optic fiber.
Light and Laser
"Dad, what is an optic fiber?"
"An optic fiber is a means for transferring light in non straight

lines."
"How could it be? We've learned that the light move in straight lines
only."
"It's true, but nonetheless, it can be done. Let's do some experiments

in light and we will understand it better."
"The TPS-3714 kit also includes, an optical transmitter and a laser

pointer, which emit light when operated.
"What is a laser beam that everyone talks about?"
SES
45
"Generally, a light source emits the light to different directions. If

we take a flashlight and light it up on a screen, we will get a light
sheaf. As far as the flashlight is from the screen, the light sheaf
broadens."
"The light intensity also becomes weaker."
"Let's be accurate. The amount Did You Know?

of light coming from the
flashlight equals the amount of The light intensity of any light
light hitting the screen. The source is measured by candles
amount of light which reaches (how many candles will create
the same area is becoming the same light intensity).
smaller as the flashlight farther
The light intensity per area unit is
away, and that is why the light
seems weaker." measured by units called LUX.
Do the following steps:
Step 1: Find the optic transmitter module and the power supply module in
the kit and connect them to one another.
Power Supply
Optical
Transmitter
+V +V LED +V
S. Out S. Out
Generator
GND GND GND
Step 2: Connect the power supply to the power supply module and to the
Mains. The LED on the optical transmitter should be red.
Step 3: Turn the LED toward a table or a white paper on the table (as close
as possible). It is recommended to darken the experiment area. You
should get a small circle of light.
SES
46
Step 4: Slowly distance the optical transmitter from the table. The light
sheaf will broaden and the light intensity will drop significantly.
"The light beam of the LED is not a laser beam."
"That's right. A laser beam is a special light beam which almost

does not broaden while distancing."
"Thus the light intensity hardly weakens, no matter the distance."
"Good. You will find a laser pointer in the kit. Let's repeat the
previous experiment with its beam."
Note:
The laser beam is very intensive. Do not point it towards eyes and do not
look at it directly.
Step 1: Find the laser pointer in the kit.
Step 2: Put a paper in front of the laser pointer on the table and turn it ON.
You should get a small circle of light. Measure the circle's diameter
in millimeters.
Step 3: Remove the paper from the laser pointer. Did the light intensity
change? Did the width of the light sheaf change?
SES
47
Mirror Games
"Very nice, but we can see the light move in straight lines."
"If you wanted to shift the light beam from its course, how would
you do it?"
"I know. I would use a mirror."
"Very good! When a light beam hit on any kind of surface (a mirror
for example), it bounces off and reflects at the same angle."
"The angle of the hit equals the angle of the reflection."
"We can shift a light beam by mirrors and aim them as we please."
"The hit angle and the reflection angle are measured between a
vertical line (which comes out from the hit surface) and the beam."
Hit Surface
Reflected Beam
Vertical line to A
the hit surface B
Hitting Beam
"The angle A should be equal to angle B."
SES
48
Step 1: In the next page you will find a drawing, which describes the target
you have to hit with the laser beam. Copy the drawing on a white
page and put it in front of the laser pointer.
Step 2: Put some kind of an object on the target (a small eraser, a pencil-
sharpener etc.). Place the laser pointer on the other side of the page,
on the marked place. We don't want the laser beam crossing the
lined rectangle.
Step 3: The kit includes two mirrors.
Step 4: Use the mirror to shift the laser beam so it will hit the target.
Step 5: Mark the location of the mirror and the beam's path on the page.
Step 6: Measure the hit and the reflection angles.
Step 7: Is the hit angle equals the reflection angle?
Step 8: There is more then one solution to the assignment. Put the mirror at
another place and aim it again so the beam will hit the target.
Step 9: Try to use the two mirrors, so you will hit the target from the
target’s left side.
SES
49
Draw a page which describes the following:
a) The location of the laser pointer.

b) The location of the target.
c) The location of the mirror and the hit surface.
d) The direction of the beam that hits the mirror.
e) The direction of the reflection beam.
f) The hit angle and its size in degrees.
g) The reflection angle and its size in degrees.
Target
Laser
Pointer
SES
50
Reflection and Fraction
"A mirror reflects light because it is made of a transparent material

and on its back there is a bright material which reflects the light."
"Right. The transparent material (usually glass) is designed to create

a smooth hit surface so all the beams, which hit in a certain angle,
will reflect at the same angle. It is interesting to know that when
light beams hit the transparent material at an angle, some of them go
through and some are reflected."
"The beam which goes through the material, passes in a straight

line?"
"No. When a beam passes from a less dense material to a more

dense material, it changes its course. This process is called
Fraction. The beam is fractionalized. The fraction angle B in this
case is smaller than the hit angle A."
B C
"The beam also fractionalizes when it passes from a dense material

to a less dense material. But this time the fraction angle D is bigger
than the hit angle C."
"An interesting thing is that the outgoing beam goes out parallel to
the hit beam with a slight movement to the side."
SES
51
Step 1: Put the laser pointer on the table.
Step 2: Put a wide book opposite to the laser pointer (or the kit's suitcase),
so they can be used as a screen.
Step 3: In the kit you will find a transparent plastic rectangle. Take it and
put it in front the laser pointer, so its wide side is directed to the
laser pointer.
Step 4: Turn ON the laser pointer and move

the plastic rectangle so the beam will
hit it in an angle until you notice a
light point on the left side of the
rectangle and two light points on the
right (in the direction of the beam).
Step 5: To understand where the two light

points came from, put the plastic rectangle on the table and point its
narrow side to the laser pointer.
Step 6: Project the light parallel to the table (in an angle to the rectangle)
and you should see the beams fraction and reflecting. You should be
able to see that the beam, which comes out on the other side of the
rectangle, is parallel to the hit beam, but slightly to the side.
Draw the different beams (hitting, fractionalizing and

reflecting) and their paths to and inside the plastic rectangle.
"Amazing and so beautiful."
SES
52
The Optic Fiber
"Dad, we saw that when the light comes from a dense matter to a
less dense matter, the fraction angle is bigger than the hit angle. I
think that it is possible that the fractionalized beam will go back into
the matter."
"Very good. The optic fiber is based on this principle."
"At last!"
"When we project light into a transparent matter in a bigger angle

from a particular angle (which is depended on the material itself),
the beams are reflected from wall to wall and does not come outside,
even though the material is transparent. This angle is called the
Critical Angle."
SES
53
Step 1: Put the plastic rectangle on the table. Identify the smooth width edge
of the rectangle and the opposite rough width edge.
Step 2: Project the laser beam through the smooth edge, as described in the
following drawing.
Smooth Edge
Rough Edge
Step 3: Identify the beam's path through the transparent rectangle.
Step 4: Change the hit angle of the beam and check its influence on its
movement inside the plastic rectangle and the location of its hit on
the rough edge.
Step 5: Check if the beam successes in coming out of the rectangle's length
edges.
Step 6: Draw the beam's path inside the rectangle.
SES
54
Optic fiber in medicine:

The optic fiber became a major medium in the medical field. In catheterization, optic
fibers are inserted into the patient's body. Through one of them, they light the artery
and through the other one they watch (with a lens). In this way you can examine the
body without the need of operation. Today internal operations are also performed with
optic fibers without cutting the body. Along with the catheterization cable, they insert a
cable which includes operation tools which are operated outside the body.
"What will happen if instead of a plastic rectangle we will use a bent

rod?
"The kit includes a bent plastic rod. Project the light to one side of it
and tell me what happens."
"The light is coming from the other side without exiting the walls."
"We bended the light beams."
Did you know?
The optic fiber is made of a core of glass or a transparent plastic surrounded

by a coating plastic material called cladding. The size of the cable and the
cladding cause the light, which enters at one end to bounce off the walls and
to exit from the other end. A plastic optic cable loses more light than the glass
optic cable, but it’s a lot cheaper.
If the light enters straight and the cable is straight, it will move in a straight
line, but eventually, the cable is bent and then the light will hit the walls
again.
SES
55
Step 1: Identify the round bent plastic rod in the kit.
Step 2: Project the laser beam through one side of the rod and observe it
coming from the other side.
Step 3: The kit also includes an optic fiber in a black plastic wrapper for its
protection. Make a ring from the fiber (don't tighten it too much,
other wise it will break).
Step 4: Project the light through one side of the fiber and observe it coming
from the other side, even though it is shaped as a ring.
Step 5: Aim the side from where the light is coming out to the table and you
should see that you can light with the help of the optic fiber.
SES
56
 A Laser beam is ___________ beam that does not spread out.
 Light beams coming out of a light source spread out to different directions
except a ___________ light source.
Circle the correct answer:
 When a light beam hit a mirror, the hit angle equals/differ from the
reflection angle.
 When a light beam goes from less dense material to a more dense material
it breaks. The hit angle is bigger/smaller than the breaking angle.
 When a light beam goes from dense material to a less dense material it
breaks. The hit angle is bigger/smaller than the breaking angle.
 When the light beam hit a transparent material in a bigger angle than the
critical angle, the whole beam is reflects/passes through.
SES
57
Chapter 6 – Optical Communication
Introduction
In this chapter, we will follow Dana and Danny experiments in optical
communication and understand the modern telephone communication.
Wireless Communication
"How is wireless communication works?"
"Yes, how does the voice pass through space, after all no air in there
to transfer the voice?"
"I know that there is a transmitter and a receiver, but if the

transmitter was a voice transmitter, we would have heard it without
the receiver."
"Oh, I see that you became quite curious. Air vibrations transfer the
voice, which vibrate the eardrum and that is how we hear it. Voice
cannot pass through empty space and cannot travel long distances."
"In order to transfer signals over a distance without wires (Wireless

Communication) we modulate them on an Electromagnetic
Wave."
"What is an electromagnetic wave?"
SES
58
"If we take an electromagnet (like the one in the speaker) and

transfer current through its coil, we will feel its magnetic pull even
from afar. It will probably be very weak, but with sensitive
equipment we can measure it. If we hold a sensitive compass, the
compass needle will react to this magnetic pull."
Did you know?

Magnetic force (called magnetic field) has a spreading speed and it takes time
for it to move in space (even though its velocity is the light speed, which is
300,000 kilometers per second).
If we change the current in the electromagnet, we will sense these changes,
but only after awhile. An electromagnetic wave does not need any medium
and it can also travel in space.
"If we increase and decrease the current very fast, the magnetic
fields that spread towards us from the electromagnet will increase
and decrease accordingly. These changes are called magnetic wave.
The changes rate is called the wave frequency."
"The magnetic force caused by the electromagnet is clear to me.

There is an electric conductor warped as a coil and there is an
electric circuit and an electric current which create the magnetic
force in the coil. But the antenna in the transmitters does not close
an electric circuit. How does it work?"
"The antenna is connected to an electronic circuit which at one time

connects positive voltage to it and at another time negative voltage.
When positive voltage is connected, some of the electrons move to
this end. They don't leave the antenna, because they are not replaced
by other electrons."
"When negative voltage is connected, the electrons move to the

other end of the antenna because they are rejected from the negative
voltage."
SES
59
"Exactly! The movement of electrons from one edge of the antenna

to the other influences exactly as an electric current in a close circuit
and creates a magnetic field in space."
"Does the changes rate influence the wave spreading?"
"Certainly. As the changes rate is bigger (higher frequency), the

electrons movement is bigger and the wave spreading is stronger but
not faster. The wave will reach far more distance."
"Can we see an electromagnetic wave?"
"We can see waves in a certain frequency range (very high). In fact,
light is an electromagnetic wave in this certain range."
"What, can we create light with an electromagnet or an antenna?"
"Theoretically, yes, practically, no. When we transfer current in a

filament or a component called LED (Light Emitting diode),
movement of electrons in the material is created. This movement
emits electromagnetic waves in a very high frequency. These waves
are the light beams that we see."
"I understand that an electromagnetic wave (seen or unseen) can

travel long distance, but I don't understand how we use it to transfer
voice."
"To do that, we use a transmitter. The transmitter includes a

microphone, which translate the air vibrations to current changes.
These current changes are amplified by an amplifier and create
current changes in the LED or changes in the intensity of the voltage
vibrations in the antenna. These changes cause the wave intensity to
change according to the voice coming from the microphone."
SES
60
"O.K. I understand the transmitter principle – an electromagnet

transmitter, a light transmitter, but how does the receiver works?"
"Apparently, any electromagnetic wave which passes by an electric

wire causes the appearance of an electrical voltage in it which
changes at the same frequency of the wave. These voltage changes
are weak and we have to amplify them. The receiver includes a
conductor wire (called antenna) and an amplifier."
"And what about the light?"
"With light we use a light sensor. The light sensor creates an

electrical current according to the intensity of light falling on it.
We've talked a lot. Let us perform some interesting experiments in
optical communication."
SES
61
Step 1: Connect the speaker to the audio amplifier.
Step 2: Connect the light sensor and the power supply modules to the audio
amplifier in order to get the following system:

Light
Sensor Selector
+V +V +V Switch
S. Out S. Out S. In S. Out
Amplifier
GND GND GND GND GND
Volume
Potentiometer
Step 4: Take the pulse generator and the optical transmitter modules and
connect them as follows:
Pulse Optical
Generator Transmitter
+V +V +V LED +V
S. Out S. Out
Generator Amplifier
GND GND GND GND
P
LED
C1 C2
Step 5: Connect a 9V battery with a screwdriver to the optical transmitter.
The LED on the pulse generator should flash and so is the LED on
the optical transmitter.
Step 6: Tune the generator-flashing rate to a one flash per second.
Step 7: Turn the LED of the optic transmitter towards the light sensor.
Step 8: You should hear knocking sounds on the speaker according to the
generator rate.
SES
62
Step 9: Change the generator frequency to high frequency. The sound

should change accordingly.
Step 10: Change the generator frequency with the potentiometer. The sound
should change accordingly.
Step 11: Distance the optical transmitter from the light sensor. The circle of
light around the sensor will grow, but it intensity will weaken. The
sound will also weaken as you distance the pulse generator from the
sensor.
Step 12: Put your hand between the optical transmitter LED and the light
sensor. The sound should stop.
Step 13: Connect an optic fiber between the optic transmitter LED and the
light sensor.
You should hear a sound on the speaker. There is no need to direct

the systems and the distance between them has no influence.
Step 14: Change the pulse generator frequency and the sound should change
accordingly.
Step 15: Disconnect the pulse generator from the optical transmitter. The
transmitter includes an earphone socket.
Step 16: In the kit you will find a microphone with an earphone plug.
Connect the earphone plug to the earphone socket on the optical
transmitter.
Step 17: Talk to the microphone, while the transmitter is connected by the
optic fiber to the light sensor and you should hear your voice on the
speaker. Change the volume potentiometer on the audio amplifier
and the intensity of your voice will change accordingly.
Step 18: Disconnect the battery from the optic transmitter.
SES
63
"Amazing. We performed a series of signals conversion."
"Right. We converted sound vibrations to electrical current changes

with a microphone. We amplified and converted the electrical
current changes to light intensity changes with the optic transmitter.
"I see that you grasped the subject well. This action of assembling
the sound on a light beam (or on an electromagnetic wave) is called
Modulation."
"The light beam just carries the sound on itself.
"That's right. That is why the light beam and the electromagnetic
wave are called Carrier Wave. The action of rescuing the sound
from the carrier wave is called Demodulation."
SES
64
Write the documentation of the optical communication system

you built, including system's definition, system's requirements
and system's description.
Remember that there are two systems – a transmitter and a

receiver.
In the system's description use the following block diagrams:
Power Light Audio

Supply Sensor Amplifier
Pulse Optical
Battery
SES
65
Computer Communication
"Wireless communication is very important for large distances or

for those places where people can't or won't extend electrical wires.
But why do we need the optic fiber for communication? The system
is complicated as it is."
"The optic fiber is very important in computer communication. Let's

do a small experiment first."
Step 1: You will find in the kit a NOT gate. Build the following system:
Power Supply
Light NOT
Sensor
+V +V +V +V +V
S. Out S. Out S. Out
GND GND GND GND GND
LED
Step 3: Connect again the pulse generator to the optical transmitter.

Disconnect the microphone and check that the battery is connected
to the optical transmitter.
Pulse Optical
+V +V +V LED +V
S. Out S. Out
Generator Amplifier
GND GND GND GND
P
LED
C1 C2
SES
66
Step 4: Tune the pulse generator frequency to low frequency (slow rate).
Step 5: Turn the sensitivity button on the light sensor to the center of its
circle.
Step 6: Turn the LED of the optic transmitter opposite the light sensor. The
light pulses should influence the NOT gate and its LED.
Step 7: If the NOT gate does not respond, change the sensitivity button a
little until the NOT’s LED starts blinking according to the pulse
generator pulses.
Step 8: Connect an optic fiber between the optical transmitter and the light
sensor. It is possible that you will need to adjust the sensitivity
button again to get the NOT gate reaction.
Step 9: Change to generator frequency and check its influence on the

NOT’s LED.
"The information we transferred in this experiment was light pulses

in the form of digital information. There is/there isn't, 0 or 1. These
signals are similar to the signals, which computers transfer between
themselves. If a pulse disappears, the datum is inaccurate and the
incoming information is faulty."
"Space is full of electromagnetic waves. Some of them are strong

and some are weak. When we operate an electric motor or light a
lamp, strong electromagnetic waves are created.
"Right. We hear it as noise on the radio."
"A little noise for a short time at home is not so bad. But in factories
where heavy machinery and robots are operated by computers it is
not welcome. The computers also transfer digital messages from one
to the other."
"These electromagnet disturbances can jam these messages and

cause a lot of damage."
SES
67
"That's right. The machines and robots also create electromagnet

disturbances, which could interfere with their communication with
the computers."
"That is why we prefer to use digital communication in the optic

fiber instead a copper wire. The electromagnetic waves do not affect
the light in the optic fiber."
"Even the telephone communication is becoming digital

communication today. The voices are translated to digital signals
and only then they are transferred. On the other side, the digital
signals are translated back to speech."
"We use the telephone lines for computer communication. My

computer for example is connected to the internet."
"Mine also, so don't show off."
"By the way, the remote control of the T.V. is operated by optical
communication. It uses an invisible light beam which is called an
Infra-Red beam."
Write the documentation of the digital communication system

that you have built, including system's definition, system's
requirements and system's description.
Remember that there are two systems – a transmitter and a
receiver.
In the system's description use the following block diagrams:
Data Pulse Optical

Power Light
Supply NOT
Sensor
SES
68
Optic fibers in communication:

When the diameter of a glass fiber core is very small, the light energy tends to
move almost in a straight-line trough the cable. These glass fibers with a very small
diameter (approximately 0.1mm) are used for communication because they lose
very little energy.
Optic fibers have a lot of advantages:
 The system is very safe. You can't eavesdropping to an optic cable and listen to
the conversation.
 The cable is safe from any disturbances, electromagnetic inductions and water
damages.
 One optic fiber can transfer thousands of speech signals (conversations). For
comparison, a copper wire can transfer hundreds of conversations while an
optic fiber can transfer thousands of digital messages and conversations
between computers much faster.
An optic cable includes a lot of optic fibers. An optic cable like this was extended
between New York and Paris and between New York and London, thus connecting
America with Europe. A similar cable was extended between America, Japan and
Australia.
Optic fibers in transportation:

Optic fibers are almost weightless (much more than electrical wires). That is
why their use in airplanes and ships for communication between the cockpit
and the other part of the vehicle is extended. They exchange the heavy
electrical wires. The electrical wires must have a metal wrap to protect them
from electrical disturbances.
The optic fiber does not need this. The economizing of using optic fibers in
planes and ships is huge. Cars manufacturers are also starting to use optic
fibers.
Planes are moving more and more to wireless navigation. Instead of the
steering wheel the pilot is using with his hands, he will hold a steering handle
(like a joystick in computer games). The movement of this handle creates
signals, which are transmitted to the control computer and the computer sends
instructions to operate the different motors for flying the plane. Different
sensors send their signals to the cockpit.
The electronic communication in planes, ships and cars between their different
parts was extended remarkably.
SES
69
Write beside every sentence if it's true or false:
 Sound can move in empty space.
 Light can move in empty space.
 Assembling sound signals on a light beam is called modulation.
 Rescuing sound signals from a modulated light beam is called

demodulation.
 An optic fiber is made of glass or plastic.
 An optic fiber can transfer many computer data, sound and T.V. signals.
 An optic fiber needs a heavy metal wrap to protect it from electrical

disturbances.
 It is easy to eavesdrop to an optic fiber in order to listen to the information

flowing through it.
 An optic fiber is immune to electrical disturbances.
 Optic fibers are used extensively in telephone communication.
SES
Arieh Nachum
Technology and the

Computer
TPS-3719

Arieh Nachum
Technology and the

Computer
TPS-3719
1_9

from SES.
I
ContentsL
Chapter 1 – Control Systems ..................................................................................1
1.1 Preface ........................................................................................................1
VWX Preparing wires for the experiments.............................................................5
1.3 Installing the interface .................................................................................6
1.4 Installing the program..................................................................................9
Experiment 1.1 – Direct Commands .................................................................... 14
Experiment 1.2 – Programs and Procedures ....................................................... 26
Experiment 1.3 – Procedures as New Instructions .............................................. 41
Experiment 1.4 – Conditions and Decisions ......................................................... 49
Chapter 2 - Computerized Models ....................................................................... 60
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 60
Experiment 2.1 - Automatic Fan .......................................................................... 62
Experiment 2.2 - Motorized Cart ........................................................................ 67
Experiment 2.3 - Robot with One Degree of Freedom ........................................ 73
SES
1
Chapter 1 – Control Systems

1.1 Preface
The term "Control Systems" comprises two separate terms, which can be
defined individually:
A system is a combination of a number of components, which are

interconnected and operate as a unit, in order to achieve a specific goal.
Control is the ability to maintain command over a set of variables.
A "Control system" may be defined as a group of components, which can

be operated together to control various variables, which govern the
behavior of the system. The human body has systems, which control body
temperature. In an auditorium you might find a system which controls the
air conditioning. Motorcars have systems, which control fuel consumption,
and many other such examples.
A greenhouse control system is a group of components, which work

together to govern devices which maintain air temperature, soil humidity,
or the amount of ambient light in the greenhouse.
A speed control system maintains a steady motor speed regardless of the

changing load on the motor.
A light control system can maintain a steady level of light, regardless of the
amount of available sunlight. Lamps will be switched ON or OFF, when
there is not enough natural light, according to the required light level.
A water level control system maintains a fixed water level in a tank or a

steady flow of water in a pipe. There is a device of this type in almost every
home - think about it!
Sometimes a control system is required, which enables the preset operating

conditions to be changed often or while the system is running. For
example, the operating conditions of a traffic light system need to be
changed as the traffic load changes, changing the cycle times of a washing
machine according to different kinds of laundry, or changing the operating
conditions of a greenhouse according to the season or different crops.
SES
2
When we need to combine the control system with a convenient method of

changing its operating conditions we may choose to use a "Computerized
Control System". This book deals with these systems.
A Computerized Control System allows us to use a computer and

computer software to supervise the operation of a control system. These
operations can be easily and cheaply changed by making software
modifications, without making any complicated modifications to circuitry
or apparatus.
The computer serves as a relatively cheap and reliable control device. Its
main advantage is in the ease with which we can change the operating
conditions of the control system.
It is not necessary to make any changes in the electric circuitry. It is not

necessary to design new electronic circuits. All that is required is to adapt
the computer program to the new operating conditions and to run the
system.
Computers generally used for data processing are made up of three basic
units:
Input unit – Such as a keyboard or disk drive, which we use to feed

information into the computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit) – the "BRAIN" of the computer which

receives, deciphers and performs the program instructions and processes
the data. Sometimes it is called simply The Processor.
Output unit – Such as a display, printer or disk drive, through which the
computer "reports back" to the outside world. Note that the disk drive
serves both input and output functions.
SES
3
A controller computer has all of these units, but must also be equipped with
units, which enable it to be connected to external electrical devices.
The input interface unit,

which can identify the
electrical situation of the
various devices.
Data to the Hothouses
Computer
The computer can
address the interface unit
and receive data on the
existence or non-existence
of electrical voltage at all
the input channels. Input Output
Interfac Interface
e
The input interface unit

Data from Operating receives instructions from the
computer and execute devices
the External and components connected to
Component Devices each of the output channels.
Figure 1-1
Aircrafts
Medicine Hothouses Vehicles
Industry
Home
AppliancesL
Interface
Heating and Motion

Cooling Irrigation Regulation
Figure 1-2
We need to connect various components and devices to a control computer.

Input devices such as switches or measuring devices, while output devices
such as motors, lights, solenoids etc. can be operated by the computer.
SES
4
Input and output devices cannot be connected directly into the computer's
CPU. We need some kind of intermediary device. An electronic circuit,
which arbitrates between the CPU and the various input and output devices
is called an INTERFACE. The interface may be seen as an electronic box,
which is connected to various devices at one end, and to the computer at
the other end.
Some units may also be bi-directional, i.e. input/output. They may feed
data into the computer or extract data from the computer. In this book, we
will use the APPLIC-37 module of SES as an input/output interface.
The APPLIC-37 interface is used to connect the control devices we practice

with to the computer. It has 8 digital input channels, 8 digital output
channels, 2 analog inputs and one analog output.
There are many ways of programming: LOGO, BASIC, PASCAL, C and

others.
There are also special programming methods for controlling – flow charts,
ladder diagrams or control diagrams.
In this book, we will deal with programming methods with the help of a
program called SESLOGO. The programming language is similar in it
principles to the LOGO language (we will discuss it later on), but uses
icons as instructions.
For implementation and building the control systems we will use the
FisherTechnik component kit called TPS-3609. This kit includes
construction component, transmission wheels, light bulbs, pushbuttons,
switches and a motor.
The FisherTechnik components enable simple and easy assembling of

models and computerized and non computerized machines.
SES
5
G\] Preparing wires for the experiments

For executing the exercises described in the following experiments we need
wires with banana plugs (wires and banana plugs can be found the
FisherTechnik kit). Prepare wires as follows.
Do the following instructions:
a) Prepare 8 pairs of wires, 30cm long each.

b) Remove a short (10mm) section of the plastic insulation at the end of
the wire.
c) Bend the ends of the wire strands back, so that they are flat against the
insulation (see figure 1-3).
d) Insert the prepared wire end (with the strands folded over the
insulation) into the plug end (see figure 1-3).
e) Tighten the screw. Do not over tighten so as not to cut the wire and
break it.
f) The banana plug consists of three parts: the metal plug, a plastic
insulator and a screw. If they are separated, insert the plug through the
largest hole into the insulator. Note the direction of insertion carefully.
g) Use an additional plug to stabilize the metal plug in its insulator.
h) Screw the screw one turn into its thread (do not screw it all the way
down).
5 mm
Figure 1-3
SES
6
1.3 Installing the interface

The APPLIC-37 interface is actually a controller, which receives
commands or a program from the computer. The interface performs the
commands immediately and stores the program in its non-volatile memory
(data in the memory is saved even after the power is OFF). The command
"RUN" runs the program.
When the interface receives a new program, the new program replaces the
previous one stored in the memory.
Figure 1-4 APPLIC-37
The interface includes eight digital output channels (Q7-Q0), eight digital
input channels (J7-J0), two analog output channels (A02, A01) and eight
analog input channels (AI7-AI0).
A digital output channel enables us to operate a motor or a lamp in two

levels – ON and OFF.
An analog output channel enables us to output different voltages to a motor

or to a lamp in a continuous manner at 0-10V range.
A digital input channel identifies a sensor or a switch in two levels only –

ON and OFF (0 and 1).
An analog input channel enables us to read a sensor value (actually

voltage) at 0-5V range.
SES
7
This interface includes banana plugs inlets for input and output channels.
A line of banana plugs inlets is located against the digital output channels
(Q7-Q0) and the digital input channels (J7-J0). All these points are
connected to the +12V voltage line.
Another line of banana plugs inlets is located against the analog output
channels (A02, A01) and the analog input channels (AI7-AI0). All these
points are connected to the 0V (GND) line. The GND line is the negative
pole of the interface voltage source.
The interface also includes a flat cable connector. This connector enables a
permanent connection of the interface to a controlled system. Connecting
and disconnecting the interface to the controlled system can be done very
fast with the flat cable connector.
The digital output channels and the digital and analog input channels reach
this connector. In this book we will not use it.
A number of components are installed on the rear side of the interface.

Communication RST Select Power Supply
Socket Switch Socket
Pushbutt
APPLIC-37
Analog to
AI7 Digital Multi I/O Module
AI6 Converter
AI5
Digital toL
AI4 Analog Fast Connection Connector
AI3 Converter
AI2
AI1 INPUT OUTPUT
AI0 J7 J6 J5 J4 J3 J2 J1 J0 Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1Q0
A02
A01
GND
+V
Figure 1-5
SES
8
Step 1: The communication cable to the computer has earphone plug at

one side and a D connector ( ) with nine pins on the other side.
Insert the earphone plug into the communication socket on the

back of APPLIC-37.
Step 2: Locate the communication sockets on the back of your computer

(D connectors with nine pins). Usually, there are two
communication channels called COM1 and COM2.
Connect the cable connector to the communication socket in the

computer.
Step 3: Connect the power supply to the power socket on the back of
APPLIC-37 and to the Mains.
Check that the red light on the interface +V line is ON.
Step 4: Move the select switch to the side closest to the RST pushbutton.
Step 5: Press the RST pushbutton.
All the red light should be ON.
SES
9
1.4 Installing the program

The program installation is done only once. The SESLOGO software is
designated to work under WINDOWS.
Step 1: Turn ON the computer and wait for the work screen.
Step 2: Double click on the "My Computer" icon.
Step 3: Insert the CD with the SESLOGO software to the CD drive.
Step 4: Copy the SESLOGO library from the CD to the hard disk C.
Step 5: Enter the SESLOGO library at C.
In this library you will find the program install and a compressed
SESLOGO install file.
Step 6: Double Click on the install file icon.
It will open the SESLOGO compressed files and directories.
Step 7: One of the files is SESLOGO.EXE.
Create a short cut icon for this file and send it to your desktop.
Step 8: Check that APPLIC-37 is connected to the computer and to the

Mains as described in the previous section.
SES
10
Step 9: Double Click on the SESLOGO icon on the desktop.
The following screen will appear:
This window enables you to choose your user library.
The software windows are dynamic windows. They check all the
time the communication with the interface.
If the communication is OK, a green circle appears inside the

third square on the top right.
Identify this square.
If a red circle appears, it means that there is no communication

with the interface.
Step 10: If there is no communication with the interface, check that the
select switch is on the left side (near the RST button) and press
RST.
SES
11
Step 11: If still there is no communication with the interface, click once
(on the left button of the mouse) on the TOOLS icon .
Step 12: On the right side (near the communication cable drawing), the
number of the communication channel appears.
If there is no communication with the interface, change the

communication channel number according to the communication
output in the computer you have connected to. Afterwards Click
on the OPEN button (the button with the cable drawing). This
clicking will close the previous communication channel and
opens the new one.
Check that the green circle appears.
Open the TOOLS window even if the communication is OK.
SES
12
Step 13: In the TOOLS window you will find another button called INIT
(Initialization) .
This button initializes the interface, so it can respond to direct

commands (Direct Mode).
Click on this button. The initialization program will be

downloaded into the interface.
This operation should be done on the first installation of the

interface or when the interface stops responding to direct
commands (explained in experiment 1.1), although there is
communication.
Step 14: The programming comprises drawing buttons with the paint
software.
The TOOLS window includes a button that searches the PAINT

application directory in your computer.
Click on this button .
This step should be done only once.
SES
13
Step 15: Click on the Direct Mode button .
This window is the direct command mode window and we will

explain it in the following experiment.
SES
14
Experiment 1.1 – Direct Commands
Objectives:
 How to connect the FisherTechnik components to the APPLIC-37.
 How to operate the interface directly.
Equipment required:
 Computer
 SESLOGO software
 Power supply
 APPLIC-37 – controller interface
 TPS-3609 – FisherTechnik components kit
Discussion:
The SESLOGO software enables the operation of the APPLIC-37 interface
directly. Clicking over a command button causes the interface to execute it.
We will build a device, which includes a lamp, a motor and a pushbutton

switch and learn how to address them directly.
SES
15
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the interface to the PC and to the power.
Step 2: Build the device described in the following figure:
Light sensor
Green lamp
Lamp Red lamp

Step 3: Connect the electrical circuit as follows:
APPLIC-37
Analog to
AI6 Converter
AI5
Digital toL
AI4 Analog
AI3 Converter
AI2
AI1 INPUT OUTPUT
AI0 J7 J6 J5 J4 J3 J2 J1 J0 Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
A02
A01
GND
+V
Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
+V
SES
16
Connect the lamp between the +V voltage and the interface

output channel Q3.
Closing the circuit is done by operation the output channel Q3.

This operation connects Q3 to GND (the negative pole of the
power supply) inside the interface and closes the circuit.
Step 4: Activate the SESLOGO software as follows:
Check that the APPLIC-37 interface is properly connected to the

computer and to the Mains.
Check that the select switch is on the RST side.
Press on the RST pushbutton at the back of the interface. All the
red lights should be ON.
Turn ON the computer.
Double Click on the SESLOGO icon.
Step 5: Check that a green circle appears at the upper right corner.
SES
17
Step 6: If a red circle appears, make the checks described in the software
installation section.
Step 7: Move with the mouse cursor on the different buttons on the
screen. If the cursor stays long enough on one of the button, a
short explanation of the button appears.
Step 8: Click on the NEW button .
Step 9: Write a different name from the name list appearing at the "User
Directories" field (if there are any names). For example, write the
name DAVID3 and click OK.
The window closes and the name DAVID3 appears on the "User
Directories" window.
SES
18
Step 10: Click on the SELECT button and then Click on the name
DAVID3.
?
The name DAVID3 will appear near the USERS button.
All the procedures that we will write will be stored in this

directory.
SES
19
The screen included three fields – Procedures, Command, and

Groups.
Because we created a new library, the Procedures column is

empty of previous procedures.
Every button in the Groups field has command set belonging to

it.
SES
20
Step 12: Click on the Digital Out button .
The Digital Out button has six commands – ON, OFF and four
Set power commands. The Set Power command determines the
power volume at the output channel when it is activated.
Step 13: The Digital Out button has two arrows  and , which enable to
determine the desired output channel.
Set the number 3 with the arrows (the lamp is connected to this
channel).
Step 14: Click on the ON button at the Commands field.
The lamp should turn ON.
Step 15: Click on the OFF button.
The lamp should turn OFF.
SES
21
Step 16: Turn ON the lamp again.
Step 17: On the Set Power button , the number 150 appears (The
maximal volume is 255).
Click on this button. The light intensity of the lamp will be

lowered.
Step 18: Click on the number in the Set Power button.
Step 19: Change the written value to 255.
Step 20: Click OK.
The light intensity will rise to the maximum volume.
Step 21: Change the light intensity of the lamp several times.
Also observe the red LED connected to the output channel.
The rest of the Set Power commands relate to variables

(explained in experiment 1.4).
SES
22
Activating the motor:
Step 22: The motor can be connected as the lamp.
Connect the motor between channel Q5 and +V.
Step 23: Use the Digital Out commands (the ones you used before) to
activate the motor, turn it OFF and change its speed.
Step 24: To control the motor direction, connect it between two output
channels.
Each pair of output channels has a motor number:
MOTOR 1 - Q1,Q0
MOTOR 2 - Q3,Q2
MOTOR 3 - Q5,Q4
MOTOR 4 - Q7,Q6
Connect the motor's wires between channels Q4 and Q5.
Step 25: Click on the MOTOR button.
SES
23
Step 26: Change the number in the MOTOR button to 3, in order to

address the output channels Q4 and Q5.
Step 27: Click on the ON button.
The motor will start to rotate.
Step 28: Change the motor's speed to slow speed with the Set Power
button .
Step 29: Click on the CW (Clock Wise) button .
The motor will rotate clock wise.
Step 30: Click on the CCW (Counter Clock Wise) button .
The motor will rotate counter clockwise.
Step 31: Click on the "Change Direction" button .
The motor will change its rotation direction.
Note:
It is recommended to change direction of the motor only
while the motor stops.
Step 32: Stop the motor by clicking over the OFF button.
Step 33: Play with the buttons in various ways.
Switch reading:
Step 34: The pushbutton switch has three connection points, marked with
the numbers 1,2,3.
Identify these points.
When we use points 1 and 3, the switch serves as a pushbutton

switch of the Normally Open type.
SES
24
Step 35: Digital sensors (with two possible states) and switches are
connected between the digital input (J7-J0) and the +V line.
Connect points 1 and 3 of the switch to J4 and +V.
Step 36: Click on the Digital Input button .

Step 37: Change the number of the Digital Input button to 4, in order to
address the input channel J4.
Step 38: The only direct command for executing is the READ command
for reading the input state.
Click on the READ command button.
The number 0 will appear on the READ button.
Step 39: Press the pushbutton.
Keep is pressed and Click again on the READ command.
This time the number 1 will appear.

Step 40: Repeat steps 38 and 39 several times.
SES
25
Counter reading:
Step 41: The interface counts the state changes that occur at the digital
input.
In the Group window find the Counter button .
Click on it.
The direct commands of the counter are 0 (resetting) and Read.
Step 42: Change the counter number to 4 (for J4).
Step 43: Click on the 0 (clear) command button.
Step 44: Click on the READ button.
The number 0 will appear on the button.
Step 45: Press the pushbutton switch once and release it.
Step 46: Click again on the READ button.
Step 47: Press the pushbutton switch 3 more times.
Step 48: Click again on the READ button.
Step 49: Repeat steps 43-48 in various ways.
SES
26
Experiment 1.2 – Programs and Procedures
Objectives:
 Creating an icon as a name for a procedure.
 Using commands for building a procedure.
 Running procedures from the computer.
 Downloading a program to the interface and running it.
 Transferring the interface to independent running.
Equipment required:
 Computer
 Power supply
Discussion:
The LOGO language was the first programming language using structured
programming rules. The language includes basic and primary set of
commands. With these commands, series of instructions were created. Each
instruction series were given a name. Each instruction series is called a
procedure.
Reading the procedure by name caused the execution of an instruction

series. In this way, the procedure becomes a new command.
In this way, the LOGO language can be expanded infinitely. It is similar to

using a limited number of letters to create a large number of words and
sentences.
Today all programming languages are built similarly and use structured
programming rules.
SESLOGO also use structured programming rules. In the SESLOGO we

use icons (buttons) as commands. To create a procedure, used as a new
command, we need to create a new button for it that will be used as the
procedure name.
SES
27
Procedure:
Step 2: Build the device described as follows:
Light sensor
Green lamp
Lamp Red lamp

APPLIC-37
Analog to
AI6 Converter
AI5
Digital toL
AI4 Analog
AI3 Converter
AI2
AI1 INPUT OUTPUT
A02
A01
GND
+V
Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
+V
SES
28
Connect the lamp between the +V voltage and the interface

output channel Q3.

Press on the RST pushbutton on the back of the interface.
All the red lights should be ON.
SES
29
Step 7: Choose the new library (DAVID 3) you created in the previous
experiment.
Step 8: Click on the Off Line Mode button .
Step 9: Two additional windows are added to the previous windows –

Edit Window and Menu.
Move with the cursor over the Menu field buttons and identify
their meaning.
Step 10: The upper right button in the Menu window is used to create a
new procedure button.
Click on this button .
A new button will appear on the Procedures window.
Step 11: Each button can be edited as a drawing and as text.
Click on the Edit Procedure Icon button on the Menu

window.
The computer's Paint screen will appear with the button square at
the upper left corner.
SES
30
Step 12: Enlarge the square with the magnifying glass.

Step 13: With the Paint colors and tools draw a filled red circle at the
center of the square.
Step 14: Exit the Paint program by clicking on the X at the upper right
corner or by clicking the FILE function and EXIT.
The Paint program will ask you: "Save changes?"
Click OK to save the drawing.
Step 15: Another window opens with a field to type the button name as
text.
Type the word RED in the field.
Click OK to save.
The button at the Procedures window will change to the
RED
following button .
Step 16: Click on the Digital Out button .

Step 17: Change it to number 3.
Step 18: Click on the ON button.
SES
31
Step 19: Click now over the general group button .

This group's commands are: delay, sound, repeat the command,

back to the beginning, repeat by variable and stop.
Step 20: Click on the delay button .

SES
32
Step 21: The delay is measured by tenths of a second.
Click on the number appearing on the button.
A window with a field for writing the desired delay will open.
Step 22: Type the number 20 for a two seconds delay.
Click OK and the window will be closed.
Step 23: Click again on the Digital Out button and choose the OFF
command.
Step 24: Click again on the general group button.
Step 25: Choose the STOP button to stop the procedure.
Check that you receive the following procedure:
Step 26: The program appearing on the Edit window does not belong yet
to the RED button you created.
Identify the Save As button in the Menu window and

Click on it.
SES
33
The button will be pressed inward.
The system waits for clicking on any procedure button.
Step 27: Click on the RED procedure button.
The procedure is saved under this button.
Step 28: To make sure that the procedure is saved under the RED button,
Click on the upper left button (Clear Edit Window) in the

Menu window.
The Edit Window will be erased.
Step 29: Click now over the View Procedure button (the second
upper right button).
The software is waiting for a clicking on the desired procedure

button.
Step 30: Click on the RED button.
The procedure instructions will appear in the procedure edit

window.
The RED procedure button will appear now at the lowest button
(Save button) in the Menu window.
Each clicking on the Save button will save anew the program on
the Edit window under the name RED.
Note:
We distinguish between two similar expressions – commands

and instructions.
Instruction is a command written in the procedure and executed

only when the procedure is executed.
Command is executed immediately upon addressing it. Most of

the group's commands are also used as instructions inside the
procedures, but not all of them.
SES
34
Step 31: We now have a new button, called RED with a drawing on it,
which operate the lighting of a lamp, a two seconds delay and
extinguishment.
Click on the Direct Mode button .
Step 32: Click now over the RED button.
A running window will open, presenting the first instruction of

the procedure.
Step 33: Clicking on the button will execute the procedure, while
presenting the executing instructions on the window.
Click on this button.
The lamp should be ON and turn OFF after two seconds.
Step 34: Click again on the RED button.
SES
35
Step 35: The button is used for executing one instruction of the
procedure at a time.
Click on this button once.
The lamp should be ON.
Step 36: Click again on the button.
A two seconds delay will be performed and afterwards the OFF

command will appear.
The lamp should be turned OFF.
The execution of the procedure is finished.
Step 39: We will now change the procedure to infinite loop blinking.
Click on the Off Line Mode button .
Step 40: Click on the "View Procedure" button and afterwards on

the RED button.
The procedure instructions will appear on the Edit window.
Step 41: To make changes in the procedure we must move to the edit
status.
Click on the Edit Procedure button .
SES
36
Step 42: On the left side of each instruction there are three signs:
X in the middle, which means: "delete the instruction".
Two signs (above and below), which mean: "switch places

between this instruction and the next one".
Delete the STOP instruction at the end of the procedure.
Step 43: Add another two seconds delay instruction at the continuation of
the procedure.
Step 44: Add a Restart instruction at the end of the procedure.
When the procedure will reach this instruction, it will move to

the beginning and executes the procedure instructions again.
Step 45: Check that you receive the following procedure:
Click on the SAVE button (the lowest) in the menu

window.
SES
37
An execution window will open.
Step 48: Click on the normal running button .
The procedure will run in an infinite loop and the lamp will turn
ON and OFF alternately.
Step 49: To stop the procedure, click the button.
Step 50: Close the Run Procedure window.
Step 51: The interface is also a computer. It includes its own CPU
(Central Processing Unit) and memory.
We can download the procedure into its memory.
Identify the Download button .
Step 52: Check that the green circle at the upper right corner of the screen
appears (no red circle).
If not, press the RST pushbutton on the interface.
Step 53: Click on the Download button .
The software waits for clicking over the procedure button

destined for download.
A ruler will appear, slowly filling up, symbolizing the procedure

download from the computer to the interface.
SES
38
When the ruler disappears and there is no error message, it

indicates that the procedure was downloaded completely into the
interface.
Step 55: On the upper raw of the screen a running man button appears
This button indicates the running of a procedure, which is located

in the interface memory.
Click on this button.
The lamp will blink non-stop now.
Step 56: The green circle in the upper right corner will turn red.
The interface is busy running the procedure and does not answer
the computer.
To stop the procedure and return the green circle, press the RST
pushbutton on the back of the interface.
The procedure is not erased from the interface memory, even if

we disconnect the power to the interface.
Step 57: Check this.
Disconnect the power from the interface.
The green circle will turn red.
Step 58: Connect the power to the interface.
If the red circle did not turn green in two seconds, press the RST
pushbutton.
Step 59: Run the procedure again.
The lamp will blink again.
SES
39
Step 60: Press the RST in the interface to stop the running.
Step 61: The interface can function as an independent controller as soon

as any procedure is stored in it.
Disconnect the communication cable from the interface.
A red circle will appear on the screen.
Step 62: Move the select switch to the right (towards the power supply
socket).
Press RST.
The lamp will start to blink.
Pressing the RST again will not stop the procedure.
Step 63: Disconnect the power and reconnect it.
The lamp will start to blink.
Step 64: Connect again the communication cable to the interface.
Step 65: Move the select switch to the left (towards the RST pushbutton)
and press RST.
The lamp will turn OFF and the green circle will appear on the
screen.
Challenge exercise – blinking lights:
Step 66: In the device you have there are two lamps.
Put a red cap on the right lamp, which is connected to Q3.
Step 67: Put a green cap on the left lamp and connect it between the
output channel Q5 and +V.
Step 68: Prepare a new procedure button with red and green circles and
call it BLINK.
SES
40
Step 69: Write a procedure, which will cause the lamps to blink. For two
seconds the right lamp will be ON and for two seconds the left
lamp will be ON alternately.
Save this procedure under the BLINK button.
Step 70: Run the procedure from the computer and check its behavior.
Step 71: Download the procedure into the interface and run it from the
computer.
Step 72: Run the procedure independently from the interface.
Step 73: Do not forget at the end of the procedure to connect the
communication cable to the interface and move the select switch
towards the RST pushbutton.
SES
41
Experiment 1.3 – Procedures as New

Instructions
Objectives:
 Using procedures as new instructions.
 Building and implementing a traffic light.
 A washing machine.
Equipment required:
 Computer
 Power supply
Discussion:
Each procedure we built, we create a button with an icon and/or name for
it.
This button can be used as a command or as a new procedure instruction. In

this way, a rich computer language is created, which is adapted to the
application we want to implement.
In the previous experiment, we learned to create procedures, which turn

lamps ON and OFF.
In this experiment, we will use these procedures to build a traffic lights

system.
In a similar way, we will operate the system's motor as a spinning drum of

a washing machine.
Every computer includes a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which decodes

the procedure instructions and executes them.
SES
42
The main software (SESLOGO in our case), which enables to edit the
procedure, save it, run it and operate the various commands, is called
operating system.
The main procedure that the computer executes at first is called a computer
program. At the end of the program we need to add an instruction, which
returns the program to the beginning (if we want the program to be
executed again and again), or stops the program and returns to the
operating system.
The program may call and use procedures.
SES
43
Procedure:
Light sensor
Red lamp
Yellow
lamp
Step 3: Connect the electrical circuit as follows: Green lamp
APPLIC-
INPUT OUTPUT
GND J7 J6 J5 J4 J3 J2 J1 J0 AO Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 5V GND
+V
Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
G Y R
+V
SES
44

Press on the RST pushbutton at the back of the interface.
Choose the new library (DAVID 3) you created in the previous

experiment.
SES
45
Step 7: From this experiment and onward we will not describe the
building of the procedure. If you do not remember how to do it,
go back to experiment 1.2.
Change the RED procedure to the following procedure:

DIGITAL OUT
ON
3
40
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
3
Step 8: Run and check the procedure behavior.
Step 9: Create a new YELLOW button with a filled yellow circle.
Step 10: Build the following procedure and save it under the YELLOW
button.
DIGITAL OUT
ON
E
G0
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
E
Step 12: Create a new GREEN button with a filled green circle.
Step 13: Build the following procedure and save it under the GREEN
button.
DIGITAL OUT
ON
^
_0
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
^
SES
46
Step 15: Create a new TRAFFIC button with three filled circles – red,
yellow and green.
Step 16: Build the following procedure and save it under TRAFFIC
button.
RED
YELLOW
GREEN
YELLOW

RESTART
The last instruction (Restart) can be found in the general

instructions group.
This instruction runs the procedure anew.
Step 18: Download the procedure into the interface and run it
independently (by moving the select switch to the right).
Step 19: Move the select switch to the left and press RST.
Step 20: We will add a blinking green after the green in the traffic light
procedure.
Create a new BLINK button with two green circles, one filled
and one empty.
SES
47
Step 21: Build the following procedure and save it under BLINK.
G`
DIGITAL OUT
ON
^
G`
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
^
Step 22: Change the traffic light procedure to the following one:
RED
YELLOW
GREEN
REPEAT
3 BLINK
YELLOW

RESTART
The REPEAT instruction can be found in the general instructions

group.
This instruction operates the procedure on the right several times

according to the number written in it.
Step 23: Run and check the procedure in the computer and also in
downloading to the interface.
SES
48
Challenge exercise – washing machine:
Step 24: Set the motor on the experiments surface.
Step 25: Connect to the motor its transmission. Connect the winch device
to the transmission axle as follows:
Step 26: Build a procedure, which rotates the motor two seconds to one
direction and two seconds to the opposite direction. Before each
direction change, the procedure stops the motor for half a second.
Step 27: Run and check.
Step 28: Build a procedure, which execute the previous procedure 5 times
and then stops the motor.
Step 29: Run and check.
SES
49
Experiment 1.4 – Conditions and Decisions
Objectives:
 How to connect input components to the interface.
 Writing procedures which respond to switches.
 Close loop control.
 Using variables.
Equipment required:
 Computer
 Power supply
Discussion:
All the procedures and programs we wrote so far operated the controlled
system (motors and lamps) only by schedule.
This system is called Open Loop system. The controller operates the
controlled system without receiving data from the system and relating to
this data.
A real control system is a system, which operates as closed loop. It gathers
data from the controlled system and according to this data makes decisions
and acts accordingly.
This data is received from switches and sensors. The switches and sensors
are connected to the input units of the interface. The controller software
addresses the input units to get the state of the sensors and switches.
For example, an automatic lighting system. This system will include a light
sensor. The control system will light up the lamp when it is dark and turn it
OFF when there is light. This system is automatically adapted to summer
time (when the night is short) and to winter time (when the night is long
and starts early).
Of course, we need to take care that the light sensor will not be influenced
by the light turning ON.
SES
50
Procedure:
Light sensor
Green lamp
Lamp Red lamp
APPLIC-37
Analog to
AI7 Digital
Multi I/O Module
AI6 Converter
AI5
Digital toL
AI4 Analog
AI3 Converter
AI2
AI1 INPUT OUTPUT
A02
A01
GND
+V
Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
+V
SES
51
Step 4: Connect a switch at the device base and connect it with wires to
channels J4 and GND as follows:
APPLIC-
INPUT OUTPUT
GND J7 J6 J5 J4 J3 J2 J1 J0 AO Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 5V GND
+V
J7 J6 J5 J4 J3 J2 J1 J0
3
1
2
+V
Step Y: Activate the SESLOGO software as follows:

Press on the RST pushbutton at the back of the interface.
Step 8: Move to the Direct Mode screen with the button.
SES
52
Step 9: Change the channel number in the Digital In button to

number 4.
Step 10: Click on the Digital In button.
Step 11: Click on the READ button appearing in the Commands window.
Step 12: Press the pushbutton, which is connected to the input channel J4.
Keep the pushbutton pressed and Click again on the READ
button.
This time the number 1 will appear on the button.
Step 13: Move to the Off Line Mode state.
The instructions related to the digital input channel will appear in
the Commands window, and they are:
Wait for 0, wait for 1, if equal to 0 go to…, if equal to 1 go to…
Step 14: Create a new button named SWITCH with the drawing .
Step 15: Build the following procedure, which waits for the pushbutton to
be pressed and then turns ON and OFF the lamp.
DIGITAL IN Wait
_ Until 0
DIGITAL OUT
ON
F
G`
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
F
G`

RESTART
SES
53
Step 16: Save the procedure under the name SWITCH.
Step 17: Run the procedure.
Nothing will happen to the lamp.
The lamp will blink as long as you press the pushbutton.
Step 19: Stop the procedure's running.
Step 20: Change the procedure so that each pressing and releasing of the
pushbutton will cause the lamp to blink once.
DIGITAL IN Wait
_ Until 0
DIGITAL IN Wait
_ Until 1
DIGITAL OUT
ON
F
G`
DIGITAL OUT
F OFF
G`

RESTART
Step 21: Save the procedure.
The lamp will blink once only after pressing and releasing the
pushbutton
Each pressing and releasing will cause the lamp to blink.
Check this.
SES
54
Counter:
Changing the state to 1 and dropping to 0 is called pulse. The

interface has a self-mechanism for counting pulses received at its
inputs. Each input has an internal counter, which counts
independently the pulses received at the input.
Step 23: Click on the counter button .
The following counter's commands will appear in the Commands

window.
0 – reset, Wait Until >, Wait Until <, If bigger than…, If smaller
than…
In control systems we try to avoid checking equality for values

which may go over the equalization value.
We need to remember that condition checking is done only when

the computer reaches the condition instruction. A situation may
arise when we press the pushbutton for several times and the
counter state went over the equality. The computer will not
recognize this.
SES
55
Step 24: Change the procedure so that only after 3 pressings, the lamp will
blink once.
COUNTER
_
COUNTER Wait
_ Until > 2
DIGITAL OUT
ON
F
G`
DIGITAL OUT
F OFF
G`

RESTART
Step 25: Save the procedure under the name SWITCH.
Step 27: Press the pushbutton three times.
The lamp will blink once.
Step 28: Check if after every three pressings, the lamp blinks once.
Step 29: Stop the procedure.
Conditions:
The condition instructions are conditional execution instructions.

The instruction is executed if the condition written in the
instruction exists.
The instructions in the SESLOGO conditional instruction must

be procedures.
SES
56
Step 30: Create a new button called Q3 ON with a filled red circle.
Step 31: Save the one instruction procedure under this button.
DIGITAL OUT
ON
F
Step 32: Change the SWITCH procedure to the following one:
DIGITAL IN ?=
4 1 Q 3 ON

RESTART
Step 33: Run the SWITCH procedure.
Nothing will happen.
The lamp will turn ON and will not turn OFF again.
Step 35: Stop the procedure.
To turn the lamp OFF, we need to give the turning OFF

instruction.
Step 36: Create a new procedure called Q3 OFF with an empty red circle.
Step 37: Save the following instruction under the Q3 OFF procedure:
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
F
Step 38: Change the SWITCH procedure to the following one:

DIGITAL IN ?=
4 1 Q 3 ON
DIGITAL IN ?=
4 ` Q 3 OFF

RESTART
SES
57
Step 39: Run the SWITCH procedure.
This time, pressing the pushbutton will turn the lamp ON and
releasing the pushbutton will turn the lamp OFF.
Step 40: Check the system's reaction when the procedure runs from the
computer.
Step 41: Download the procedure to the interface and run it.
Now check the system's reaction.
The system reacts as if the pushbutton is connected to the lamp.
Challenge exercise:
Step 42: Improve the SWITCH procedure so that pressing the pushbutton
will turn the right lamp ON and releasing the pushbutton will
turn the left lamp ON.
Each time only one lamp will be turned ON.
Variables:
All the numbers we write in the various instructions such as:

value for comparison, go back a number of times etc., are
numbers, which are set while writing the program. These
numbers are called constants.
Sometimes we need the program to adapt itself to a certain

situation or to learn a certain value. In this case, we use memory
cell where values such as these are stored.
The SESLOGO has three buttons ,

representing three memory cells.
Step 43: We will write a procedure where the system checks how long it
will take until a pushbutton is pressed and turns ON a lamp
accordingly after pressing the pushbutton.
SES
58
COUNT
Create a button called COUNT .
Step 44: Write the following procedure:
G +1
Save the procedure under the COUNT button.
This procedure adds 1 to variable 1.
Step 45: Create a new button called DELAY DELA .

Y

DIGITAL OUT
ON
F
Save the procedure under the DELAY button.
LAMP
Step 47: Create a new button called LAMP .

G
REPEAT DELAY
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
F
G 0
Save the procedure under the LAMP button.
CNT&LAMP
Step 50: Create a new button called CNT&LAMP .
SES
59

DIGITAL IN ?c
_ ` COUNT
DIGITAL IN ?c
_ 1 LAMP

RESTA
Save the procedure under the CNT&LAMP button.
This procedure checks the pushbutton. As long as the pushbutton

is not pressed, it calls the COUNT procedure, which increments
the variable 1.
When the pushbutton is pressed, the LAMP procedure is called,

which turns ON the lamp for the duration of time that passed
until the pushbutton was pressed. The LAMP procedure resets
the variable.
Step 51: Run the CNT&LAMP procedure from the computer and from the
interface after downloading, for several times. Each time, press
the pushbutton after waiting different periods of time and check
the system's reaction.
SES
60
Chapter 2 – Computerized Models

2.1 Introduction
This chapter is the pinnacle of our studies. Here we can combine our
knowledge of programming with our capability to connect the computer to
the "outside" world. In these experiments, you will be challenged with
tasks that you must face. These tasks require you to solve problems
regarding the structure of the required models and the control program
needed to operate it.
We must emphasize two aspects of the use of simulation kits:
a) While building some models, we must emphasize the necessity to

work accurately and to follow the instructions. This is mainly true in
the first models.
b) To construct other models and solve additional problems, you must let
your imagination run wild, and then improve your ideas by a logical
process. We will explain this process further on.
Construction is based on "FischerTechnik" construction kits. There are

many such kits available and so there are many construction possibilities.
The learning method we have chosen emphasized the freedom to search for
and discover alternative solutions for each problem, with the possibility to
analyze and evaluate each solution. The construction solutions suggested
here are intended only as stimulation and do not represent a single or
recommended solution.
Complete models and construction instructions are presented here. Let your
imagination and talent take over to present new ideas for building the
models. Contend with your ideas and try to improve them by logical
thinking.
The object of experimental learning is to improve our thinking techniques

by becoming aware of efficient thought processes.
SES
61
The process of solving a problem is characterized by partial or full use of

the following thought and action steps:
a) Defining the problem, collecting the data and understanding the

background.
b) Collecting data regarding possible solutions.
c) Examining a number of possible solutions.
d) Selecting the "Best Solution".
e) Trying to solve the problem (in our program - using simulation kits).
f) Evaluating the solution while comparing it to the initial requirements.
g) Connection and improvement.
Good Luck !!
SES
62
Experiment 2.1 – Automatic Fan
Objectives:
 To construct a fan controlled by a light sensor.
 Control and command of a time dependent system.
 Automatic systems control.
Equipment required:
 Computer
 Power supply
Discussion:
In this activity, we will construct an automatic fan operated with an
optocoupler consisting of a light sensor positioned opposite a lamp. The
system we build resembles an automatic hand dryer. We will improve this
system by placing the light sensor beside the lamp with a reflector opposite
them both.
In the parts kit you will find a light sensor called a phototransistor, fitted in
a lamp holder. We use the sensor as an electronic switch, which is closed
when light shines on it and is opened when it is in the dark. A light sensor
is a polarized component. Look at it and you will see that one pole is
marked in red and the other black. The black pole must be connected to one
of the inputs J and the red pole to +V.
We will also use this system to practice timers, and systems operation
according to a timetable.
It is better to create a new directory (DAVID 4 for instance) for the

following projects.
SES
63
Procedure:
Step 1: Construct a fan using a motor and a propeller. Place an
optocoupler – which you construct by positioning an uncovered
(white) lamp opposite the phototransistor (light sensor) – in front
of the fan.
Add a red and a green signal lamp. Let the diagram assist you.
Light Sensor
Green Lamp
White Lamp Red Lamp
Step 2: Connect the electrical components according to this diagram:
J7 J6 J5 J4 J3 J2 J1 J0 GND Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
-
M Green
+
Red
+V
White
SES
64
Step 3: Create a new procedure named MOTOR ON with only one

command:
DIGITAL OUT
ON
^
Step 4: Create another procedure named MOTOR OFF with the

following command:
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
^
Step 5: Create the following procedure named FAN2:
DIGITAL IN ?= MOTOR ON
6 0
DIGITAL IN ?= MOTOR OFF

6 G

RESTART
Step 6: Create the following main program named FAN:
DIGITAL OUT
ON
0
FAN2
Step 7: Run the program FAN.
Put your hand in front of the light sensor.
Step 8: Check that the fan coupled to the motor blows air in the right
direction.
If not, switch around the motor connections.
Step 9: Halt the program.
SES
65
Write a program to perform the following actions:
a) Switches ON the green light and the white (optocoupler)

light.
b) Waits until no light falls on the light sensor.
c) Switch ON the fan and the red light.
d) Test the light sensor again.
e) When light once again falls on the light sensor, stops the
motor.
Step 10: Change the MOTOR ON procedure to:
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
2
DIGITAL OUT
ON
1
DIGITAL OUT
ON
7
Step 11: Change the MOTOR OFF procedure to:
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
1
DIGITAL OUT
ON
2
DIGITAL OUT
OFF
7
Step 12: Change the main program FAN to:
DIGITAL OUT
ON
0
G`
FAN2
SES
66
Step 13: Run the program.
The white light goes ON and after a while the green light goes
ON.
When we turn on the lights, it turns ON slowly (it seems fast to

our eyes, but not for the computer or the light sensor). It also
affects the lights when we turn ON the motor. This is the reason
why we add delay element before checking the light sensor. We
check the light sensor only after the system is stable.
Step 14: Move your hand in between the white lamp and the light sensor
(watch out for the fan!) so that it blocks the light to the sensor.
The red light should go ON and the fan should rotate. The green
lamp should go OFF.
Step 15: Remove your hand.
The red lamp should go OFF, the green lamp should go ON and
the motor should stop.
Step 16: Halt the program.
Step 17: Download the program and run it.
Insert your hand again and the fan will go ON again.
Move your hand around as if you were rubbing it in the air flow.
Most probably at some stage light will fall on the sensor and the
motor will stop even though your hand is still there. The motor
will go on when your hand blocks the light again.
Step 18: Challenge exercise:
Improve the program so it solves this problem.
Turn OFF the motor only after 100 sequential "OFF conditions"
of the switch.
SES
67
Experiment 2.2 – Motorized Cart
Objectives:
 To build a cart, which runs within two marked borders (walls).
 To write a motion program, which can later serve as the foundation
for a similar program to operate manipulators.
Equipment required:
 Computer
 Power supply
Discussion:
In this activity we will build a cart which moves between two walls. The
position of the walls limits its motion. The cart changes direction when a
limit switch is pressed. This is an example of a drive system called a
manipulator. Similar systems are applied in various automation systems.
Figure 2-1
SES
68
Procedure:
Step 1: Build a 4 wheel cart, driven by a motor. Place a limit switch at
the front of the cart and another limit switch at the back. When
the cart reaches the end of its track, the switch will be pressed,
the motor direction will be reversed and the cart will change
direction. Use the following construction diagram.
Construction Diagram:
Step 2: Connect the motor and switches as described in the following

figure.
Use long wires (at least 60cm) to connect the cart to the interface.
SWA SWB M
+V
SES
69
Step 3: Write a program named CART1, which will move the cart in the
direction of the limit switch which is connected to J5 until it is
pressed and then stops.
MOTOR
_ CW
MOTOR
ON
_
DIGITAL IN Wait
E Until 1
MOTOR OFF
_
END
Step 4: Pick up the cart and run the program. Check that the wheels turn
in the right direction and that the cart goes in the direction of the
correct limit switch.
If not, switch around the motor connection leads.
Press the limit switch. The motor should stop. If not, check the
limit switch connections.
Step 5: Place the cart facing a wall and run the program again.
The cart should run to the wall and stops.
SES
70
Step 6: Change the program so that the cart runs to the wall, then away
from it, and then runs back to the wall in an infinite loop.
MOTOR
_ CW
MOTOR
ON
_
DIGITAL IN Wait
E Until 1
MOTOR OFF
_
MOTOR
_ CCW
MOTOR
ON
_
F`
MOTOR OFF
_

RESTART
Step 7: Place the cart facing the wall and run the program. The cart will
run to the wall, reverse, and run to the wall again.
Stop the program.
SES
71
Step 8: Now we can write a program to run the cart back and forth
between two barriers.
MOTOR
_ CW
MOTOR
ON
_
DIGITAL IN Wait
E Until 1
MOTOR OFF
_
MOTOR
_ CCW
MOTOR
ON
_
DIGITAL IN Wait
d Until 1
MOTOR OFF
_

RESTART
Test the program similarly to step 4.
Stop the program.
Step 9: Place the cart between two barriers and run the program. The cart
should run back and forth between the barriers.
Increasing the distance between the barriers changes the cart's

travel accordingly.
SES
72
Step 10: Challenge exercise 2.2.1:
Improve the program described in step 8 so that the cart waits 2

seconds at each wall before changing direction.
Improve the program described in step 6 so that the limit switch

connected to J6 acts as an emergency stop button to switch OFF
the cart and terminate the program.
SES
73
Experiment 2.3 – Robot with One Degree of

Freedom
Objectives:
 To build a robot arm with one axis of motion with position control.
 To use a limit switch to set the system's point of origin (HOME).
 To use a counter to control the position and motion of the robot arm.
 To use an electromagnet to move metallic parts.
 To write a robot arm control program.
Equipment required:
 Computer
 Power supply
Discussion:
In this activity we will construct a model robot arm with one axis of
motion. Each axis of motion of a robot is called a "Degree of Freedom".
The more axes the robot has, the more degrees of freedom, i.e. it can move
more freely.
The difference between a robot and a manipulator is that we control a robot

and monitor its steps, so that we can stop it at any point on the motion
plane of each axis. A manipulator has a limited number of fixed positions
set by external sensors or limit switches at which it can stop, and we move
it from one position to the next.
We use manipulators in automatic machines where the same operation

must be repeated over and over.
We use robots in flexible machine systems, which can perform different
operations and processes by merely changing the system software.
SES
74
To understand the principles of robotics control we will make do with a

single degree of freedom. We will construct the robot described in the next
figure:
I E
A D
B
C
F
G
Figure 2-2
This model robot can move and transfer metallic parts from one place to
another.
Rotation of the motor (A) causes the "worm" gear (C) to turn via a
transmission system (B) attached to the motor. The worm (C) turns the
large gear (D) which has the robot arm (E) attached to it. At the end of the
robot arm is an electromagnet (F).
The worm also turns a wheel hub (G) which presses and releases a switch
(H), beneath it. In this way, we can count the number of steps which the
robot does (in actual fact the angle of motion).
In the corner of the base plate is a post upon which an additional limit
switch (I) is mounted.
The wheel hub (G) may prepared by cutting 5 teeth (one yes and one no) of
the 10 teeth wheel of the component kit.
SES
75
Procedure:
Step 1: Construct the robot according to the construction diagrams that
follows (at the end of this activity).
Step 2: Make the electrical connections to the interface as shown here:
SWB SWA M
EM
+V
Step 3: First we will check each of the system's components and the
electrical connections. Enter Direct Command Mode.
Step 4: Operate MOTOR 1 clockwise (CW ) and check that the

robot's arm rotates towards the limit switch.
If not, reverse the connections to the motor.
Step 5: Use the CCW (counterclockwise ) command and check if

the robot's arm rotates to the other direction.
Step 6: Read DIGITAL IN 5 while the SWA switch is pressed and check
that the read value is 1.
Step 7: Release the SWA switch and read again DIGITAL IN 5. Check
that the read value is 0.
Step 8: Place a small piece of iron (paper clip, washer etc.) beneath the
electromagnet.
Step 9: Click on the "DIGITAL OUT 2 ON" command.
The iron should stick to the electromagnet.
Step 10: Click on the "DIGITAL IN 2 OFF" command.
The iron should fall from the electromagnet.
SES
76
Step 11: Click on the "COUNTER 6 CLEAR (0)" command.
We use switch SWB to count steps.
Step 12: Operate MOTOR 1 clockwise (CW ) for a short time and
stop.
Step 13: Read COUNTER 6 and check if it counted the steps.
If not, check the limit switch and the teeth wheel upon it.
Step 14: Write the following program under the name ROBOT.
MOTOR
CW
G
MOTOR ON
G
DIGITAL IN Wait
E Until 1
MOTOR OFF
G
MOTOR
G CCW
COUNTER 0
d CLEAR
MOTOR
ON
G
COUNTER Wait
d Until > 10
MOTOR OFF
1
SES
77
The program should move the robot arm to the limit switch.
Then the program should move the arm in the opposite direction
while counting steps (SWB operations).
The program should stop after 10 steps.
Step 16: Mark this position.
Place a piece of iron (paper clip) under the electromagnet at this

point. Add the following lines to the program.
DIGITAL OUT
] ON
]`
MOTOR
CW
G
COUNTER 0
d CLEAR
MOTOR ON
G
COUNTER Wait
d Until > 5
MOTOR OFF
G
G`
DIGITAL OUT
] OFF
Step 17: Place the paper clip on the marked position.
SES
78
The arm should move to the limit switch, return to the paper clip,
pick it up, go back 5 steps and put it down.
Improve the program so that after dropping the paper clip, it

performs a short delay and then returns the clip to its original
position.
Place two small pieces of iron at pre-defined positions.
Write a program which switches the two objects around.
Use procedures.
SES
79
Construction Diagram A – Robot Arm:
SES
80
Construction Diagram B – Robot Arm:
SES
81
Construction Diagram C – Robot Arm:
SES
Arieh Nachum
Greenhouse Control
TPS-3717

Arieh Nachum
Greenhouse Control
TPS-3717
2_e

from SES.
I
Content
SES Greenhouse ....................................................................................... 1

The Greenhouse Controller – APPLIC-37G........................................... 1
SESGREEN .............................................................................................. 2
Installing the SESGREEN software ........................................................ 3
Operating the system................................................................................ 3
Greenhouse and Plants .......................................................................... 11
Experiment 1 – Greenhouse Effect ........................................................ 14
Experiment 2 – Temperature Control................................................... 16
Experiment 3 – Humidity Control......................................................... 18
Experiment 4 – Temperature, Humidity and Light along the Day ..... 19
Experiment 5 – Plants in Greenhouse ................................................... 20
SES
1
SES Greenhouse
The SES greenhouse is a mini computerized greenhouse (60 x 44 x 63 cm)
aimed for biology controlled-experiments with plants.
The greenhouse includes:
 Transparent walls and a sloping roof.

 Two fan units mounted on one of the sidewalls.
 A lamp (directed to the floor).
 3 sensors (temperature, humidity and light directed to the roof) are
located in APPLIC-36 sensors and drivers interface module.
 A heater located beneath the floor surface (optional).
 A water pump for automatic irrigation (optional).
All the electrical components are connected to the SES greenhouse

controller for controlling the temperature, the humidity and the light inside
the greenhouse.
The following are some examples of biology controlled-experiments with

plants that can be done:
 How steady temperature affects the plant’s growth.

 What are the best temperature and humidity conditions for the plant?
 How increasing the day (the light) duration affects the growth speed.
 Methods of controlling temperature and humidity.
The Greenhouse Controller – APPLIC-37G
The SES APPLIC-37G greenhouse controller is based on the 8051 most

popular micro-controller. The greenhouse controller is connected to a PC
via serial RS232 communication and works interactively with it.
The controller controls the greenhouse temperature, humidity and light. It

operates the fans, the lamp and the heater according to the sensors and to
the SESGREEN software parameters.
A 12V/2A power adapter feeds the APPLIC-37G and the APPLIC-36. The
heater comes with additional power supply.
SES
2
SESGREEN
The SESGREEN is software that let the user to concentrate on the
experiment parameters and not on programming.
The program refers to the greenhouse controller to get the sensor values
and to send commands to the controller according to the user variables.
The following is the software screen:
The sensors’ values are sampled and displayed on the one day screen as
graphs.
The SESGREEN includes fields and buttons to change the on and off
values and the modes of operation.
SES
3
Installing the SESGREEN software

The SESGREEN is a WINDOWS application program. It is not protected
and only copying it does the installation.
1) Turn ON the PC.

2) Using ‘My Computer’ functions, copy the SESSGREEN subdirectory
from the CD to the hard disk.
3) Create a short cut to the software SESGREEN.exe.
4) Move this short cut to the desktop window.
To run the SESGREEN software you have to double click on this icon.
Operating the system

Step 1: The APPLIC-37G greenhouse controller should be located on the
outside wall of the greenhouse (above one of the fans) grabbed
by Velcro strip.
Check that.
Step 2: The APPLIC-36 sensors and drivers module gets its power from
APPLIC-37.
Connect the power cable of APPLIC-36 (the cable with the DC

plug) to one of the DC power inlets on APPLIC-37G.
Step 3: APPLIC-36 should also be connected to APPLIC-37G by flat

cable.
Connect this cable properly to APPLIC-37G connector.
Step 4: Check that the APPLIC-37G greenhouse controller is connected

to the PC with the serial communication cable.
This cable has an earphone plug on one side (should be plugged
into the earphone jack on the rear panel of the trainer) and a 9 pin
D-connector plug on the other side (should be connected to the
PC COM port).
Step 5: Connect the power supply to APPLIC-37G DC power inlet and

to the Mains.
SES
4
Step 6: Run the SESGREEN software.

The following screen is opened:
The SESGREEN software starts by displaying the current day

and time.
The SESGREEN has two modes of operation: On-line and Off-

line modes.
On On-line mode, the SESGREEN communicates with the

controller and received the controlled parameters: temperature,
humidity, light, wet and the controller time (the controller has its
own real time clock).
This data is displayed graphically on the screen and automatic

saved in a file under the date name.
After displaying the PC current day and time the SESGREEN

look for file with the current date name. If it founds, it display its
data on the screen.
After displaying the SESGREEN tries to communicate with the

greenhouse controller.
SES
5
There three options:
 No answer
 An answer that the controller on standby condition.
 An answer that indicates that the controller runs the control
program according to previous parameters.
Step 7: When there is no answer, you will get a message to check

connections, power and com port. A new button ('Open COM
port') will appear.
If the communication fails:
Check that the controller is ON.
Check that the earphone plug is properly plugged into the

earphone jack.
Check that the cable is properly connected to the PC.
Check that the PC COM port is OK and not used by other

software.
If it is necessary, move the COM cable to another COM port.
After communication success with the controller, the

SESGREEN saves the right COM channel and makes it its
default.
Step 8: When the greenhouse controller on stand-by condition, the

SESGREEN screen will be on off-line condition.
At this state, the screen enables us to determine the control
parameters (see below).
Clicking over the 'Update Parameters' button sends the control
parameters to the controller.
Clicking over the 'Update Time' button updates the controller real
time clock according to the PC clock.
If it is the first time that we use the greenhouse controller, we
have to click over the 'Reset' button. This button downloads the
controller control program and runs it.
It transfers also the SESGREEN to on-line mode.
SES
6
Step 9: When the controller is on running mode, the SESGREEN

software will be on on-line mode.
On on-line mode we can't change the control parameters and

SESGREEN updates (by polling the controller) the screen and
the graphs values every two seconds.
It also saves the parameters every one minute.
Step 10: There is one 'Run/Stop' button below.
On On-Line mode, this button is 'Stop' button. It enables us to

stop the controller running.
On Off-Line mode, this button can be 'Stop' or 'Run' button.

When it is 'Run' button, it enables us to run the controller's
control program.
Step 11: We can move from On-Line mode to Off-Line mode and vice
versa (by clicking over their radio buttons) without affecting the
controller condition.
Only the 'Run/Stop', the 'Reset' and the 'Update' buttons affect the
controller.
Temperature Control:
Temperature can be controlled by heating (when it is cold) using

the heater or by cooling (when it is warm) using the fans.
During the day the temperature in the greenhouse (we assume

that the greenhouse is not in a room and the sun’s beams reach it)
is higher than the temperature outside the greenhouse, according
to the ‘Greenhouse Effect’.
High temperature is important to the plants but not too high. In

order to reduce the temperature we operate the fans. They draw
air to the greenhouse through the holes on the wall against the
fans.
At night the temperature is low. If we want to keep it higher, we

turn on the heater.
SES
7
The fans and the heater have two values each. One value is Value
to turn on (V.On) and one value is to turn off (V.Off). We must
use two values in order to prevent the system to oscillate.
The V.On for the fans should be higher than its V.Off.
The V.On for the heater should be smaller than its V.Off.
Step 12: Set the values for the Heater-Temp and for the Fan-Temp and see
how they affect the heater and the fans.
Start with values close to the room temperature.
'Update Parameters' and 'Run' the controller.
Touch the black temperature sensor on APPLIC-36 with your

finger. It will increase the temperature a little and observe how it
affects the system.
Note:
The temperature reaction to the fan and to the heater is very

very slow. Be aware to that.
All the greenhouse reactions are very slow ones.
Humidity control:
Usually we need to reduce humidity in the greenhouse. The

greenhouse is a closed area. The wet from the ground, from the
irrigation and from the plants themselves increase the humidity in
the air.
The leaves temperature is often lower than the air temperature.

At that case dew appear on them. Water on the leaves creates
diseases.
In order to reduce the humidity we use the fan, which draws fresh
air from outside the greenhouse and dries the leaves.
There are certain plants that need high humidity such as tropic
plants.
SES
8
In order to increase humidity, special water sprinkles are used.

Instead, we can cover the holes on the wall against the fans with
a wet curtain. Operating the fan now will reduce temperature
faster but also will increase humidity.
The Fan-Humidity also has two values. One value is Value to

turn on (V.On) and one value is to turn off (V.Off).
The V.On for the fans should be higher than its V.Off.
Step 13: Set the values for the Fan-Humidity and see how they affect the
fans.
Start with values close to the room humidity.
Touch the white humidity sensor on APPLIC-36 with a little wet

finger. It will increase the humidity near the sensor and observe
how it affects the system.
Fan by time:
Sometime we need to bring fresh air into the greenhouse. The

plants need CO2 for their growth. They consume the CO2 of the
greenhouse air and we have to refresh it from time to time.
The most important time is in the morning. In greenhouses with

doors, the doors are opened every morning for that purpose. It is
called Morning Opening.
Operating the fans creates similar effect. This is why we have the
Fan-Time function.
Step 14: Set the values for the Fan-Time and see how they affect the fans.
Play with the values, in order to understand the system.
Step 15: Do not forget to 'Update Parameters' and 'Run' the controller.
SES
9
Light control:
The plants grow during the day because they need the light for
the Photosynthesis process. When we want to speed up the
plants’ growth, we lengthen the day by using lamps at night.
It is commonly used when it is important to arrive at the market

with the plants at a certain time (for the holidays for example).
The greenhouse has light sensor.
The Lamp-Light also has two values. One value is Value to turn
on (V.On) and one value is to turn off (V.Off).
The V.On for the lamp should be smaller than its V.Off.
Step 16: Cover the greenhouse roof and check how it affects the light
sensor value.
Step 17: Direct a lamp to the light sensor or direct the greenhouse to the
sun and check how it affects the light sensor value.
Step 18: Set values for the Lamp-Light.
Step 19: Change the light on the light sensor and check how it affects the
lamp.
View graphs:
As mentioned before, while the SESGREEN is on On-Line

mode, it samples the sensors every two seconds and saves the
data every one minute.
The data of each day stored in a file under the date file name.
We can view any file of every day.
Step 20: Set the screen to Off-Line Mode.
SES
10
Step 21: Select a date by the pull down date button (near the 'View Graph'
button).
Step 22: Click over the 'View Graph' button.
The graph of the indicated day will appear on the screen

(assuming that the file exists).
SES
11
Greenhouse and Plants

The greenhouse provides the plants the optimal conditions for growing:
sunlight, proper levels of heat and carbon dioxide, nourishment and
humidity.
The plant growing process is based on the photosynthesis process.
In this unique process the plant creates its food (glucose – sugar) from the
CO2 (carbon dioxide and water). This process is done in a certain cells in
the leaf called chloroplasts. The chloroplasts separate the carbon dioxide
molecules into carbon and oxygen, separate the water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen and link the carbon to the hydrogen and oxygen and
produce the glucose molecule.
Six molecules of carbon dioxide CO2 (gas) plus six molecules of water H2 O
(liquid) create one molecule of glucose C6H12O4 (solid) and six molecules
of oxygen O2 (gas).
The photosynthesis process requires energy.
Six CO2 (gas) + six H2O (liquid) + energy = C6H12O4 (solid) + six O2.
The oxygen is the most important by-product of the photosynthesis process.

Without plants we would not be able to live.
The energy to the photosynthesis process comes from the sun. The leaves
are covered by transparent cells that enable the sun radiation to reach the
chloroplast cells. The chloroplasts are green and that is why the leaves are
green.
Special pores called stomata, allow the carbon dioxide in the air to reach
the chloroplasts. The stomata also let the oxygen and water vapor to get out
of the leaves.
The stomata open and close very fast all the time, like breathing after
running. The water reaches the chloroplast via special pipes in the leaf and
along the plant from its roots.
The excess water of the photosynthesis process gets out as water vapor.
This vaporization also is needed to remove excess energy.
SES
12
In the long run, increased radiation strength will lead to increased crop
yield. When speaking of a momentary situation, it is usual to characterize
the response by the rate of decomposition of carbon dioxide.
Influence of temperature:
The process of decomposition of organic material for breathing increases
with the increase in temperature. A high temperature can cause weight loss
in the plant due to the fact that the decomposition occurring throughout the
day consumes more sugars than the amount produced during hours of light.
At low temperatures, all the processes begin to slow down. Therefore,

ensuring the right temperature fro all parts of the plant is of utmost
importance in the growing process.
The rate of biochemical action in the plant increases as the temperature

rises. Therefore, the better the conditions for absorption, such as more light
for a longer period of time, the higher the desirable temperature during that
time and for a number of hours afterwards, in order to allow the transfer
and use of absorbed material in the different plant systems. It may be a
matter of only a degree or two, but each degree is very important in
determining the amount and quality of the crop and the time of its ripening.
Optimal plant growth is limited to a very narrow heat level range, although
most plants will live in a range between 10oC and 40oC.
Unlike us and other warm-blooded animals, plants lack the ability to

preserve body temperature but they can cool themselves by water
vaporization. The temperature of the leaves is determined by the condition
of the stomata, and by the balance between the air temperature, the air
humidity level, air movement and radiation flux.
In order to maintain a uniform leaf temperature in all sections of the

greenhouse, one must ensure that the following factors are at the same level
in all parts of the greenhouse:
1) Air temperature.
2) Air humidity level.
3) Air movement.
4) Radiation flux.
For this reason, it is advisable to grow only one kind of plant and from the
same stage of development, in any given space.
SES
13
Temperature level should be regulated to suit the physiological processes in

the plant membranes.
For example, lowering the temperature during the night by about one
degree can result in larger flowers; raising the temperature by about one
degree can expedite the opening of roses by a few days.
To root plantiets for example, it was found advantageous for the root house
to be at a higher temperature than the foliage. Such an arrangement will
allow rapid rood development while preventing dehydration of the
plantiets.
Irrigation:
The doses of water and time of irrigation are determined so that root
environment will be damp and aerated. When growing in regular soil, the
dose size and intervals between irrigations will be regulated by dehydration
of the ground such as caused by the action of the foliage. The dose size and
duration of irrigation increase as the plant increases in size. This allows for
the penetration of air with oxygen and the expulsion of carbon dioxide
created during root action. Without ventilation, there will be a lack of
oxygen required for the biochemical activity of the root. Such lack of
oxygen can be caused by the entrapment of water due to lack of drainage,
or by the seating of the upper layer of the ground.
SES
14
Experiment 1 – Greenhouse Effect

Step 1: Locate the greenhouse in a room, connect it to a PC and run the
SESGREEN software.
Step 2: Measure the temperature in the room.
Step 3: Take the greenhouse outside the room and locate it in a place
exposed to the sun.
Step 4: Take off the doors of the greenhouse and run the SESGREEN
software.
Step 5: Set the fan values so the fan will be at on condition.
Step 6: Measure the temperature.

It should be higher than the temperature in the room.
The temperature sensor is located close to the roof of the

greenhouse. The sun beams strike it and the interface. Also the
hot air goes high and cannot leave the greenhouse because of the
roof.
That is why the temperature near the sensor is even higher than
the temperature on the greenhouse floor.
The sensor module is designed so to enable changing location of

it. Do not change its place for the following experiments.
Step 7: Close the greenhouse doors.
Step 8: Stop the fans by changing the fan temperature parameters.
The temperature will go high very fast because of the greenhouse

effect.
The light radiation penetrates the transparent cover of the

greenhouse. The beams strike the floor and the plants in the
greenhouse and heat them.
SES
15
The heat radiates in Infra Red radiation (light beams that we can't
see). The Infra Red beams cannot penetrate the walls, although
they are transparent.
The light energy is locked inside the greenhouse and

accumulated.
Step 9: Check the temperature.
It can reach temperature over 60 or even 70 Celsius degrees.
We are talking about the temperature near the sensor.
You can see the temperature changes graphically.
Step 10: Put a plate with water in the greenhouse.
The heat vaporizes the water.
On one hand, the humidity should increase.
On the other hand, we measure the relative humidity. The hot air
can absorb more vapors than cold air.
Observe the humidity changes.
Note
The greenhouse reaction is very slow. Changes are measured

in minutes.
SES
16
Experiment 2 – Temperature Control

exposed to the sun.
Step 3: According to the temperature values that you measured in

experiment 1, set the Fan – Temp V.On (Value On) and V.Off
(Value off).
Set for example the V.On to 54 and V.Off to 52.
When the temperature goes higher the 54 degrees, the fans turn
on and the temperature goes slowly down.
When the temperature goes below 52, the fans stop.
Now the temperature will go high because of the greenhouse

effect.
Step 4: Observe the greenhouse reaction.
Step 5: Observe the graph on the screen.
You should get almost a temperature straight line.
Step 6: Change the V.On and the V.Off values and observe the
greenhouse reaction.
Note
The fans pull air from the outside door to the greenhouse in
order to cool it.
The cooling speed is according to the difference between the

temperature in the greenhouse and the outside door temperature.
Step 7: Check that.
Step 8: Measure the time when the fans are on and the time when the
fans are off for different values of V.On and V.off.
SES
17
Step 9: The plants also affect the cooling speed. The plant stomata
pollute water. The air movement, created by the fans, vaporizes
the water and reduces the temperature.
Put a plate with water in the greenhouse. Locate it on some base

so it will be at the fans height.
Step 10: Check how the plate of water affects the cooling speed.
Step 11: Measure the time when the fans are on and the time when the
fans are off for different values of V.On and V.off.
SES
18
Experiment 3 – Humidity Control

exposed to the sun.

(Value off).
Step 4: Put a plate with water in the greenhouse. Locate it on some base
Step 5: Check what is the humidity in the greenhouse, while the

SESGREEN controls the temperature.
Step 6: Try now to reduce the humidity.
Set the Fan-Humid V.On and V.Off values below the value that
you have measured.
Step 7: Run the system.
The fans go on when the temperature is above Fan-Temp V.On

or when the humidity is above Fan-Humid V.On.
Step 8: Check that.
SES
19
Experiment 4 – Temperature, Humidity and

Light along the Day
exposed to the sun.

(Value off).
Step 4: Put a plate with water in the greenhouse. Locate it on some base
Step 5: Run the software on On-Line mode along 24 hours.
The software stores the data in a date name file.
Step 6: Observe the graph and draw your conclusions.
Find the day time and the night time according to the light
sensor.
Check how the temperature reacts along the day and at night.
Check how the humidity reacts along the day and at night.
SES
20
Experiment 5 – Plants in Greenhouse

exposed to the sun.
Step 3: Set the Fan – Temp V.On (Value On) and V.Off (Value off).
These values will determine the temperature inside the

greenhouse around 40 degrees.
Step 4: Set the Fan – Humid V.On (Value On) and V.Off (Value off).
Step 5: Put several plants that grow fast, such as beans on a wet bed
(cotton wool for instance). Use only one type of plants for each
experiment.
Step 6: Put the same plants outside the greenhouse.
Step 7: Run the controller.
You can disconnect it from the PC. It will control the greenhouse
as long the power is on
Even if the power switched off for a while and switched on back,
the controller will continue controlling according to the setup
parameters.
Step 8: Write down the growth rate of the plants inside the greenhouse
and compare it with the growth of the plants outside the
greenhouse.
SES

Science Training System - TPS 3720-3717

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Science Training System - TPS 3720-3717

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Science Training System - TPS 3720-3717

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Science Training

Scientific Educational Systems

© All rights reserved to SES Scientific Educational Systems Ltd.

The material in this book may not be copied, duplicated, printed,

Mallam Ibrahim Shekarau

Chief (Dr.) Gregory Ibe PhD, OFR

The workshop/equipment to be supplied to the beneficiary universities will include appropriate

Professor Julius A. Okojie, OONExecutive

Professor Suleiman Elias Bogoro

 Two 20W halogen lamps as energy source.

Remember to turn off the lamps at the end of every experiment.

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Solar

Different forms of energy surround us. Here are some examples:

1.1 Gravitational potential energy

1.2 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy occurs according to the body's velocity.

1.3 Solar energy

Greenhouse Water Heater Solar Cell

1.4 Wind energy

1.5 Hydro energy

1.6 Chemical energy

1.7 Nuclear energy

This energy is in form of radioactive radiation and heat.

1.8 Work and energy

In order to understand energy conversion, we have to use energy terms used

We do work when we add energy to a body.

When a body loose energy, it does work.

When energy only changes form, any work is not done.

Another term related to work is power.

Power is work per second.

Usually it is easier to measure power, so we can calculate work by multiplying

The power units are called Watt.

Experiment 1.1 – Units and Measurements

The basic electric units are Volt, Ampere and Ohm.

The electric voltage is associated with attraction and repelling of electric

If there is an electric conductor between two points with electric voltage,

9V Battery 1.5V Battery

Electric charges are measured in Colomb.

Ampere is a current of one Colomb of charge per second.

Every matter has different electric conductivity or in other words, different

1 Volt of electric current in an electric conductor that has an electric resistance

The digital multimeter mainly measures voltage. The current is calculated by

In order to receive constant measuring tolerance, the multimeter works in

Probes connection is of an importance. The black probe is always connected

The power units are called Watt (W).

In this activity, we use a multimeter for electric measurements.

We can express this law in two other formulas:

(a) 600 Joul

Step 1: Set the multimeter to measure resistance in the 2000 range.

A resistor is connected to the LED. The LED's resistance reduces

Identify the LED and its resistor.

Connect the multimeter probes to the LED's resistor terminals and

Write the reading in your notebook:

Black Wire Red Wire

Write down the reading:

This measurement is the battery voltage without any electric load.

How it effect the reading?

The LED should turn ON.

Step 7: Measure again the battery voltage and write it down: