PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

For First Year B.E / B.Tech., Degree Courses

(Common to all Branches)
SUBJECT CODE:
PH23121/PH23221

Prepared by
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
RAJALAKSHMI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
 First Year B.E / B. Tech Degree Course
Physics Laboratory Syllabus
Subject code: PH23121/PH23221
COURSE OBJECTIVES:

• To learn the proper use of various kinds of physics laboratory equipment.

• To learn how data can be collected, presented and interpreted in a clear and concise manner.
• To learn problem solving skills related to physics principles and interpretation of
experimental data.
• To determine error in experimental measurements and techniques used to minimize such
error.
• To make the student an active participant in each part of all lab exercises.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Torsional pendulum - Determination of moment of inertia of regular and

irregular objects and Rigidity Modulus of the given wire.
2. Determination of the hysteresis of ferromagnetic material.
3. Laser- Determination of the wavelength of the laser using grating.
4. Air wedge - Determination of thickness of a thin sheet/wire
5. Optical fibre -Determination of Numerical Aperture and acceptance angle
6. Determination of the size of the particle using LASER
7. Post office box -Determination of Band gap of a semiconductor.
8. Determination of the Wavelength of the given mercury vapour lamp - Using
Spectrometer grating.
9. Determination of the Young’s modulus of the given beam by non-uniform
bending method.
10. Simple harmonic oscillations of cantilever

TOTAL: 30 PERIODS
S.No Date Content Page No Marks Sign
 VERNIER CALIPER

NEGAGIVE
ERROR

Department of Physics, RIT, Chennai 4

Definition:
L.C. = 1 Main Scale Division – 1 Vernier Scale Division

MSD V.S.D
10 MSD=1cm 10 V.S.D = 9 M.S.D
1 MSD = 1/10 cm 1 VSD = 9/10 MSD = 9/10 X 0.1 cm = 9/100 cm
= 0.1 Cm 1 VSD = 0.09 cm

LC = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D

= (0.1 – 0.09) cm

LC = 0.01 cm

Calculation:

To determine the breadth of the given material with vernier caliper:

Least Count = 0.01cm. Zero correction = div

M.S.R V.S.C VSR=LC x VSC Total Reading = MSR + VSR

S. No.
(cm) (div) (cm) (cm)

Mean = ______________
 SCREW GAUGE

Pitch
Least count =
Number of division on the head scale

Distance moved 5
Pitch = = = 1 mm
Number of rotation 5

1 mm
Least count = = 0.01 mm
100
CALCULATION

To determine the thickness of the given material with screw gauge:

Least Count= 0.01mm Zero error: …… div Zero Correction: ………..mm

Corrected Head Scale Division

P.S.R H.S.D TR = PSR + (CHSD x LC)
S. No. (CHSD) = HSD ± ZC
(mm) (div) (mm)
(mm)

Mean = ____________
 Torsional Pendulum - Determination of moment of inertia o f a n r eg u la r a n d
irregular object and Rigidity Modulus of the given wire.

Expt. No:
Date:

Aim
To determine the moment of inertia of an irregular object and rigidity modulus of the given wire
by torsional oscillations.
Apparatus Required

Torsion pendulum in the form of cradle, suspended wire, cradle, irregular object, regular object,
stop watch, Vernier caliper and Screw gauge, meter scale.

Formula

𝐌𝐑𝟐
• The moment of inertia of the regular object, 𝐈𝟏 = 𝐊𝐠 𝐦𝟐 .
𝟐

𝐓𝟐𝟐 −𝐓𝟎𝟐
• The moment of inertia of the irregular object, 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝟏 𝐊𝐠 𝐦𝟐 .
𝐓𝟏𝟐 −𝐓𝟎𝟐

𝟖𝛑𝐈𝟏 𝐋
• Rigidity Modulus of the given wire, 𝛈 = [𝐓𝟐 ] Nm-2.
𝐫𝟒 𝟎

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

I1 Moment of inertia of regular object Kgm2
R Radius of the regular object Metre
M Mass of the regular object Kg
I2 Moment of inertia of irregular object Kgm2
To Time period of oscillation of cradle Second
T1 Time period of oscillation cradle with regular object Second
T2 Time period of oscillation cradle with of irregular Second
object
L Length of the suspension wire Metre
r Radius of the given wire Metre
𝛈 Rigidity modulus of the given wire Nm-2
 (i) To find the period of oscillations for various objects

Length of the suspension wire (l) = ________ cm =______ 10-2 m.

Time taken for 5 oscillations

System Period of one
Trial - 1 Trial - 2 Mean oscillation

Unit Sec. Sec. Sec. Sec.

Cradle without any object T0 =

Cradle with regular object T1 =

Cradle with irregular object T2 =

(i) To find the radius of the suspension wire (r) using screw gauge

Zero Error (ZE) : _______ div

L.C. = 0.01mm Zero Correction : - (ZE x LC) = _______  10-3 m

Corrected Head Scale Division

P.S.R H.S.D TR = PSR + (CHSD x LC)
S. No. (CHSD) = HSD ± ZC
(mm) (div) (mm)
(mm)

Mean diameter = ___________ 10-3 m

Mean diameter
 Radius of the wire (r) = = ___________ 10-3 m
2
Theory
The circular disc is rotated in a horizontal plane so that a twist is given to the wire which holds
the disc. Hence the various elements of the wire undergo shearing strains. The restoring couples, which
tend to restore the unstrained conditions, are called into action. Now when the disc is released it starts
executing torsional oscillations. The couple which acts on the disc produces in it an angular acceleration
which is proportional to the angular displacement and is always directed towards its mean position.
Hence the motion of the disc is a simple harmonic motion.
Description
The torsion pendulum consists of a cradle (c), which is in the form of a horizontal circular disc
fixed to a rectangular metallic frame. The cradle is suspended from a fixed end with the help of a wire.
There is a concentric circular groove at the centre of the disc. So that any object for which the
moment of inertia has to be found can be placed over it.
Procedure
The moment of inertia of an irregular object shall be determined by adopting
the following steps. viz.
1. Keep some distance (say 70 cm) between the chuck & cradle.
2. Initially, the cradle alone is rotated and is set into torsional oscillations.
3. With cradle alone, the time taken for 5 oscillations are found for trial-1 and trial-2 and hence the
time period of oscillation (T0) 1.e. the time taken for one oscillation is found.
4. A regular object is placed over the cradle and is allowed to produce torsional oscillations.
5. With cradle and regular object together, the time taken for 5 oscillations is found for trial-1 and
trial-2 and hence, the time period of oscillation (T1) is found.
6. The regular object is removed from the cradle and an irregular object is placed over the cradle and is
allowed to produce torsional oscillations.
7. With cradle and irregular object together, the time taken for 5 oscillations is noted for trial-1 and
trial-2 and hence, the time period of oscillation (T2) is found.
8. Now by substituting the value of the time periods T0, T1 and T2 and the moment of inertia of the
regular object in the given formula, the moment of inertia of the irregular object (I1) can be
calculated.
9. Radius of the wire (r) is found using screw gauge and the mass (M) and radius (R) of the regular
body is measured.
10. Now by substituting the value of moment of inertia (I1), r, L, and T2 in the given formula, rigidity
modulus of the given wire can be calculated.
To find the diameter of the regular object

M.S.R V.S.C VSR=LC x VSC Total Reading = MSR + VSR

S. No.
(cm) (div) (cm) (cm)
Result
1. The moment of inertia of regular object = _______________ kg m2.
2. The moment of inertia of irregular object = _______________ kg m2
3. Rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire = ___________________ Nm-2.
 Determination of the hysteresis of ferromagnetic material

Expt. No:
Date:

Aim
To determine the energy loss of a given core magnetic material by tracing the Hysteresis loop.

Apparatus Required

B-H Curve unit, ferrite core, CRO, translucent paper, graph sheet etc.

Formula

The energy loss of a given core magnetic material,

𝐍𝟏 𝐑 𝐂
𝐄𝐋 = × 𝐑𝟐 × 𝐀𝐋𝟐 × 𝐒𝐕 × 𝐒𝐇 × 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐩 Joules /cycle/volume
𝐍𝟐 𝟏

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

N1 No. of turns of primary coil No Unit
N2 No. of turns of secondary coil No Unit
R2 Resistance used in the experiment Ohm (Ω)
R1 Resistance between terminals Ohm (Ω)
C Capacitance used in the circuit Farad (F)
A Area of cross section of transformer m2
L Length of specimen Metre
SH Retentivity Gauss
SV Coercivity Am-1
CH1 First channel voltage in CRO Volts
CH2 Second channel voltage in CRO Volts
𝑬𝑳 Energy loss of core material Joules/Cycle/Volume
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure: 1

B-H CURVE

Figure: 2
Procedure

The phenomenon by which the magnetic induction (B) lags behind the magnetizing field (H)
is called hysteresis.
1. The hysteresis curve graph with H on X- axis & corresponding B on Y- axis (of the material) will be
as shown in fig 2.

2. The area under the B-H curve gives the hysteresis loss per cycle that is the work done per unit
volume per cycle. Ob gives the value of retentivity (Br) that is the remanent induction even when the
field H is removed. Oc gives the value of coercivity (H c) that is the negative field to be applied to
demagnetize the specimen completely.

3. The circuit diagram required for experiment is as shown in fig. Connect the primary terminals of the
specimen to the ‘PRIMARY’ and secondary to the ‘SECONDARY’ terminals. Adjust the CRO to
work on external mode (the time base is switched off). Connect terminals “Vertical input” to CRO.

4. Connect terminal “Horizontal” CRO to the horizontal input of the CRO. Switch on the power supply
of the unit. The hysteresis loop is formed. Adjust the horizontal and vertical gains such that the loop
occupies maximum area on the screen of the CRO. Once this adjustment is made don’t disturb the
gain controls. The position of horizontal gain knob gives horizontal sensitivity S H (Volts/m).
Similarly the position of vertical gain knob gives vertical sensitivity S V (Volt/m).

5. Trace the loop on a translucent sheet (butter paper) and reproduce the same on graph paper. Estimate
area of loop in m2.
6. The energy loss is given by

𝐍𝟏 𝐑 𝐂
𝐄𝐋 = × 𝐑𝟐 × 𝐀𝐋𝟐 × 𝐒𝐕 × 𝐒𝐇 × 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐩 Joules /cycle/volume
𝐍𝟐 𝟏

Precautions

1. The current in the primary of solenoid should be quite large so as to magnetize thespecimen
sufficiently.
2. Handle CRO carefully.
3. Trace of BH curve should be taken as tracing paper and it should of suitable size.
Result:

1. The energy loss of a given core magnetic material _________________ Joules /cycle/volume.
 Laser- Determination of the wavelength of the laser using grating.
Expt. No.:
Date:

AIM

To determine the wavelength and divergence of the given laser source using grating

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Diode laser, Grating, Screen, Scale arrangement

FORMULA

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Wavelength of the given laser source is 𝝀 = m
𝑵𝒎
where

θ - angle of diffraction (degrees)

N - Number of lines per meter in the grating (lines/m)
m - order of diffraction (no unit)
𝝀 – Wavelength of the laser light (m)
PROCEDURE

The laser source and the grating are mounted on the stand as shown in the figure
(1).The laser source is switched on and the grating is held normal to it. This is done by
adjusting the grating stand in such a way that the reflected laser beam coincides with the
beam coming out of the laser source.The diffracted beams are collected on a screen. The
spectrum in the form of spots is seen as in the figure (1).The distance of different orders of
diffraction from the center spot (Xn) are measured. The distance between the grating and
the screen (D) is also measured. The experiment is repeated for various D values. The
values are entered in the table 1 and using the formula θ is calculated. The wavelength of
the laser light is calculated with the formula. The number of lines in the grating is
measured.
Determine the wavelength of the laser source
Number of lines in grating / meter (N) = lines /metre

Distance of the diffracted

spots from the central spot (Xn)
Distance
between the (Right) 𝑿
(Left)X1 Mean X 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
screen and Order X1 1 𝑫 𝝀= Å
grating (m) 𝑵𝒎
Degrees
cm
cm cm cm

3
Calculation

RESULT

Wavelength of the laser light source =………………………Å

 AIR WEDGE- Determination of Thickness of a given Specimen

Expt. No:
Date:

Aim
To determine the thickness of a thin material by forming interference fringes using an air-wedge
apparatus.
Apparatus Required:

Two optically plane rectangular glass plates, sodium vapour lamp, vernier microscope,
condensing lens, the given material, reading lens, etc.,

Formula:

𝜆𝑙
Thickness of the given wire 𝑡 = 2𝛽 m

𝜆 = Wavelength of the sodium vapour lamp (metre)

𝛽 = Bandwidth of interference fringes (metre)
l = Distance of the wire from the edge of contact (metre)

Description:

An air-wedge is formed by keeping the two optically plane glass plates in contact along one of
their edges tied and keeping the specimen near the other end, parallel to the edges of contact. The
distance ‘l’ between the inner brim of the material and the tied end is measured using the travelling
microscope or by a meter scale. If ‘t’ is the thickness of the material then the angle of the air-wedge, as
shown in fig(a). By the help of an ordinary thin glass plate inclined at 45 0 and a condensing lens, light
from the sodium lamp is made to fall vertically on the air wedge as shown in fig (b). The reflected light
from the glass plates is viewed through the travelling microscope. Interference fringes of alternate dark
and bright bands are seen in the field of view on proper adjustment as shown in fig (c).
Procedure:
The microscope is focused on the interference pattern. The vertical cross-wire is made
to coincide with the brim of any bright band nearer to the contact edge (rubber) of the glass plates as
shown in fig(c). This band is identified as the nth band. The microscope reading on the horizontal scale is
recorded for nth band in Table 1.
The microscope is moved towards the other end of the glass plates by rotating the
tangential screw (s2). The cross-wire is successively made to coincide with every fifth i.e., (n+5)th,
(n+10)th etc, bright bands and corresponding microscope readingsare recorded.
The observations are recorded till say (n+50) th band is reached.
From the table, the mean bandwidth of the interference bands is found out.
The distance ‘L’ between the lines of contact of the glass plates and the thin wire is found out using a
scale.

To Find the Band width of the Interference Fringes

LC = 0.001cm

Microscope readings
Order of
Width
S. No the MSR VSC VSR = VSC x LC TR=MSR+VSR of 5 fringes
fringes
cm div div cm
x10-2 m

1 n

2 n+5

3 n+10

4 n+15

5 n+20

6 n+25

7 n+30

Observation:

Wavelength of sodium light 𝜆 = -----------------m

Bandwidth of interference fringes β = -----------------m

Distance of the wire from the edge of contact l = ----------------m

Calculation

Result:
Thickness of the given wire t =…………………………..m
Observation: Observation for the NA and Acceptance angle of the given fiber

S.No. Diameter Radius “r” in Distance “l” NA = Θ = Sin -1(NA)

“d” in mm In mm r/(r2+l2)0.5 degrees
mm (No unit)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean =

Dep
art
 Optical fiber – Determination of Numerical Aperture and Acceptance angle
Expt. No.:
Date:

AIM
To determine acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Laser light source, Laser power meter, Optical fibre cables of various length,
Optical fibre connectors, Numerical aperture jig, Mandrel for optical fibre.

FORMULA

𝐫
Numerical Aperture 𝐍𝐀 = (No unit)
√𝐫 𝟐 +𝐥𝟐
Acceptance angle 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝑵𝑨 (degree)

Where, r = radius of circular image (metre)

l = Distance from fibre end to circular image (metre)

PROCEDURE
Using laser, we can find the numerical aperture of the fibre optic cable. The given laser source is
connected to the optical fibre cable. The other end is exposed to the air medium in the dark place. The
emerging light is exposed on a plain paper. (Fig.1).
Now, we get illuminated circular patch on the screen. The distance from the fibre end to circular
image (d) is measured using metre scale. The radius of the circular image is also measured (Fig.). Thus,
the acceptance angle is calculated. From the acceptance angle, the numerical aperture of the cable is
found by using the given formula.

Dep
art
Calculation

Result
Acceptance angle of the optical fibre =……………………
Numerical aperture of the opical fibre = ………………………………….

Page 34
 Figure 1

Distance between Distance between the

the screen and Order of central brightpoint and
Particle size
the glass plate diffraction nthfringe
S.No. (2d)
(D) (n) (rn)

10-2m no unit 10-2m 10-6m

Mean (d)
 Determination of the size of the particle using LASER

Expt. No.:
Date:

AIM
To determine particle size of the powder by Laser.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Semiconductor diode laser, Fine micro particles (lycopodium powder), glass plate, screen, metre
scale

FORMULA:
Particle size of the powder
𝒏𝝀𝑫
𝟐𝒅 = 𝒎
𝒓
n = order of diffraction (No unit)
𝜆 = Wavelength of the Laser source (metre)
D = Distance between the screen and Glass Plate ( metre)
r = Distance between the central bright spot and nthfringe (metre)

Procedure:

A glass plate containing lycopodium powder of micrometer size is kept between laser
light and screen.The laser beam gets diffracted by the particles present on the glass plate.By adjusting the
distance between the glass plate and the screen, a circular fringe pattern is seen on the screen as shown in
the figure (1).The distance between screen and the glass plate „D‟ is measured.The diameter of the first
order and second order fringe are measured. Using the formula, given above, the particle size can be
found. The experiment is repeated for different values of “D”(distance).
.
Calculation

Result:

The average size of the particles measured using laser light =..........................................................m
P, Q, R - Variable resistances
K - Key
X - Thermistor (Temperature dependent Resistor)
By - Battery
G - Galvanometer
2.303log XT

1/T
 Post office box -Determination of Band gap of a semiconductor

Expt. No.:
Date:

AIM
To find the band gap of the material of the given semiconductor using Post office box.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Semiconductor, Thermometer, Post office box, Power supply, Galvanometer,
connecting wire, Glass beakers.

FORMULA

Bandgap for the given thermistor

𝟐×𝒌 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑿𝑻
𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏.𝟔×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 × 𝟏 eV
𝑻

k – Boltzmann constant 1.38 × 10−23(JK-1)

XT – Resistance of the thermistor (ohm)

PROCEDURE
The post of box is a Wheatstone bridge network. The connections are given as in the figure. ‘10’
ohm resistances are taken in P and Q. Then the resistance in R is adjusted by pressing the tap key, until
the deflection in the galvanometer crosses zero reading of the galvanometer, say from left to right. After
finding an approximate resistance for this, two resistances in R, which differ by 1 ohm, are to be found
out such that the deflections in the galvanometer for these resistances will be on either side of zero
reading of galvanometer. We know, XT= P/Q*R thus keeping the resistance in Q the same, the
resistance in P is changed to 10, 100, 1000 ohms. Thus, the resistance of the semiconductor is found out
accurately to two decimals, at room temperature. The lower value may be assumed to be XT (0.01 R).
Then, the thermistor is heated by keeping it immersed in insulating coil. For every 10C rise in
temperature, the resistance of the semiconductor is found out. The readings are entered in the tabular
column.
 GRAPH
A graph is drawn between 1/T along in x- axis and 2.303 log10XT in Y – axis which is shown in the
figure. Bandgap (Eg) = 2 k x slope of the graph.

Temp. of
Resistance of
Temp. of semiconductor Resistance in ohms
semiconductor
semiconductor  103
2.303 log10XT
(t) P Q R XT= P/Q*R
T = t + 273

C K K-1    
Calculation

Result
Band gap of the material of the semiconductor = …… ..... eV.
Figure 2 Wavelength of the spectral lines
 Determination of the Wavelength of the given mercury vapour lamp - Using
Spectrometer grating.

Expt. No.:
Date:

AIM
To standardize the given diffraction grating and to determine the wavelength of the prominent
spectral lines of the mercuryspectrum.

APPARTUS REQUIRED

Spectrometer, plane transmission grating, Mercury - vapour lamp etc.

FORMULA

Wavelength of the spectral lines

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝀= metre
𝑵𝒎

𝜽 = Angle of diffraction (degrees)

N = Number of lines per meter in the grating (lines/metre)
m = Order of diffraction (no unit)
𝝀 = Wavelength of the spectral line (metre)

PROCEDURE

The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made Telescope for receiving
parallel rays. Collimator for rendering parallel rays. Leveling of the prism table with spirit level The slit
is illuminated with mercury light. To use the above formula, it is necessary that the grating is set normal
to the beam from the collimator. This is achieved by following the procedure illustrated in Fig 1.
Direct reading is taken by making the vertical cross-wire of the telescope to coincide
with the image of the slit without the grating on the table. Fixing the telescope in this position, the vernier
table is released and rotated so that the zero of the verniers coincides with 00 and 1800 of the main scale.
The telescope is rotated through 900 and fixed. The grating is mounted on the prism table. Keeping the
vernier -scales fixed ,the prism table alone is turned to a position such that the image of the slit after
reflection from the grating coincides with the vertical cross-wire of the telescope d. Now the beam is
incident on the grating at 450. The vernier table is released and rotated by exactly 450 in a direction such
that the incident beam becomes perpendicular to the grating. The Vernier table is now fixed. The
telescope is released and turned to view the direct image of the slit. The vernier readings are recorded as
direct ray in the Table 1
To find the wavelength of the prominent spectral lines of the mercury spectrum

Least count = 1’ Order of diffraction spectrum (m) = 1

Direct ray Reading
Vernier A = (A1) = (M.S.R)…………+………(V.S.R) = ……….. (T.R)

Vernier B = (B1) =(M.S.R)…………+………(V.S.R) = ……….. (T.R)

Diffracted readings
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Colour Vernier A Vernier B A1~A2 B1~B2 Mean 𝜽 𝝀=
𝑵𝒎
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR
When the telescope is moved to the right / left of the direct ray ,first order spectrum of mercury is seen
in Fig 2. The vertical cross wire is made to coincide with each of the prominent lines and the readings
in both the verniers are noted in the table. In each Vernier the difference in readings between the
direct ray and the particular colour ray gives the angle of diffraction of the first order for this
particular colour ray. The angles of diffraction are similarly found out for all other colours of the
spectrum. Substituting the values for the wavelength of the most prominent line, the green line
(𝜆=5461Å), the order of the spectrum (m =1) and the angle of the diffraction for this colour in the
formula, the number of lines (N) per metre length of the grating is calculated. This is called
standardization of the grating.

This value of ‘N’ is used to calculate the wavelengths of the other lines of mercury
spectrum.

STANDARDISATION OF THE GRATING

Order of the spectrum (m) = 1

Angle of diffraction for green light of mercury spectrum (𝜽) =

Wavelength of the green light of the mercury spectrum (𝜆) = 5461 x 10-10 m

The number of lines / metre length of the grating N = Sin 𝜽 /m𝜆

CALCULATIONS

49
 49
RESULT:

The wavelengths of the various prominent lines of the Mercury spectrum aredetermined and the
values are given below as follows
To find the breadth of the beam (b) using vernier caliper L.C = 0.01 cm

Total Reading
M.S.R V.S.C VSR=LC x VSC
S. No. =MSR + VSR
cm div cm
cm
1
2
3

To find the thickness of the beam (d) using screw gauge

Zero Error :
Zero Correction : L.C. = 0.01mm

Corrected Head Scale Division Thickness of the bar

P.S.R H.S.D
S. No. (CHSD) = HSD ± ZC = PSR +( CHSD x LC)
mm div 49
mm mm
1

4
 Determination of the Young’s modulus of the given beam by non-uniform
bending method.

Expt. No.:
Date:

Aim
To find the Young’s Modulus of the material of a beam by non-uniform bending method

Apparatus required

Travelling microscope, Two knife edges, Weight hanger with set of weights, Carpenter wax, Pin,
Metre scale, Vernier caliper, Screw gauge.

FORMULA

Young’s modulus of the material of the beam

𝑴𝒈𝒍𝟑
E= 𝟒𝒃𝒅𝟑 𝒚 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
M - load applied (kilogram)
g - acceleration due to gravity (metre/sec2)
l - distance between two knife edges (metre)
b - breadth of the beam (metre)
d - thickness of the beam (metre)
y - mean depression for the load ‘M’ (metre)
49
PROCEDURE
The given experimental beam is placed horizontally above the knife edges. These knife edges are
placed at equal distance away from the centre of the beam. A pin is fixed in inverted form using
carpenter wax exactly at the centre of the beam and a weight hanger is suspended at the centre of the
beam using thread. Using a travelling microscope the tip of the pin is viewed and the corresponding
vertical scale reading in the microscope is noted. Now weights are added one by one in the hanger. The
travelling microscope is adjusted such that the tip of the pin coincides with the vertical cross wire for
each shift. The respective readings for loading from (W) to (W+200) grams are noted. Since the end
of loading is the beginning of unloading, weights are removed from (W+200) to (W) grams one by
one. When the weight is removed, the tip of the pin gets displaced from the original position and
travelling microscope is adjusted and the corresponding readings are noted. The width of the beam is
found out using a vernier caliper and the thickness is found using a screw gauge. Using the above
formula, the Young’s modulus of thematerial of the given beam is calculated.

Calculations

Load Applied (M) = ……………g = .............x 10-3Kg

Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m / sec2

Distance between the knife edges (l) = …………… cm = ................................ x 10-2 m

Breadth of the beam (b) = ……………cm = ............. x 10-2 m

Thickness of the beam (d) = ……………mm=..............x 10-3 m

Depression for load applied (y) = ……………cm = ............. x 10-2m

49
To find the depression Y from Travelling Microscope
Least count = 0.001 cm

Microscope readings
Mean Depression
Load Loading Unloading 𝑇𝑅1 + 𝑇𝑅2 (y)for a load
2 of M = 50 g
MSR VSC TR1 MSR VSC TR2
Result

Young’s modulus of the material of the beam = ................................................................ N / m2

To find the breadth of the beam (b) using vernier caliper L.C = 0.01 cm

Total Reading
M.S.R V.S.C VSR=LC x VSC
S. No. =MSR + VSR
cm div cm
cm
1
2
3
4

To find the thickness of the beam (d) using screw gauge

Zero Error :
Zero Correction : L.C. = 0.01mm

Corrected Head Scale Division Thickness of the bar

P.S.R H.S.D
S. No. (CHSD) = HSD ± ZC = PSR +( CHSD x LC)
mm div
mm mm
1
2
3
4
 Simple harmonic oscillations of cantilever

Expt. No.:
Date:

AIM
To determine Young’s modulus of the material of cantilever by finding the period of vertical
oscillations.
APPARATUS REQUIRED

Cantilever (metre scale), weight hanger with slotted weights, stopclock

FORMULA

Young’s modulus of the material of cantilever

𝟏𝟔𝝅𝟐 𝑴 −𝑴
Y= 𝒃𝒅𝟑 × 𝒍𝟑 ( 𝑻𝟐𝟐 −𝑻𝟐𝟏 ) NM-2
𝟐 𝟏

l - Length of the cantilever (m).

b - Breadth of the cantilever (m).
d - Thickness of cantilever (m).
M1 - Mass added to the weight hanger (kg).
M2 - Mass added to the weight hanger (kg).
T1 - Mean period of oscillation when the mass M1 is added to weight hanger (sec).
T2 - Mean period of oscillation in second when the mass M2 is added to weight hanger (sec).

PROCEDURE
A long rectangular beam of uniform cross section (cantilever) is clamped at one end A and a
weight hanger H is suspended at the free end B. A small needle is fixed to the frame of the hanger [refer
Fig.]. A mass M1 (equal to say, 60 g) is added to the weight hanger so that it does not produce appreciable
depression at the free end of the cantilever. The free end of the cantilever is slightly depressed and is then
released so as to execute vertical oscillations. The time for, (say 20) oscillations is noted using stop clock.
The experiment is repeated twice and mean period of oscillation T1 is found out.
Next, with adding a mass M2 (equal to 100 g) the experiment is performed to find the corresponding
period of oscillation T2. The experiment is repeated for different lengths of cantilever and readings are
tabulated as in Table.
THEORY
Consider a uniform cantilever of length l, breadth b and thickness d, clamped at one end and
carrying a mass M at free end. Let the cantilever be set oscillating in vertical plane. The period of
oscillation is given by
𝟑
𝟏𝟔𝝅𝟐 𝒍 𝑴
𝑻𝟐 = (𝑴 + )
𝒀𝒃𝒅
𝟑 𝟑
Where m – mass of the cantilever, Y – Young’s modulus of the material of the cantilever. If T1 and T2
are the periods of oscillation corresponding to masses M1 and M2 respectively, then
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏𝟔𝝅𝟐𝒍 𝑴 𝟏𝟔𝝅𝟐𝒍 𝑴
𝐓𝟏𝟐 = 𝟑 (𝑴𝟏 + 𝟑 ) and 𝐓𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑 (𝑴𝟐 + 𝟑 )
𝒀𝒃𝒅 𝒀𝒃𝒅
Using the above equations, the Young’s modulus

𝟏𝟔𝝅𝟐 𝑴 −𝑴
Y= 𝒃𝒅𝟑 × 𝒍𝟑 ( 𝑻𝟐𝟐 −𝑻𝟐𝟏 )
𝟐 𝟏

Calculations
 M1 = 300 gm M2 = 600 gm
Length Time period for 10 Time period Time period for 10 Time 𝟑
𝑴𝟐 − 𝑴𝟏
forone period for 𝒍 ( )
(l) oscillations oscillations 𝑻𝟐𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏
oscillation (T1) one
Trial-1 Trial-2 Mean Trial-1 Trial-2 Mean oscillation
(T2)

cm sec sec sec sec sec sec sec sec

Result
Young’s modulus of the material of cantilever (Y) = …………………………………x 1010 N m-2.
 Appendix
DENSITY
S. No Material Value
1 Water 1000 Kgm-3
2 Copper 8900 Kgm-3
3 Steel 7800 Kgm-3
4 Brass 8600 Kgm-3
5 Iron 7500 Kgm-3
.
YOUNGS MODULUS
S. No Material Value
1 Box wood 1×1010 Nm-2
2 Oak wood 1.2×1010 Nm-2
3 Wrought iron 20×1010 Nm-2
and steel

RIGIDITY MODULUS
S.No Material Value
1 Aluminium 2.5×1010 Nm-2
2 Brass 3.5 to 3.4×1010 Nm-2
3 Cast iron 5.0×1010 Nm-2
4 Copper 3.4 to 3.6×1010 Nm-2
5 Steel(Cast) 7.6×1010 Nm-2
6 Steel(Mild) 8.9×1010 Nm-2

COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY (AT 250C)

S. No Material Value
1 Water 8.94×10−4 Nsm-2
2 Olive oil .081 Nsm-2
3 Ethylene glycol 1.61×10−2 Nsm-2

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
S. No Material Value
1 Cork 0.04 Wm-1k-1
2 Cardboard 0.21 Wm-1k-1
3 Glass 0.8 Wm-1k-1
 4 Wood 0.09091 Wm-1k-1
5 Asbestos 0.16 Wm-1k-1

Band Gap values of Semiconductors (at 300 K)

S. No Material Values in eV
1 Si 1.11
2 Ge 0.66
3 GaAs 1.43
4 ZnO 3.02
5 InP 1.27

WAVELENGTH
S. No Color Wavelength (in nm)
1 Violet 404.656
2 Blue 435.835
3 Green 546.074
4 Yellow 578.00
5 Red 623.4

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

S. No Material Value
1 Brass 370 JKg-1K-1
2 Copper 385 JKg-1K-1
3 Mild Steel 420 JKg-1K-1

COMPRESSIBILITY
S. No Material Value
1 Water 4.4×10-10 m2N-1
2 Kerosene 7.13 ×10-10 m2N-1
3 Diesel 7.55 ×10-10 m2N-1

REFRACTIVE INDEX
S.No Material Value
1 Crown glass 1.48 -1.61
2 Flint Glass 1.53 – 1.96
3 Water 1.33