Unit 1: Laws of Inheritance

Lesson 1.2
Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes
and Phenotypes
Contents
Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 4

Using a Testcross to Determine Genotypes 4
Punnett Square 6
The Six Different Monohybrid Combinations 8
Forked-Line Method 10
Probability Method 12
Product Rule of Probability 13
Sum Rule of Probability 14
Key Points 25

Check Your Understanding 26

Challenge Yourself 27

Photo Credit 27

Bibliography 28

Key to Try It! 28

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
Lesson 1.2
Using Laws of Inheritance to
Predict Genotypes and
Phenotypes

Introduction
Have you tried playing games where your probability of winning relies
purely on chance? You may have played Snakes and Ladders with your
siblings or friends, and your luck depends on two factors—the number of
moves that will take you ahead and the random chance of encountering a
snake or a ladder. Each of the dice that you throw in this game gives six
possible outcomes. Also, you may have settled the priority of turns in games
through a coin toss. This time, the outcome may either be heads or tails.
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Our inheritance also works similar to some chance games. Because of the law of
segregation and the law of independent assortment, different combinations of
traits occur at various probabilities in the offspring. In relation to these laws, we
can liken the two sides of a coin to the two alleles that you may inherit from
your mother. Understandably, if she is heterozygous for a trait, the probability
of getting the dominant or the recessive allele is similar to a coin toss, landing
with either heads or tails. However, if she happens to be homozygous, it will be
like tossing a coin with both sides as heads. In this chapter, you will apply the
laws of inheritance in predicting the possible outcomes of fertilization.

DepEd Competency
Learning Objectives
Predict genotypes and
In this lesson, you should be able to do the
phenotypes of parents and
following: offspring using the laws of

● Apply the laws of inheritance in inheritance

(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-1).
identifying the possible outcomes of
genetic crosses.
● Compute for offspring probabilities in
genetic problems.

Warm Up
Probing Probabilities:
15 minutes
Rock vs. Paper vs.
Scissors
When do you usually play the Rock, Paper, Scissors game? Is it when you settle
who will make the first move in a tournament? Is it to determine who will win a
game when it ends in a draw? How lucky are you in winning this game? In this
activity, you will determine your chances of winning the Rock, Paper, Scissors,
and relate it to biological inheritance.

Materials
● two
1.2. Using Laws dice (per
of Inheritance pair)Genotypes and Phenotypes
to Predict 2
● worksheet
Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
Procedure
1. Access the link below and print a copy of the worksheet. You may do this
before the class. Alternatively, if a printer is not available, you may draw
and complete the worksheet table in a blank sheet of paper.

BIO2 0102 Warmup_Probing Probabilities

Quipper Limited, “Probing Probabilities: Data Sheet,”
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ebf8RJta1bLJGsTfk7SFxpa1it8
XXVHv/view?usp=sharing, last accessed on April 22, 2020.

2. Look for a partner with whom you will play Rock, Paper, Scissors.
Designate a player one and a player two between you and your partner.
3. At the start of the activity, you will be asked by your teacher: Is there a
way to win the Rock, Paper, Scissors game? Try to briefly establish an
answer to this question with your chosen partner.
4. Play the game for 30 rounds with your partner. For every round, record the
results by placing a checkmark on the winning option (rock, paper, or
scissors) and the winning player (player one or player two) in the table
found in the worksheet.
5. Some rounds will end in a tie or a draw. If this occurs, repeat that
round until the tie is settled and someone wins.
6. After completing all rounds, count the number of checkmarks for each column.
7. On the next page of the worksheet, analyze the table on the possible
outcomes of a Rock, Paper, Scissors game. Based on that table, compute
for the possibilities of player 1 and player 2 to win by calculating for the
percentages.
○ Take note that this table is independent of the previous table. This step
requires you to calculate for the possible outcomes of a hypothetical
Rock, Paper, Scissors game.
8. According to the results of your computation, try to discuss with your
partner whether there is a strategy to win Rock, Paper, Scissors.
9. Answer the guide questions below to deepen your understanding afterward.

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Guide Questions
1. What is the theoretical probability of player 1 to win? How about player 2?
2. Given your actual and theoretical probabilities, is there a definite strategy
to win the game?
3. How do you think this game is similar to gene transmission from a
heterozygous parent to its offspring?

Learn about It!

Transmission genetics, as discussed in the previous chapter, focuses on the
patterns of inheritance of biological characteristics. Both the laws of segregation
and independent assortment are essential in predicting the genotypes and
phenotypes of parents and offspring in genetic crosses and human reproduction.

If you are given a plant with a dominant trait,

how would you know if it is homozygous or
heterozygous?
Using a Testcross to Determine Genotypes
For some genes, one allele completely masks the expression of the other allele.
This mode of inheritance is called complete dominance. Thus, if the genotype of
an individual is heterozygous, the dominant allele will completely mask the
expression of the recessive allele. In peas, for example, the gene for seed shape
has two alleles. Smooth or round pea is completely dominant over wrinkled pea.
In Fig. 1.2.1, if the individual has the recessive phenotype, its genotype will always
be homozygous or true-breeding. By contrast, an individual with the dominant trait may
either be homozygous or heterozygous.

If you are given a mature plant with round seeds, would you be able to
determine whether the plant is homozygous or heterozygous for seed shape?
One can identify the genotype of an individual with the dominant trait through a
testcross. A testcross is a simple technique wherein the individual with the dominant
phenotype is crossed with or mated with a recessive individual. The results of the
cross will help you determine parental genotype, particularly the one with the
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dominant trait.

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Unit 1: Laws of
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Fig. 1.2.1. The inheritance of seed shape in Pisum sativum follows complete
dominance.

Given the example above, the pea plant with smooth seeds must be mated with
a plant that has wrinkled seeds. One of the two possible outcomes of mating can
be generated, as shown in Table 1.2.1. In both crosses, the second allele of the
dominant individual is left blank. Regardless, the phenotype is still dominant because only
one allele is needed to express round seeds. After mating with the recessive (i.e.,
wrinkled-seeded peas) individual, there are two possible results.

a. Case 1: If only one phenotype appears in F 1, which is the dominant trait,

the genotype must be homozygous. This result is due to the fact that the
first parent will only contribute the dominant allele to all offspring.
b. Case 2: Two phenotypes appear in the offspring—both dominant and recessive
individuals are present. The presence of a recessive offspring in the
progeny is an indication that both parents must have contributed
recessive alleles. Thus, the first parent must be heterozygous in this
scenario, as shown in the table below.

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Table 1.2.1. The two possibilities for the testcross of a round-seeded pea

Cases Crosses Results in F1 Conclusion

The round-seeded
round × individual is
1 all with smooth homozygous.
wrinkled: A seeds
Therefore, the correct
cross is:
× aa
AA × aa

The round-seeded
round × individual is
2 some with round heterozygous.
seeds, some with
wrinkled: A
wrinkled seeds Therefore, the correct
cross is:
× aa
Aa × aa

Is the cross between a tall pea and a dwarf pea

an example of a testcross? Why?

Both the laws of segregation and independent assortment are fundamental to

the analysis of matings in both plants and animals. These laws are used to
determine the genotypes and phenotypes of both parents and offspring in
crosses by using the Punnett square, forked-line method, and probability method.

Punnett Square
The previous chapter already demonstrated the laws of inheritance by using the
Punnett square, which was named after the British geneticist Reginald C.
Punnett. In this method, the alleles of both parents must be first determined.
Thereafter, these alleles are fused to determine the possible genotypes in the
offspring. Then, the principle of dominance is applied to determine the
corresponding phenotypes of each genotype. This straightforward method is
applicable when one or two genes are involved in the cross. Fig. 1.2.2 below
applies the Punnett Square to the two possible cases involving the

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testcross of a violet-flowered pea.

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Fig. 1.2.2. Punnett square is a simple technique that is used to determine all
possible offspring of a cross. A male and a female parent must be designated in
this method.

The testcross of a violet-flowered pea gives 100% violet-flowered offspring if the

dominant parent is homozygous (left). By contrast, F1 consists of 50% violet- and 50%
white-flowered peas if the violet-flowered parent is heterozygous (right).

Some Punnett squares do not necessarily have to assume the shape of a square.
There are cases when the parents of a cross will not produce the same number of
allelic combinations. For example, your objective is to subject a doubly heterozygous
pea plant (AaBb) with round and yellow seeds to a testcross (as shown in Fig. 1.2.3).
● Previously, it was discussed that the round seed is dominant over the wrinkled
seed, while the yellow seed is dominant over the green seed.

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● If a testcross is to be done, this means that the other parent must be
recessive for both traits, i.e., it should have wrinkled and green seeds.
● If we assign gene A for seed shape (then, A for round and a for wrinkled
seeds) and gene B for seed color (then, B for yellow and b for green
seeds), we can generate the cross AaBb × aabb.
○ The first parent can produce gametes AB, Ab, aB, and ab.
○ The second parent only produces the gamete ab.

AaBb parent

AB Ab aB ab

AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb

aabb round, round, wrinkled, wrinkled,
parent ab
yellow green yellow green

Fig. 1.2.3. The Punnett square of the cross AaBb × aabb will give the same
genotypic and phenotypic ratios, which is 1:1:1:1 (same as
1/4:1/4:1/4:1/4).

The Six Different Monohybrid Combinations

The next two techniques (forked-line method and probability method), where the
laws of inheritance are applied, will require the use of Punnett squares for every
gene pair of a cross. Solving genetic crosses requires mastery of the six possible
parental combinations in a monohybrid cross, as shown in Fig. 1.2.4 and Table 1.2.2.
below.

Case 1: AA × AA Case 2: AA × Aa Case 3: Aa × Aa

A A A A A a
A AA AA A AA AA A AA Aa
A AA AA a Aa Aa a Aa aa
GR: 100% or all AA GR: 1/2 AA: 1/2 Aa GR: 1/4 AA: 2/4 Aa: 1/4 aa
PR: 100% or all dominant PR: 100% or all dominant PR: 3/4 dominant: 1/4 recessive

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Case 4: AA × aa
Case 5: Aa × aa Case 6: aa × aa
A A
A a a a
a Aa Aa
a Aa aa a aa aa
a Aa Aa
a Aa aa a aa aa
GR: 100% or all Aa
PR: 100% or all dominant GR: 1/2 AA: 1/2 aa GR: 100% or all aa
PR: 1/2 dominant: 1/2 PR: 100% or all recessive
recessive

Fig. 1.2.4. The basic monohybrid cross can come in six different combinations by
using a hypothetical gene A. Each has a characteristic GR (genotypic ratio) and PR
(phenotypic ratio).
These combinations are further explained in Table 1.2.2.

Table 1.2.2. The six possible parental combinations in a monohybrid cross is

described below. In each cross, since no specific trait is assigned, the dominant
phenotype can be represented with A , while the recessive phenotype with aa.
However, note that for other problems, there is a need to specify the traits or
phenotypes of the offspring.

Case Crosses Result

1 The dominant phenotype with a

Two homozygous
homozygous genotype is expected in
dominant
the offspring.
Two genotypes (homozygous and
heterozygous), and only the dominant
2 Homozygous dominant phenotype in the offspring.
and heterozygous
This is because the first parent is not a
bearer of the recessive allele.

3 Three genotypes and both dominant

Two hybrids
and recessive phenotypes

4 Two true-breeding Produces hybrids in the F1 generation

individuals with
different traits

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Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance Heterozygous individual Yields two genotypes and two phenotypes
5 and an individual with
in its offspring
the recessive phenotype

6 Two homozygous recessive The recessive phenotype with a

individuals homozygous genotype is expected in
the offspring.

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Forked-Line Method
The forked-line method is also a technique that can be used to determine the
genotypic and phenotypic ratios of a genetic cross involving two or more genes. This
method does not require the identification and enumeration of the alleles of each
parent and combining them in square-like units. Rather, each of the monohybrid
crosses in the problem is analyzed for their outcomes. This method can also
separately identify the genotypic ratio from the phenotypic ratio. From the
previous lesson, the cross between two dihybrids, AaBb
× AaBb, 16 square units as needed. The process also requires a close
assessment of which of the genotypes are identical. The forked-line method, by
contrast, can directly give you offspring ratios without counting them
individually.

For example, a cross between doubly heterozygous tall pea with violet flowers is
made.

Fig. 1.2.5. The forked-line method is an ideal method to enumerate all possible
genotypes of a cross and to directly obtain their ratios without counting

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Unit 1: Laws of
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1. Assigning the respective alleles, M–tall, m–dwarf, N–violet, and n–white,
our cross will be MmNn × MmNn.
2. Fig. 1.2.5 shows the straightforward determination of the genotypic ratio
through the
forked-line method. To begin this technique, you should first determine the
result of each of the monohybrid crosses.
3. Two monohybrid crosses are involved: Mm × Mm and Nn × Nn. Both of
these crosses are similar to case 3 in Fig. 1.2.4 earlier, where three
genotypes are produced in a ratio of 1:2:1.
4. The first column of Fig. 1.2.5. represents the outcomes of Mm × Mm cross.
List the three resulting genotypes first in a vertical fashion.
5. Then, work on Nn × Nn cross in the second column, where three genotypes
are also possible.
6. Branch each of the three outcomes of gene N to that of gene M in the first
column.
7. Lastly, combine the genotypes from both the first and second columns
and multiply their probabilities. Without having to count the genotypes
as in the Punnett square, we can directly generate the genotypic ratio
of the dihybrid cross.

Fig. 1.2.6. The forked-line method can also directly determine the phenotypic ratio
of the offspring of a genetic cross without identifying the genotypic ratio.

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In Punnett squares, one should first identify all genotypes to determine the
phenotypes of a cross. By contrast, the fork-line method can also be used to
determine the phenotypic ratio of a cross without identifying its genotypic ratio (as
shown in Fig. 1.2.6).
1. The same principle applies. One should have a mastery of the six possible
combinations in a monohybrid cross to conveniently perform this
technique.
2. In the first column, the cross of Mm × Mm will give 3/4 tall (M_) and 1/4 dwarf
(mm).
3. The same ratio applies in the second column where the cross of Nn × Nn
gives 3/4 violet (N_) and 1/4 white (nn).
4. Again, branch the results of cross Nn × Nn to each of the results of cross Mm ×
Mm.

How do the sum and product rules of

probability apply to the laws of inheritance?

Probability Method
Another method to solve genetic problems is the probability method, which is
considered easier and more convenient than both the Punnett square and the
fork-line method. There will be cases, for example, when you are provided with a
cross, and you will be asked to just provide the probability of obtaining a type of
offspring instead of the entire genotypic and phenotypic ratios. This is when the
probability method comes in handy. Imagine if you are given the cross
AaBbCcDdEe × AaBbCcDdEe, and you are just asked to determine the
probability of getting AABbccDdEe genotype in the progeny. Punnett square and
forked-line methods are considered unideal for cases like this.

Probability refers to the mathematical measurement of likelihood or chance.

Probabilities are represented by quantitative values, which show how likely
events will occur. The highest probability value is 1 (or 100%), which means that
an event is guaranteed to occur. If an event has a 0 probability, it is guaranteed
to not happen. As earlier mentioned, Mendelian segregation is similar to a coin

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 16

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
toss. If an individual is heterozygous for a gene, e.g., Aa, the probability of a
gamete to obtain a dominant allele is 1/2. The same is true for the recessive
allele, as shown in Table 1.2.3. In a coin toss, likewise, the probability of getting
heads or tails is 1/2.

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 17

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Table 1.2.3. Probability of obtaining dominant or recessive alleles by the gametes

Genotype Probability of obtaining A Probability of obtaining a

AA 1 or 100% 0

Aa 1/2 or 50% 1/2 or 50%

aa 0 1 or 100%

Product Rule of Probability

In statistics, we can compute for the likelihood of two or more events to occur
simultaneously. According to the product rule of probability, the chance of two or
more independent events to occur together is equal to the product of their individual
probabilities. For example, you are given a turn to roll two dice simultaneously,
and you want to determine the likelihood of getting two and four. To get the
probability, you must multiply their probabilities, i.e., (probability of obtaining 2)
× (probability of obtaining four) = (1/4) × (1/4) = 1/16.

In genetics, the application of the product rule is evident in the

determination of probabilities of obtaining genotypes in a monohybrid cross.

♂
A a
(1/2 chance of (1/2 chance of
getting from the getting from the
father) father)
A AA Aa
(1/2 chance of
(1/2) × (1/2) = (1/2) × (1/2) =
getting from the
♀ mother)
1/4 1/4

a Aa aa
(1/2 chance of
(1/2) × (1/2) = (1/2) × (1/2) =
getting from the
mother)
1/4 1/4

Fig. 1.2.7. Product rule can help compute for genotype probabilities.

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1. For example, you want to determine the chance of getting an AA genotype
from the

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Unit 1: Laws of
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cross Aa × Aa.
2. By looking at Fig. 1.2.7 below, each gamete has a 50% probability of
obtaining the dominant or recessive allele.
3. Because the segregation of alleles between male and female
gametogenesis are independent events (i.e., they do not influence
each other), we should multiply probabilities.
4. Thus, AA probability is equal to (probability of an egg with A) ×
(probability of sperm with A) = (1/2) × (1/2) = 1/4 or 25%.

Aside from simple monohybrid crosses, the product rule also significantly
helps in the determination of offspring probability in crosses where the genes
are independently assorting. For example, you are given the cross AaBbCc ×
aaBBCc, where genes A, B, and C are independently assorting. What will be the
probability of the following genotypes below? Again, since the genes are
independently inherited, we can multiply the probabilities. You can peek in Fig.
1.2.4 to recall the individual probabilities.
1. AaBbCc = (chance of Aa) × (chance of Bb) × (chance of Cc)
= (1/2) × (1/2) × (1/2) = 1/8
2. aaBbcc = (chance of aa) × (chance of bb) × (chance of cc)
= (1/2) × (1/2) × (1/4) = 1/16
3. aaBBCC = (chance of aa) × (chance of BB) × (chance of CC)
= (1/2) × (1/2) × (1/4) = 1/16

Sum Rule of Probability

Some genetic problems involve cases wherein two or more events do not occur
simultaneously, but we have to determine the likelihood of either of them
occurring. In cases like this, the sum rule of probability must be applied.
According to this rule, the probability of either of two mutually exclusive events occurring
is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities. For example, you are given one
turn or attempt to roll a die, and you want to determine the chance of landing
with two or four. The probability would be equal to the sum of their individual
probabilities, i.e., (chance of getting a two) + (chance of getting a four) = 1/6 +
1/6 = 2/6 or 1/3 or 33.33%. These two events are mutually exclusive because
either of them can happen, but not at the same time.
The sum rule also applies in genetics, as shown in Fig. 1.2.8.

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Fig. 1.2.8. The probability of a dominant phenotype in the cross Rr × Rr is equal

to the sum of probabilities of getting a dominant allele.

1. Let us use the probability of obtaining the dominant phenotype from the cross Rr
× Rr to discuss this.
2. Given the cross, both maternal and paternal parents (or mother and
father) will contribute dominant and recessive alleles.
3. During fertilization, three events may lead to the dominant phenotype in
the
offspring.
a. First, both parents may contribute their dominant R allele.
b. Second, the father contributes the dominant R, while the mother
contributes the recessive r.
c. Third, the mother contributes the dominant R, while the father
contributes
1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 21
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the recessive r.
4. As shown in the figure below, each of the three events has a probability of 1/4.
5. To determine the chance of obtaining the dominant phenotype, we can just
add their individual probabilities, i.e., (probability of obtaining R from
both parents) + (probability of obtaining dominant maternal allele) +
(probability of obtaining the dominant paternal allele) = (1/4) + (1/4) +
(1/4) = 3/4 or 75%.

If you want to determine the probability of

getting a girl and a boy in consecutive
pregnancies, which rule of probability is more
applicable, the sum rule or the product rule?
Why?

Let’s Practice!
Example 1
In humans, the deposition of melanin in the skin, eyes, and hair is under the
control of a gene that is inherited through complete dominance. The
recessive mutant allele is characterized by the impaired pigmentation, which
results in the condition called albinism. If a normally pigmented couple, each of
whom has an albino parent, had children, what is the expected genotypic and
phenotypic ratios of their children with respect to the trait? Use a Punnett
square to justify your answer.

Solution
Step 1: You are asked to provide the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of
the children of a couple.

Step 2: Normal skin pigmentation is dominant over the recessive albino condition.
Therefore, we can assign the following alleles.

A : normal pigmentation
a : albino

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The genotypes with respect to the trait are as
follows. AA : normal pigmentation
Aa : normal
pigmentation aa : albino

Both members of the couple have normal skin pigmentation, but each
has an albino parent.

Step 3: Determine the genotypes of the couple. Both of them are

normally pigmented. Thus we can initially assign the
following.
Male : A
Female : A

Since both of them have a parent with aa genotype, they shall

automatically inherit a recessive allele.
Male : Aa
Female : Aa

Step 4: Draw a Punnett square and assign the gametes of each parent.

♂
A a

A
♀
a

Step 5: Combine the alleles to determine offspring genotypes and phenotypes.

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♂
A a

A AA Aa
pigmented pigmented
♀
a Aa aa
pigmented albino

The genotypic ratio of the cross is 1/4 AA: 2/4 Aa: 1/4 aa. The phenotypic ratio is
3/4 pigmented and 1/4 albino.

1 Try It!
Given the cross AaBb × aaBb, where A–round seed, a–wrinkled seed, B–yellow
seeds, and b–green seeds, what are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of
the offspring?
Use Punnett square to solve for the answers.

Example 2
In humans, the presence of dimples are controlled by dominant alleles while the
presence of a hitchhiker’s thumb is recessive. The absence of dimples and the
presence of a hitchhiker’s thumb in an individual requires two copies of the
recessive alleles. By using the forked-line method, determine the genotypic and
phenotypic ratios of the children of a couple, wherein the male is heterozygous
for both traits, while the female is heterozygous for hitchhiker’s thumb, but has
no dimples.

Solution
Step 1: You are asked to provide the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of
the children of the given couple.

Step 2: The presence of both the non-hitchhiker’s thumb (straight thumb)

and dimples is dominant over their absence. Therefore, we can
assign the following alleles.

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G : non-hitchhiker’s thumb (straight thumb)
g : hitchhiker’s thumb
H : with dimples
h : without dimples

Also, the following parental phenotypes are given.

Male parent : non-hitchhiker’s thumb and with
dimples,
heterozygous for both
Female parent : non-hitchhiker’s thumb (heterozygous),
without dimples

Step 3: Assign the genotypes of both parents given the alleles.

Male parent : GgHh
Female parent : Gghh

Step 4: Draw the corresponding fork-line for genotypes. This step is

what will determine phenotype ratios later on.

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Step 5: Draw the corresponding forked-line for phenotypes.

The genotypic ratio is 1/8 GGHh: 1/8 GGhh: 2/8 (or 1/4) GgHh: 2/8 (or 1/4) Gghh: 1/8
ggHh: 1/8 gghh. The phenotypic ratio is 3/8 non-hitchhiker’s thumb, dimpled:
3/8 non-hitchhiker’s thumb, without dimples: 1/8 hitchhiker’s thumb, dimpled: 1/8
hitchhiker’s thumb, without dimples.

2 Try It!
By using the fork-line method, determine the genotypic ratio of the
offspring of the testcross of MmNnOo.

Example 3
Two separate crosses were performed in peas. The first cross involved seed
shape and seed color. The second cross involves height, inflorescence, and
flower colors. The phenotypes of the parents and offspring are given below.
Give the complete genotypes of both parents and offspring for both crosses. Use
A for seed shape, B for seed color, C for height, D for inflorescence, and E for
flower color.

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Cross 1
round, yellow × wrinkled, green Cross 2
tall, terminal, white × dwarf, axial, violet
1/4 round,
1/4 tall, axial,
yellow 1/4
violet 1/4 dwarf,
round, green
axial, violet 1/4 tall,
1/4 wrinkled,
terminal, violet
yellow 1/4
1/4 dwarf, terminal, violet
wrinkled, green

Solution
Step 1: You are asked to provide the genotypes of all individuals in the crosses.

Step 2: The phenotypes of both parents and offspring are given.

The allelic assignment for each characteristic is also given. Therefore,
A : round C : tall
a : wrinkled c : dwarf
B : yellow D : axial
b : green d : termin
al
E : violet
e : white

Step 3: Make an initial assignment for the alleles in both crosses.

Cross 1: round, yellow × wrinkled, green A B × aabb
F1: 1/4 round, yellow A B
1/4 round, green A bb
1/4 wrinkled, aaB
yellow aabb
1/4 wrinkled, green

Cross 2: tall, terminal, white × dwarf, axial, violet C ddee × ccD E

F1: 1/4 tall, axial, violet C D E
1/4 dwarf, axial, ccD E
violet 1/4 tall, C ddE
terminal, violet ccddE
1/4 dwarf, terminal, violet
1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 27
Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
Step 4: Complete the missing alleles, if possible.
Cross 1: round, yellow × wrinkled, green AaBb × aabb
F1: 1/4 round, yellow AaBb
1/4 round, green Aabb
1/4 wrinkled, yellow aaBb
1/4 wrinkled, green aabb

Cross 2: tall, terminal, white × dwarf, axial, violet Ccddee ×

ccDdEE F1: 1/4 tall, axial, violet CcDdEE
1/4 dwarf, axial, violet ccDdEE
1/4 tall, terminal, violet CcddEE
1/4 dwarf, terminal, violet ccddEE

We can fill in the second allele of the individuals with a recessive

one if a recessive phenotype appears in the offspring. By
contrast, if no recessive phenotype appears in the offspring, such
as in gene E, the dominant parent must be homozygous for the
trait.

3 Try It!
A cross between two peas was made. The first parent has smooth pods,
white flowers, and yellow seeds. The second parent has smooth pods,
violet flowers, and yellow seeds. Four offspring appeared in the offspring
as follows: (1) smooth, violet, yellow; (2) wrinkled, violet, green; (3)
smooth, violet, green; and (4) wrinkled, violet, yellow. Provide the
genotypes of both parents and all of their offspring.

Example 4
Given the multi-hybrid cross AaBbccDdEe × AabbCcDdEe, determine the
probability of obtaining the following genotypes and phenotypes in the
offspring. The allele assignments are given below. Assume the genes to be
independently assorting.

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 28

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
A – red B – thorny C – smooth leaf D – long pollen E – green fruit

a – white b – thornless c – hairy leaf d – round e – purple

pollen fruit

1. aaBbCcDdEE
2. AabbccDDee
3. AAbbCCDdEe
4. red, thornless, smooth, long, green
5. white, thorny, hairy, round, purple

Step 1: You are asked to provide the probabilities of the provided offspring.

Step 2: The allelic designation, dominance, and offspring genotypes and

phenotypes are given.

Step 3: Substitute probabilities for the genotypes in the problems. Use the
patterns in the six monohybrid crosses given earlier in the
discussion (Fig. 1.2.4).
a. aaBbCcDdEE = (1/4) · (1/2) · (1/2) · (1/2) · =
(1/4) 1/128
b. AabbccDDee = (1/2) · (1/2) · (1/2) · (1/4) · =
(1/4) 1/128
c. AAbbCCDdEe = (1/4) · (1/2) · (0) =0

Step 4: Substitute probabilities for the phenotypes in the problems. Use

the patterns in the six monohybrid crosses given earlier in the
discussion (Fig. 1.2.4).
a. red, thornless, smooth, long, green
= A bbC D E
= (3/4) · (1/2) · (1/2) · (3/4) · (3/4)
= 27/256
b. white, thorny, hairy, round, purple
= aaB ccddee
= (1/4) · (1/2) · (1/2) · (1/4) · (1/4)

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 29

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance = 1/256

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 30

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
4 Try It!
Given the cross MmNnooPp × mmNnOoPp, what is the probability of
obtaining the following in the F1 generation? (a) mmNnOoPp, (b)
MmnnooPP, (c) M N O P , (d) mmnnoopp.

Did You Know?

Polydactyly, or the presence of extra fingers or toes, is a
genetic condition in humans. Particularly, it is inherited as
a dominant condition.

Having at least one parent with polydactylism increases

the chances of the trait to manifest among the children.
This condition exhibits different degrees of expression. In
some people, it may just be a flap of tissue, while in others,
it may have bones but without joints. Also, more
polydactylous individuals have their extra digit on the side
of the little finger than on the side of the thumb. On very
rare occasions, it is positioned in between fingers.

Polydactylous individuals have at least one of their parents

with the genetic condition.

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 31

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
Key Points
__________________________________________________________________________________________
● Given the probability that an individual with the dominant phenotype may be
homozygous or heterozygous, a testcross is used. When performing a
testcross, the individual with the dominant trait is crossed to an individual
with the recessive trait.
● Punnett square is the most basic technique in combining the gametes of
parents
to determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring.
● The forked-line method is a more straightforward technique that also
allows the determination of the genotypes and phenotypes of the
progeny, as well as their corresponding ratios.
● The probability method is useful when enumerating all genotypes and
phenotypes of the offspring is not needed. It is more applicable when
directly solving for the probabilities of particular genotypes and phenotypes
in the progeny.
○ The product rule of probability should be used when solving the
likelihood of two independent events occurring simultaneously. It
is applicable to problems involving independently assorting genes.
○ The sum rule of probability should be used when solving for the
probability of either of two or more events occurring.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 32

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance

Check Your Understanding

A. Determine the accuracy of each of the following

statements. Write true if the statement is correct and
false if otherwise.

1. A cross between two violet-flowered plants is an example of a testcross.

2. In a Punnett square, the gametes of the parents are combined.
3. In the cross Aa × aa, two possible phenotypes may appear in the offspring.
4. In the cross Aa × Aa, the phenotypic ratio in the offspring is 1:2:1.
5. In the cross aa × AA, all offspring will be hybrids.
6. When solving for the probability of obtaining the genotype AABbCc,
the individual probabilities of obtaining AA, Bb, and Cc must be
added.
7. In a Punnett square involving the cross Aa × Aa, the 1/4 chance to
obtain AA is solved by multiplying the chances of getting an A allele from
each parent.
8. A cross between a pea with round, yellow seeds, and another pea with
wrinkled, green seeds is an example of a testcross.
9. When performing the forked-line method, the alleles must be first identified.
10. Two normally pigmented parents with an albino son imply that both
parents are heterozygous for the trait.
11. In a testcross involving one characteristic, if two phenotypes are
present in the offspring, the individual with the dominant phenotype
must be heterozygous.
12. In the F1 intercross of Mendel, where AaBb × AaBb, six unique
phenotypes are present in the offspring.
13. An individual with a recessive trait has ½ chance of transmitting his or
her recessive allele to gametes.
14. The Punnett square was devised by Reginald Punnett.
15. Albinism is a recessive trait.

B. Describe the application of item (a) to the provided item

(b). Provide brief answers only.
1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 33
Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
1. (a) law of segregation in a (b) Punnett square
2. (a) law of independent assortment in (b) probability method

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 34

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance
3. (a) testcross in (b) analyzing the genotype of a round-seeded pea
4. (a) sum rule in (b) identifying the probability of Bb from the cross Bb × Bb
5. (a) the forked-line method in (b) identification of genotypes of a cross

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. How is the genotype of an individual related to the number of gametes

it can produce?
2. Determine how many types of allele combinations will each of the
following individuals produce given their genotypes: (a) AABbCc, (b)
aaBbCc, (c) AabbCc, (d) AaBbCc.
3. A woman possesses a rare eyelid abnormality called ptosis. This condition
prevents her from completely opening her eyes, and it has been found to
be controlled by a dominant allele T. This woman’s father has the
condition, but her mother is normal. Also, the mother of her father had
the condition. (a) Given the case, what are the possible genotypes of the
woman, her father, and her mother? (b) If she marries a man with normal
eyelids, what is the probability that she may have a child with ptosis?
4. Two highly inbred strains of laboratory mice were crossed. One parent
has black fur, and the other parent has gray fur. All of their offspring
possess black fur. What is the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratio if
all of their offspring intercrossed?
5. An Arabidopsis plant heterozygous for three independently assorting
genes C, D, and E is self-fertilized. Among the offspring of the cross,
predict the frequency of (a) CCDDEE individuals, (b) ccddee individuals,
(c) CcDdEe individuals, (d) an individual that is dominant for all genes.

Photo Credit
Wanitetlefthand by Cplbeaudoin at English Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 35
Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance

Bibliography
Brooker, J. Concepts of Genetics (1st ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.,
2012.

Klug, W.S, and Cummings, M.R. Concepts of genetics (6th ed). Upper Saddle
River, N.J: Prentice-Hall. 2003.

Pierce, B. Genetics: a conceptual approach (8th ed). New York: W.H. Freeman. 2012.

Reece J., Taylor M., Simon E., and Dickey J. Campbell Biology: Concepts and
Connections (7th ed.). Boston: Benjamin Cummings/Pearson. 2011.

Snustad, D.P., and Simmons, M.J. Principles of Genetics (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
2012.

Key to Try It!

1. The genotypic ratio of the offspring of the cross AaBb × aaBb (given that
A–round seed, a–wrinkled seed, B–yellow seeds, and b–green seeds) is 1/8
AaBB: 1/8 Aabb: 2/8 AaBb: 2/8 aaBb: 1/8 aaBB: 1/8 aabb. The phenotypic
ratio is 3/8 round, yellow, 3/8 wrinkled, yellow, 1/8 round, green: 1/8 wrinkled,
green.

AB Ab aB ab

AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb

aB round, round, wrinkled, wrinkled,
yellow yellow yellow yellow

AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb

ab round, round, wrinkled, wrinkled,
yellow green yellow green

2. Given the testcross of MmNnOo (thus MmNnOo × mmnnoo), the

genotypes are given through the forked-line method below. The genotypic
ratio is 1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1 (genotypes provided in the last column below).

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 36

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance

3. The genotypes for the provided individuals in the cross are as follows.
Assume that gene A codes for seed shape, B for flower color, and C for
seed color.
Cross: smooth pods, white flowers, and yellow seeds ×
smooth pods, violet flowers, and yellow seeds
A bbC × A B C , then to complete, AabbCc × AaBBCc

F1 generation: smooth, violet, yellow AaBbCC or AaBbCc

wrinkled, violet, green

aaBbcc smooth, violet, green

AaBbcc
wrinkled, violet, yellow AABbCC or AaBbCc

4. Given the cross MmNnooPp × mmNnOoPp, the frequency of the

following are as follows:
a. mmNnOoPp = (1/2) × (1/2) × (1/2) × (1/2) = 1/16
b. MmnnooPP = (1/2) × (1/4) × (1/2) × (1/4) = 1/64
c. M N O P__= (1/2) × (3/4) × (1/2) × (3/4) = 9/64

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 37

Unit 1: Laws of
Inheritance d. mmnnoopp = (1/2) × (1/4) × (1/2) × (1/4) = 1/64

1.2. Using Laws of Inheritance to Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes 38