LEARNING UNIT C:

USING SELECTION AND LOOPING CONTROL

STRUCTURE

LEARNING OUTCOME C: USING SELECTION AND LOOPING CONTROL STRUCTURE

Assessment Criteria (noun + verb + measurable standard)

• An evaluation of Boolean expressions using relational operators is given.
• A demonstration is made on how to use logical AND (&&), OR (||) and NOT (!) operators.
• A creation of a split in program flow using the single selection “if” is created.
• A creation of a split in program flow using the dual alternative selection “if” is made (If-else).
• A demonstration on how to use nested if statements is made.
• A demonstration on how to use a select case statement (switch) is made.
• A differentiation is made between pre-test and pots-test loop (“do-while” loop).
• A demonstration on how to use a “while” loop is made.
• A demonstration on how to write a typical loop for input verification and reading input records is
made.
• The purpose of a sentinel is described.
• A sentinel is used to terminate loop in C++.
• The break and continue statements are used inside do…while loops in C++.
• An explanation and demonstration on how to accumulate totals in a loop is made.
• A demonstration on how to use a “for” loop is made.
• A demonstration on how to use a nested loop is made.

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INTRODUCTION

Sequence, selection, and repetition are the three fundamental control structures that may be
used to create any type of program in any programming language. The first part of this learning
unit presents an introduction of selection (decision) control structure, meanwhile the second
section focusses on iteration control structure.

In this learning unit you are going to learn how to design programs that execute in selection
control structure by using an IPO chart, Flowchart, and the implement these designs in C++.

Note: A typical program that execute in selection control

structure normally contains the declaration section and the
initial input section in sequential structure, then followed by
a selection structure to specify the bath for calculations, and
output section.

In the previous learning unit, we have demonstrated the declaration section, input section and
calculation section in details, therefore this learning unit provide more details regarding the
selection and looping structure. Before you can use any selection and looping structure, it is
important to understand various relational and logical operators and how they are evaluated
in programming.

RELATIONAL OPERATORS

All high-level programming languages permit the use of relational and logical operators. Two
values can be compared in a program. Relational expressions are those that compare
operands (values or variables). Such a comparison's outcome or result is always a Boolean
value, which is either true (1) or false (0). Relational operators:

• Allow comparisons of two operand of same data type.

• Require two operands (binary)
• Return 1 (or nonzero integer) if expression true, otherwise 0 false. true and false are
both keywords in C++.

Note: Comparing values of different data

types might lead to unexpected outcomes.

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Table 3.1 lists relational operators used in programming along with the symbols used to
represent them in this module.

Table 3. 1: C++ Relational Operator

Recall that the symbol = is called the assignment operator.

The equality operator, ==, determines whether two
expressions are equal, whereas the assignment operator, =,
assigns the value of an expression to a variable.

Examples relational expressions:

• 2<3 = true
• 8 != 8 = false
• code != "sd" = true
• 2 == 2 = true
• 3.5<=8.5 = true

Relational operators can be applied to strings. Strings are compared character by character,
beginning with first character.
Evaluating Relational Expressions

The arithmetic operators have a higher precedence than the relational operators, but relational
operators have equal priority. The following examples shows how to evaluate relational
expressions:
Examples 1:
Determine whether the following expression is true or false:

b <= a – 3 where b = 5 and a = 7

Substitute:
5 <= 7 - 3
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Answer to calculation:
5 <= 4
Outcome of relational comparison:
false

Examples 2
Determine whether the following expression is true or false:

m + 7 > n – 3 * p where m = 4, n = 12 and p = 5

Substitute:
4 + 7 > 12 – 3 * 5
Answer to first calculation: (* higher priority than +)
4 + 7 > 12 – 15
Answer to second calculation: (from left to right)
11 > 12 – 15
Answer to third calculation:
11 > -3
Outcome of relational comparison:
true

Review Activity 3.1:

Re-write the following mathematical equations using C++ operators and then evaluate the
expressions:

3.1.1 a + t != (a + b) × 4 where a = 4, b = 17 and t = 20

3.1.2 k2 <= m 𝑴𝑶𝑫 5 + 29 – n where k = 5, m = 63, n = 7

3.1.3 (x ÷ 8 – 2) + 3 > y ÷ 12 MOD 2 where x = 59, y = 96

3.1.4 d + 4 × g ÷ 2 < g × 3 + 14 where d = 3, g = 24

LOGICAL OPERATORS

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Two Boolean expressions are joined by a logical operator to produce a single Boolean result
that is either true or false. Table 3.2 shows basic logical operators that are used in this module.

Note: The order of precedence is indicated in the

last column of Table 3.1 – that is, processing is
done in the following order: ! - && - ||

Symbol Description Example Result Precedence

! Not - Yields the !(true) false 1

opposite
!(false) true

&& And - Both true && true true

expressions must be
true && false false 2
True to yield True
false && true false
false && false false

|| Or - At least one true || true true

expression must be
true || false true 3
True to yield True
false || true true
false || false false
Table 3.2: Logical operators

Note: ! is unary, while && and || are

binary operators

Evaluating expression with logical operators:

When several operators (mixed expression) are used in a single equation, all the arithmetic
operators are first evaluated, followed by the relational operators and then the logical
operators. The order may be altered by using parenthesis. For example, if an || must be
processed before an &&, parenthesis can be inserted.
Evaluate the following expressions:
Example 1:

!(S) && D || K where D = true, K = false, S = false

Substitute:
!(false) && true || false

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true && true || false
true || false
true

Example 2:

D < (E + 7) AND G OR (A * C) >= (D – E + C)

where A = 5, C = 12, D = -15, E = -17, G = false

Substitute:
-15 < (-17 + 7) && false || (5 * 12) >= (-15 - -17 + 12)

-15 < -10 && false || (5 * 12) >= (-15 - -17 + 12)
-15 < -10 && false || 60 >= (-15 - -17 + 12)
-15 < -10 && false || 60 >= (-15 + 17 + 12)
-15 < -10 && false || 60 >= (2 + 12)
-15 < -10 && false || 60 >= 14
true && false || 60 >= 14
true && false || true
false || true
true

Review Activity 3.2:

Evaluate the following expressions where A = 5, B = 7, C = -4, D = 12, E = true and F = false

3.2.1 A * 3 >= B – 14 / 3 && F || C <= D + 3

3.2.1 ! F || E && D + C == A
3.2.1 (C – D) * 2 != A + B || E && F || B > D + B2
3.2.1 D == C % 5 && !F || !(A + D <= A – D)

ONE-WAY if STATEMENT

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A basic selection control structure allows one set of statements to be executed if a condition
is true. Let's use the following example to illustrate the purpose of if statement:

If an employee has worked more than 45 hours during the week, a bonus of R300 must be
added to his/her wage.

Note: In the example above, the bonus will be added

only if the value of the hours worked is greater than 45.

Syntax of one-way (if) statement:

if (expression)
statement;

Curly brackets can be used whenever there

is more than one statement to be executed
based on the value of the expression, in
such case the syntax will be as follows:

if (expression)
{
statement1;
statement2;
}

Any variable declared within a block { } has

meaning starting from its declaration until the
closing brace of the block.

Figure 3.1: One-way if statement flowchart

Please note the following with regards to if statements:

• The selection structure must begin with the reserved word if

• This must be followed by parentheses around the expression
• The expression is sometimes called a decision maker because it decides whether to
execute the statement that follows it.

The expression is a Boolean expression. If the end value of the expression is true (1) then the
statement that follows the expression will execute, however if the value of the expression is
false (0) then the computer skips the first statement and execute the next one.
Example:
if (hours > 45)

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 wage = wage + 300;
Parentheses () are optional if the if statement only execute a single statement. In a flow chart

a decision is represented by symbol .

Explanation of the above two lines:

if (hours > 45)
This statement tests if the hours worked is more than 45.
wage = wage + 300;
If the test is true (the employee has worked more than 45 hours), the previous wage is replaced
by an increase of R300 on the previous value.

Example of comparing strings:

C++ compares strings character by character using ASCII values.

string name = “Mary”;

if (name != “Mpho”)
cout<<”You are not Mpho\n”;

Therefore:
if (‘M’,’a’,’r’,’y’ != ‘M’, ‘p’, ‘h’, ‘o’)
ASCII values
if (77,97,’r’,’y’ != 77, 112, ‘h’, ‘o’)

“Mary” is not equals to “Mpho”,

“Mary” is less than “Mpho

TWO-WAY (if...else) STATEMENT

The selection control structure enables the execution of a block of statements when a
condition is true and another set of statements when a condition is false. This type of a
selection control structure is referred to as an if-else statement.

Syntax of two-way (if…else) statement:

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 if (expression)
statement1;
else
statement2;

If expression true, statement1

executed, otherwise statement2
executed.

else is reserved word

Using Compound (Block)

Statement:

Syntax of compound statement

Figure 3.2: Two-way if statement flowchart
(or block of statements):

if(expression)
{
statement1;
statement2;
.
.
.
statementn;
}

Example:
Suppose all the employees in a company receives an increase 8%, but the employees from
Department C receive an increase of 10%, as they performed better than the others. We can
accomplish this by writing the following if-statement that contains an else-clause:

if (dept == 'C')
increase = salary * 0.1;
//10% increase applies
else
increase = salary * 0.08;
// 8% increase applies

Figure 3.3: Tw-way if statement flowchart (Example)

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Review Activity 3.3:

3.3.1. Problem statement

Abel and Fred participate in the competition's final round. One competition regulation prohibits
judges from awarding the same points to two contestants at the same time. Enter the number
of points that each competitor obtains, compare the points and determine who the winner is.
Show the winner's name on the screen, along with their points.
3.3.1.1. Draw an IPO Chart,
3.3.1.2. Design a Flowchart,
3.3.1.3. Write a complete C++ program.

3.3.2. Problem statement

A customer made a purchase at a retailer. Enter the payment amount. A discount of 7% is
given if the purchase sum is R550 or more, while only a discount of 4.5% is given if the
purchase is less. Calculate the discount amount and show it together with the total payment
due.
3.3.2.1 Given the flowchart in Figure 3.4, write a complete C++ program:

Figure 3.4: Problem statement 3.3.2 flowchart

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3.3.3. Draw a flowchart and create a C++ program for each of the following scenarios in
order to solve the problems listed below:

3.3.3.1. Customers of ABC Cell Phone Company pay a base fee of R60 per month to
send texts. An extra 5c per message is charged for the first 100 texts sent each
month. More than 100 messages will incur an extra 10 cent fee. Enter a
customer's monthly text message use to calculate and display the customer's
bill amount.
3.3.3.2. Enter the employee's salary to calculate and display the employee's tax liability.
The percentage tax is 18% for employees making less than R20,000 per month
and 27% for all other wages.

3.3.4. Write down only the exact and correct output that will be displayed for the program
planned in Figure 3.5:

Figure 3.5: Problem statement 3.3.2 flowchart

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Using logical operators

We have the ability to simultaneously test several conditions thanks to logical operators.
Example:
A person may vote in an election if they are 18 years of age or older and have registered to
vote.

if (age >= 18 && isRegisteredVoter)

cout << "You may vote\n";
else
cout <<"You may not vote\n";

Try-It out

Problem statement:
All people entering the Rand Easter show pays a normal entrance fee, except for children
under 12 and pensioners (60 and over), who only pays half of the normal entrance fee. Enter
the normal entrance fee and the age in full years of the person and calculate and display the
actual entrance fee payable.

• Draw IPO Chart and flowchart,

• Write a C++ program.

Exercise on logical operators:

Draw a flowchart and write a C++ program to solve the following problem:

Athletes who have completed the Two Oceans Marathon or Round the Dam Marathon and
are members of a club and therefore eligible to compete in the Comrades Marathon. Enter the
athlete's name, the name of any clubs they may be a member of, whether or not they
participated in the Two Oceans Marathon, and whether or not they completed the Round the
Dam Marathon. Indicate if the athlete is permitted to take part in the Comrades Marathon and
show the athlete's name with an appropriate caption.

Ternary operator

Ternary operator represents a "Short-hand" version of if...else statement. The syntax of a

ternary operator is as follows:

(test_expression) ? true_expression : false_expression;

Example:

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string genderDescription = (gender == 'F' || gender == 'f') ? "Female" : "Male";

NESTED if AND if...else STATEMENT

Often, other programming problems will require you to include, or nest, if statements within
another if or else statement to come up with a solution. Figure 3.6 illustrate a structure of a
nested if statement.

Syntax 1 of nested if statement:

if (condition1)
statement1;
else if (condition2)
statement2;
...
else if (condition-n)
statement-n;
else
statement-z;
}

Take note of the following with regards

to nested if statement:
• Nesting: one control statement
in another
• Use consistent layout for
readability – indent statements
• else always belongs to closest
if without an else

Syntax 2 of nested if statement:

if (condition1)
if (condition2)
statement1;
else
statement2; Figure 3.6: Nested if statement
else
statement3;

Note: In nested if statement, compound statement (or block

of statements) can be used by including your statements in {}.

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Example 1 of using nested if statements:

Problem statement:

Members of a club pay a basic membership fee per month, and then an additional fee
depending on the sport they participate in:

Sport Sport Code Additional Amount

Tennis T 160.00
Squash S 140.00
Rugby R 150.00
Table 3.3: Sport options (Nested if statement Example)

Write an algorithm to enter the basic membership fee, the name of the member, as well as the
code of the sport that he/she participates in. Then display a message containing the name of
the member, the name of the sport, as well as the membership fee, e.g. Peter takes part in
Squash and has a membership fee of R550.50

Try-it out (Solution of example above)

Before scrolling down to see the steps to come up with

a complete C++ application for problem above first try it
out:

• Draw an IPO Chart,

• Draw a flowchart,
• Write a complete C++ program.

Step 1: Draw an IPO Chart (See Table 3.4):

I P O

memberName Prompt for input actEntranceFee

basicFee Enter input memberName
sportCode Determine the actual sportName
entrance fee membershipFee
Display actual entrance fee

Table 3.4: IPO Chart of Nested if Example

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Step 2: Draw a Flowchart (See Figure 3.7):

Figure 3.7: Flowchart of example 1 (Nested if statement)

Step 3: Write a complete C++ program (See Code Snippet below):

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16
Sample output

Figure 3.8: Output of example 1 program (Nested if statement)

Example 2 on nested if statement:

Problem statement
A program is required by a company to read an employee number, department code indicating
to which department the employee belongs, the pay rate and the number of hours worked in
a week. Then the employee’s weekly pay must be calculated, and the employee number and
weekly pay must be displayed.
For all departments, if more than 40 hours are worked, payment for overtime hours worked is
calculated at time-and-a-half, except for those in department “CS”. These employees’
overtime hours are calculated as time-and-a-quarter.
Complete C++ program for example 2 (See code snippet below)

Note: Only the IPO Chart and C++ code are

provided for example 2

IPO Chart of example 2 (Nested if statement)

I P O
empNum Prompt for input empNum
deptCode Enter input weeklyPay
payRate Calculate weekly pay
hoursWorked Display output

Table 3. 5: IPO Chart of example 2 (Nested if statement)

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Code snippet: Example 2

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Example 3 on nested if statement:
Problem statement
The gender and age of a person determines how many minutes the athlete will get as a head-
start in a race. Every female of 50 years and older gets a 30-minute head-start, whereas all
other females get a head-start of 15 minutes. Males of 60 years and older gets a head-start of
20 minutes, whereas all other males get no head-start.
Enter the competitor number, the gender (M for male and F for female), as well as the age of
the athlete. Then determine the number of head-start minutes and display the competitor
number and the head-start minutes.

Note: Only the IPO Chart and C++ code are

provided for example 2

IPO Chart of example 3 (Nested if statement)

I P O

compNum Prompt for input compNum

gender Enter input headStartMin
age Determine head-start minutes
Display output

Table 3. 6: IPO Chart of example 3 (Nested if statement)

Code snippet: Example 3

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Review Activity 3.4:

In each of the following cases, draw an IPO Chart and flowchart as part of planning, then
write a complete C++ program:

3.4.1. An architect’s fee is calculated as a percentage of the cost of the building. The fee is
made up as follows:

On the first R350 000 of the cost of the building: 8%

On the remainder if the remainder is less than or equal to R500 000: 3%

On the remainder if the remainder is more than R500 000: 2½%

Table 3. 7: Fee description of activity 3.4.1

Enter the cost of the building and calculate and display the architect’s fee.
3.4.2. Design a program that will prompt for and enter the price of an article and a discount
code. Calculate a discount according to the discount code and display the original price
on the screen as well as the discount amount and the discounted price. The discount
code and accompanying discount rate is as follows:

Discount Code Discount Rate

H 50%

F 40%

T 33%

Q 25%

Z 0%
Table 3. 8: Discount table for activity 3.4.2

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 If the discount code is Z, the words “No discount” are to be printed on the screen. If
the discount code is neither of the above, the words “Invalid discount code” must be
displayed.

3.4.3. Thabo is a taxi driver and has 3 approved routes, each with the following cost.
Route A: 11.50
Route B: 9.00
Route C: 7.50

Pensioners get 10% discount and children under the age of 10 years pay only R2 per
trip, regardless the route.
For one passenger, enter the route code and whether this person is a pensioner or
under the age of 10. Ensure that all values entered are valid. Calculate the amount
due and display the output in the format provided by the 3 examples.

Amount due for route A (Pensioner): R 10.35

Amount due for route B (Normal rate): R9.00
Amount due for route C (Child): R2.00

THE switch STATEMENT

The switch statement (also known as switch case statement) evaluates a given expression,
then executes the related statements depending on whether the evaluated expression
satisfies predetermined value. It offers an efficient way for splitting execution to different parts
of code depending on the value of the expression as opposed to the lengthy if-else-if ladder.
The switch statement is a type of selection control structure that is used to decide which blocks
of statements to run based on the value of an expression. Inside a switch statement, case
represent the value of switch, and therefore the expression being switched on is evaluated
against the case.

The syntax of a C++ switch statement:

switch(expression)
{
case x:
// statement 1; code block
break;
case y:
//statement 2; code block
break;
default:
//statement 3 code block
}

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The C++ switch statement executes according to the following rules:

• expression that will evaluate into an integer value (i.e.: int, char, bool, etc.)
• case keyword that represents a possible value of the expression
• break keyword statement to denote an immediate exit of a switch structure.
• default keyword – an optional statement that presents some code to execute in the
event of a no case match. To avoid the break keyword under the default statement,
default statement must be placed as the switch block's last statement.
• If the switch structure has no default and if the value of the expression does not match
any of the case values, the entire switch statement is skipped.

Figure 3.8 illustrate the flow of processes on a generic switch statement syntax.

Figure 3.9: Flowchart of a generic C++ switch syntax

Try-it out (Solution of example above)

Now let’s re-write the previous example for the program

that determine the membership fee using a switch
syntax. In this activity we will:

• Draw a flowchart (Re-design Figure 3.7 to

follow the flow of a switch statement),
• Write a complete C++ program using a switch
statement.

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Step 1: Draw a flowchart (Re-design Figure 3.7 to follow the flow of a switch statement)

Figure 3.10: Flowchart of example 1 (C++ switch syntax)

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Step 2: A complete C++ program using a switch statement.

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Example 2 on switch statement:
Problem statement:
Write an algorithm that will read two numbers and an integer code. The value of the integer
code should be 1, 2, 3 or 4. If the value of the code is 1, calculate the sum of the two numbers.
If the code is 2, compute the difference of the two numbers (first minus second). If the code is
3, compute the product of the two numbers. If the code is 4, and the second number is not
zero, compute the quotient (first divided by second). If the code is not equal to 1, 2, 3 or 4,
display an error message.

Note: Only the IPO Chart and C++ code are

provided for example 2

IPO Chart of example 2 (switch statement)

I P O
num1 Prompt for input result
num2 Enter input
calcCode Determine the calculating code
Display output

Table 3. 9: IPO Chart of example 2 (switch statement)

Code snippet: Example 2

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Review Activity 3.5:

3.5.1. Rewrite the programs in exercises 3.4.2 and 3.4.3 using a switch statement:

3.5.2. Design a C++ program that will prompt for and enter the price of an article and a
discount code. Calculate a discount according to the discount code and display the
original price on the screen as well as the discount amount and the discounted price.
The discount code and accompanying discount rate is as follows:

Discount Code Discount Rate

H 50%

F 40%

T 33%

Q 25%

Z 0%
Table 3. 10: Discount table for activity 3.5.1

If the discount code is Z, the words “No discount” are to be printed on the screen. If
the discount code is neither of the above, the words “Invalid discount code” must be
displayed.

3.5.3. Thabo is a taxi driver and has 3 approved routes, each with the following cost.
Route A: 11.50
Route B: 9.00
Route C: 7.50

Pensioners get 10% discount and children under the age of 10 years pay only R2 per
trip, regardless the route.

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For one passenger, enter the route code and whether this person is a pensioner or
under the age of 10. Ensure that all values entered are valid. Calculate the amount
due and display the output in the format provided by the 3 examples.

Amount due for route A (Pensioner): R 10.35

Amount due for route B (Normal rate): R9.00
Amount due for route C (Child): R2.00

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ITERATION CONTROL STRUCTURE

Iteration control structure (also known as a loop) allows a statement or block statements to
continually execute until a condition is met. In this case, condition is any relational expression;
that is any expression that result in true or false. An iterative structure is used to shorten code,
speed up program execution, use up less memory, and minimize coding time. Therefore, a
program that contains an iteration control structure will run statement or block of code until the
program achieves the desired state. Three different iteration statement types can be used in
C++ are depicted in Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11: C++ loops

Note: All C++ loops in Figure 3.11 executes statements

for as long as specified condition is remains true.

Creating a fixed-counter loop using for statement

A fixed-counter, also known as counter-controlled loop is used when the programmer knows
exact number of times to a statement or block of code should be repeated. A standard
programming practice to create a fixed-counter loop is by using a for-loop statement. The
basic syntax of a for-loop is as follows:

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//Executing block
for (initial statement; loop condition; update statement)
{
statement 1;
statement 2;
.
.
statement n;
}

//Executing a single statement

for (initial statement; loop condition; update statement)
statement;

Figure 3.12: Flowchart of C++ for-

loop

In C++, for is a reserved word. The initial statement, loop condition, and update statement
enclosed within the parentheses control the body of the for statement.

The initial statement inside the for-loop should be replaced by counter/index variable.
Normally the counter variable is declared and initialized inside the parentheses of the for-loop
header.

for(int item = 0; ;)

The loop condition inside the for-loop is created using any relational/Boolean expression. If
this expression is equals to anything other than zero (0), the loop will repeat the instruction
inside its body. If the loop condition is initialized to false, the loop body will not execute.

for(int item = 0; item < 5; )

The update statement inside the for-loop is used to alter the counter/index variable to affect
the loop condition statement. Usually it is created using increment (++), decrement (--) or
accumulation (+=, -=, …) statement.

for(int item = 0; item < 5; item++)

The for-loop executes as follows:

• The initial statement executes once during the first execution of the loop. The initial
statement usually initializes the control variable or index variable.
• The loop condition is evaluated. If the loop condition evaluates to true:

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 o The for-loop statement/body will execute.
o Then the update statement (the third expression in the parentheses) will
execute.
o Repeat Step 2 until the loop condition evaluates to false.

Try-it out

First read the C++ syntax to create a for-loop, the follow the flowchart in Figure 3.13 to create
an application that uses a for-loop to display consecutive integers from 5 to 12.

Figure 3.13: Application that shows 5 to 12 numbers using a for-loop

NOTE: There is only one statement in this

for-loop, the {}-brackets may be omitted.

How this example must be created…

• Note that the initial statement, i = 5;, initializes the int variable i to 5.
• Then, the loop condition, i <= 12, is evaluated. For example: 5 <= 12 is equals to
true, then outputs 5 will be displayed and a whitespace.
• Then, during the first execution of the for-loop, the update statement, i++;, executes,
which sets the value of i to 6.
Once again, the loop condition is evaluated, which is still true, and so on. When i becomes
13, the loop condition evaluates to false, which then result in the for-loop terminating.

NOTE: Beside integer data types, C++ permits the usage of

fractional values for the control/index variable inside a for-loop
(index variable) of the double type (or float data type).

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Possible solution for the try-it out activity

Shortened for-loop syntax:

C++ syntax permits the omission of some of the arguments within the parentheses of the for-
loop header. The initial statement, loop condition, and update statement enclosed within the
parentheses of the for-loop are all optional inside the header of a for-loop, however, the two
semicolons inside the parentheses are required by C++ syntax to create a for-loop. For
example, for ( ; i<= 12; ) is valid C++ statement to create a for-loop.

The previous example can be written as follows:

int i = 5;
for (; i <= 12; )
{
cout<< i << “ ”;
i = i + 1;
}

Note: Although the initializing and update statement can be

omitted from a for-loop header, omitting the loop condition
expression will results in an infinite/endless loop.

Getting user inputs

Similar to selection control structure, you can include interactive statements (i.e.: cout << and
cin >>) inside the body of a for-loop. Let’s look at the following example that prompts for five
(5) test scores as inputs, then calculate and display the total and average:

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Example: Interactive for-loop:

C++ program

Figure 3.14: Its corresponding flowchart

Try-it out

Re-write the code in the example above, then:

a) Includes statements that will determine and display the highest and lowest testScore
b) Include statements that will count and display the number of testScore above 50

Save all the changes, compile and execute the program.

Nested for-loops

Nested loops are loops that are contained within other loops. As an illustration, imagine that
we wish to loop through each day of a week for four weeks:

• First, we can create a for-loop that iterates four times (for three weeks), the outer-loop.

32
 • Then, within the outer-loop, we create a second for-loop that iterates seven times (for
seven days), inner-loop.

Below is a typical structure of a nested for-loops:

for (initial statement; loop condition; update statement) //outer-loop

{
//you can write statements here
for (initial statement; loop condition; update statement) //inner-loop
{
statement 1;
statement 2;
.
.
statement n;
}
//you can write statements here
}

Figure 3.15 shows the flowchart of the nested for-loops example which we identified earlier.

The first loop, controlled

by the index of week, is
called the outer loop. The
second loop, controlled by
the index of day, is called
the inner loop.

Nested for-loops example:

Figure 3.15: Structure of a nested for-loop

33
Review Activity 3.6:

3.6.1. Re-write the flowchart in Figure 3.16 into C++ application:

Figure 3.16: Flowchart for exercise 3.6.1

3.6.2. Re-write the flowchart in Figure 3.17 into C++ application:

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 Figure 3.17: flowchart of exercise 3.6.2

3.6.3. Complete the source code using for-loops to perform the following steps:
a) Output all odd numbers between firstNum and secondNum.
b) Output the sum of all even numbers between firstNum and secondNum.
c) Output the numbers and their squares between 1 and 10.
d) Output the sum of the square of the odd numbers between firstNum and secondNum.
e) Output all uppercase letters (A - Z).

35
 N.B: Only use variables which are provided.
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
//declare all variables
int firstNum, secondNum;
int sumEven = 0;
int sumSquareOdd = 0;

char chCounter;

int counter;

//enter first and second number

cout << "Enter two numbers." << endl;
cout << "First number must be less than "
<< "the second number you enter" << endl;
cout << "Enter numbers: " << flush;
cin >> firstNum >> secondNum;
cout << endl;

//Output all odd numbers between firstNum and secondNum

if (firstNum % 2 == 0)
counter = firstNum + 1;
else
counter = firstNum;

cout << "Odd integers between " << firstNum << " and "
<< secondNum << " are: " << endl;
//DISPLAY ODD INTEGERS
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
cout << endl;
//Output the sum of all even numbers between firstNum and secondNum
if (firstNum % 2 == 0)
counter = firstNum;
else
counter = firstNum + 1;
//CALCULATE AND DISPLAY SUM OF EVEN INTEGERS
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

cout << endl;

//Output the numbers and their squares between 1 and 10.
cout << "Number Square of Number" << endl;

____________________________________________________________________
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 ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

cout << endl;

/*Output the sum of the square of the odd numbers between
firstNum and secondNum.*/
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
cout << endl;

//Output all uppercase letters (A - Z).

cout << "Upper case letters are: ";
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

return 0;
}

3.6.4. Write a C++ program that print out a multiplication table, see Figure 3.17:

Figure 3.17: Multiple table sample

3.6.5. Create a C++ application that determine if a number is prime or not. NB: A prime is a
number that is divisible by 1 and itself.

3.6.6. Write C++ programs that draw the following patterns, using nested for statements:

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3.6.6.1. *
**
***
****
*****
******

3.6.6.2. #*#*#
#*#*
#*#
#*
#

Creating a Sentinel-controlled loop using while or do…while statement

Sentinel-controlled loops are employed when the exact number of loop iterations is unknown,
as contrast to counter-control loops. Sentinel value is a special value used to start and
terminate a loop. In order to terminate a loop, a sentinel value is often selected from a list of
invalid values. For example, a program that inputs an unknown number of test scores may
use -1 or 999 as the sentinel. Like counter-controlled loop, sentinel-controlled loop’s
execution is terminated based on the test condition, which is denoted by a relational/Boolean
expression. The while-loop and do...while-loop are recommended in programming when
constructing sentinel-controlled loops.

C++ while loops

The syntax of the while-loop is:

while (condition)
{
statement..1;
statement..2;
.
.
statement..n;
}

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 Execution of a while-loop:

• Firstly, a while-loop test the condition.

• Then, if the condition is equals to true, the
body of the loop will be executed.
• Then, it evaluates the condition again.
• This process continues until the condition is
equals to false.
• Lastly, when the condition evaluates to
false, the loop terminates.

Note: Similar to for-loops, while-

loops, evaluate a condition before to
executing the statements contained
inside the body of the loop; in
programming, these loops are
Figure 3.18: A while-loop referred to as pre-test loops.
flowchart

Key features of while-loops:

• The keyword while tells the computer to create an iteration control structure.
• The condition must be a Boolean expression, which is an expression that evaluates to
either true or false. The expression can contain variables, constants, arithmetic
operators, relational operators, and logical operators.
• The parentheses that surround the condition must always be included, similar to the if
statement.
• Besides providing the condition, the programmer must also provide the loop’s body
statements, which are the statements to be processed when the condition evaluates
to true. If more than one statement needs to be processed, the statements must be
entered as a statement block by enclosing them in a set of braces ({}).
• The body must include a statement that will alter the value of the variable used to
construct the condition to avoid an infinite or endless loop. A loop whose instructions
are processed indefinitely is referred to as either an endless loop or an infinite loop.

Try-it out: Example on while-loops:

Let’s look at an example of the program that calculate the sum of even numbers in Figure
3.18:

39
 Figure 3.18: flowchart of a while-loop example

Implementation of program depicted in Figure 3.18:

40
Review Activity 3.7:

3.7.1. Re-write review activity 3.6.3 using while-loops instead of for-loops.

3.7.2. Write a C++ application that accepts an unknown number of characters as inputs. A
sentinel value of ‘#’ should be used to stop entering characters and the program must
then determine and show the total number of vowels and total number of digits entered.

3.7.3. An unknown number of students have written a test; therefore, you are required to
write an application that will:
• Receive the student number, name and test mark as input. The program must
use the value “99999” to stop entering input. The test mark can be integer
value from 0 to 100, therefore, show an error message for any invalid test
mark and initialize it to zero.
• Calculate the test average.
• Determine the student with the highest mark.
• Show the test average with a proper legend.
• Show the student number, name and test mark of the student with the highest
test mark.

C++ do...while loops:

A do…while loop is a sentinel-controlled loop that executes the body of the loop at least once
before it evaluate its condition. This type of a loop is referred to as a post-test loop. The
syntax of the do...while-loop is:

do
{
statement..1;
statement..2;
.
.
statement..n;
} while (condition);

41
 Key features of do..while loop:

• The do and while are C++ keywords,

• As in the while statement, the condition
surrounded by parentheses must evaluate to
either true or false.
• The condition may contain variables, constants,
arithmetic and relational expressions, and logical
operators.
• In addition to providing the condition, the
programmer must also provide the statements to
be processed when the condition evaluates to
true. If more than one statement needs to be
processed, the statements must be entered as a
statement block by enclosing them in a set of
braces ({}).
Figure 3.20: Flowchart of do...while loop

The do…while loop is commonly used when validating user input, especially in an application
where a valid input is mandatory to proceed to the next process. Look at the example below:

Try-it out: Example on do…while-loops:

Take a look at the sample program below, which includes a loop that receives as input: the
student number, results of five class tests, and exam mark for each student. The program
calculates predicate for each student as the average of the five tests, and final mark is
calculated as the average of predicate and exam mark. The student with the highest final
grade is then identified, and the total class average is computed and shown prior to the
program's completion:

42
43
Review Activity 3.8:

3.8.1. Re-write review activity 3.6.3 using do…while-loops instead of for-loops.

3.8.2. Given the flowchart in Figure 3.21, write a C++ program that will allow the user to
guess a generated secret number three times. Each time an incorrect guess is entered
show an appropriate message as identified in the flowchart.

Figure 3.21: Flowchart of a guessing game activity

Figure 3.22: Sample output for activity 3.8.2

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Other C++ Loop Control Statements

C++ support the keywords such as break, continue and goto to alter the normal execution
flow of a loop.
break statement:
The break statement provides an early exit of closest iteration control structure (for, while or
do while). When the break statement executes, the program continues to execute the first
statement that follows the exited loop structure. For example, the code snippet below will
terminate the infinite while-loop when a negative value or zero is entered:

continue statement:
The continue statement is used in an iteration control structure to skip the remaining
statements in the loop and proceeds with the next iteration of the loop.

When the continue statement is encountered inside a for, while or a do…while, the remaining
statements inside the body of the loop are skipped and the execution moves to next iteration.
For example, the program below will continue to prompt the user when a negative value or
zero is entered, if negative or zero is entered, statement in line 12 and 13 are skipped:

45
goto statement:
The goto statement is used to jumps to a specified section inside the function. The use of this
keyword is discouraged as it may complicate the standard flow of a program. In the code
snippet below, whenever the goto ERROR line execute, the program jumps to line 24 whereby
an ERROR label is defined:

Figure 3.23 the sample output of the example above.

Figure 3.23: Sample output of goto example

Summary

In this chapter, selection and iteration control structures were covered. Firstly, relational and
logical operators were introduced as well as how they are evaluated when used inside a mixed
expression. A selection control structure was created within a program using the if, if-else,
nested if, and switch statements. A control structure for iterations was created using the for-
loop, while-loop, and do...while-loop structures. Finally, the break, continue, and goto
statements were used to demonstrate how a normal flow of a program that contains iteration
control structure can be altered.

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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FROM RECOMMENDED BOOK
A First Book of C++

Fourth edition
By Gary J. Bronson
Published by Pearson

In addition to these notes, study the following pages on CHAPTER 4 inside the prescribed
textbook.

• Page 137 – 142

• Page 148 – 154

Do the following exercises:

• EXERCISES 4.1 Page 142- 143

o Do all the exercises (1 – 4)
• EXERCISES 4.2 Page 154 – 158
o Do all the exercises (1 - 17)
• EXERCISES 4.3 page 162 – 167
o Do all the exercises (1 - 12)
• EXERCISES 4.4 page 171 – 172
o Do all the exercises (1 - 7)

47