BASIC MATHEMATICS

1.1 FUNCTIONS BASICS

Washington, pp. 81 – 88; 94
1. What is a function?
 A function is a rule linking one set of numbers (the domain) to another set of numbers (the range).
o A function can link a number from the domain to only one value in the range of the function.
 Types of functions
o Many-to-one (Many -> one) o One-to-one (One -> one)
More than one value from the domain linked to Every value from the domain linked to only
the same value in the range one value in the range
Example: y = x 2 Example: y = x 3
-2 -2 -8
1 -1
-1
-1
4 1 1
1
2 8
2

 There is no such thing as ...

o many-to many functions
o one-to-many functions
 Graphical tests
o Is a relationship a function?
Do the vertical line test: Draw a vertical line through the curve. If it intercepts the curve once everywhere, the
relationship is a function

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 1
 o What type of function is it?
Do the horizontal line test: Draw a horizontal line through the curve. If it intercepts the curve once everywhere, the
function is one-to-one function

 Domain, co-domain, range, dependent and independent variable

o Get the definitions!

 Examples of non-function equations:

o Where the y variable is raised to an even exponent, x values repeat x = y 2 + 3 .

x y
12 3
12 -3

o Where the y variable is within absolute value bars, x values repeat x = y + 3

x y
11 8
11 -4

o Where there are inequalities involved, x values repeat x < y .

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 2
2. Inverse functions
 Definition: Let f and g be two functions. If f ( g ( x) ) = x AND g ( f ( x) ) = x , then g is the inverse of f, and f is the inverse of g
 Steps 5
y
o Let y = f (x )
4
o Swap x and y
o Solve for y 3

o Check for limitations 2

o Write down f −1 (x ) Function
1
 NB! Only one  one functions have inverse functions!
 NB! Always check the domain of the inverse function
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
 NB! A function and its inverse is symmetrical about the line y = x x
-1
 NB! f =  f −1 ( x)  f=
−1
[ f ( x)] x Inverse
-2
−1 1
 NB! f ( x) ≠ -3
f ( x)
 NB! Not all functions have inverse functions
o Only one-to-one functions have unique inverse functions
o Use the horizontal line test!
 NB! Invertible function: A function that can be inverted
3. Sketches of inverse functions
 Swap the x and y values of the given function's critical points to get the critical points of the inverse function
 The graphs of a function and its inverse are reflections about the line y = x , that is, they are symmetrical about the line y = x

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 3
4. Applications
• Inverse trig functions
• Inverse of exponential functions, that is, log functions
• Inverse hyperbolic functions
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.1
1. Apply the line tests to each of the following graphs determine whether the curve represents a function. If it is a function classify
it as either one-to-one or many-to-one. Motivate your classification.
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
y
y y
y

x
x
x

2. Given: f =
( x) 2 x − 4 and
g ( x=
) x2 + 2 .
2

2.1 Determine f  g and g  f . 2.2 Is g the inverse of f ? Why?

3. Determine f −1 , the inverse of the function f , in each of the following cases.
t 3
3.1 f ( x=
) 3 2− x 3.2 = f (t ) ,t ≠ 4 3.3 f (s) = 2− 2 ,s ≠ 0 3.4 f ( y=
) 3y − 7
t −4 s
4. Use the function f, represented by f ( x=
) 3 x − 2 , to explain the following statement: "A function and its inverse is symmetrical
about the line y = x ."
5. Determine the inverse of each of the following functions.
x +1
5.1 g ( x) = x5 5.2 u ( x=) 3 − 2x 5.3= y , x ≠ − 12
2x +1
6. Is the following function invertible? Motivate your answer.

f ( x) =x3 + 4 x 2 + 3 x

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 1
7. Given that f ( x) =2 + x − 1 and g ( x) = . Determine the domain and range of f ( x) and g ( x) .
x−2
x +1
8. Given that g ( x) = , x ≠ 1 , and h( x) = x , x ≥ 0 . Determine the following.
x −1
8.1 g (π ) 8.2 g (2t + 1)
8.3 h( x + 2) 8.4 (
h ( x − 1) 2 )
9. In the following expression, express y explicitly as a function of x.
1− y
x= .
1+ y
10. Determine the inverses of the functions defined below.
10.1 g ( x) = x5 10.2 u ( x= ) 3 − 2x
x +1
10.3 y= 10.4 f ( x=) 3 − e2 x
2x +1
11. Given: f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = sin x and h( x) = cos x .
11.1 Determine the exact numerical values of: f ( g (0.3) ) + f ( h(0.3) ) .
11.2 Show that f ( h( x) ) − f ( g ( x) ) =
h(2 x) .
1
12. Let f ( x) = , x ≠ 0 . If g ( x=
) x 2 + 1 , for what values of x is f  g defined?
x
13. Consider f ( x=) 3 x − 5 . Determine:
13.1 f  f −1 13.2 f −1  f
13.3 Is it always true that f  g = g  f ? Is it ever true that f  g = g  f ?
ANSWERS 1.1
1.1 Many-to-one function 1.2 Not a function 1.3 Many-to-one function
1.4 One-to-one function 2.1 = f ( g ( x) ) x= ; g ( f ( x) ) x 2.1 Yes.

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 4t 3
3.1 f −1 ( x)= 2 − x3 3.2 −1
f= (t ) ,t ≠ 1 3.3 f −1 ( s )
= ,s < 2
t −1 2−s
y+7
3.4 f −1 ( y ) = 4. Discussion - graph 5.1 g −1 ( x) = 5 x
3
−1 3 − x2 1− x
5.2 u ( x) = 5.3 =f −1 ( x) x≠ 1
2 2x −1 2

6. No. The function fails the horizontal-line test y

10

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
x
-2

-4

7. Domain of f ( x)= { x / x ≥ 1, x ∈ R} ; Range of f ( x)= { y / y ≥ 2, y ∈ R}

Domain of g ( x) = { x / x ∈ R, x ≠ 2} ; Range of g ( x) = { y / y ∈ R, y ≠ 0}
π +1 t +1
8.1 g (π ) = 8.2 g (2t + 1) = 8.3 h( x + 2)= x +2
π −1 t
1− x g −1 ( x) = x 5
1
8.4 h ( ( x − 1) ) =−
2
x 1 9. y= , x ≠ −1 10.1
1+ x
3 − x2 1− x 1
10.2 u −1 ( x) = y −1 ( x)
10.3 = ,x ≠ 1
10.4 −1
f= ( x) ln 3 − x 2
2 2x −1 2
2
11.1 f ( g (0.3) ) + f ( h(0.3) ) =
1 11.2 Show that …
12. f  g is defined for all real values of x.
13.1 f  f −1 = x 13.2 f −1  f = x 13.3 No; Yes.

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5. Composite functions
 Definition: The composition of two functions f and g is a combination of f and g such that ( f  g ) ( x) = f ( g ( x) ) .
o In general, f ( g ( x) ) ≠ g ( f ( x) )

6. Graphical transformation of functions

 Graph of a function a function may be transformed either by shifting, stretching or compressing, or reflection. Let c be a positive
real number.

Vertical Translations
A shift may be referred to as a translation. If c is added to the function, where the function becomes y = f ( x ) + c , then the graph of
f ( x ) will vertically shift upward by c units. If c is subtracted from the function, where the function becomes y = f (x ) − c , then the
graph of f ( x ) will vertically shift downward by c units.
In general, a vertical translation means that every point ( x, y ) on the graph of f ( x ) is transformed to (x, y + c ) or ( x, y − c ) on the
graphs of y = f ( x ) + c or y = f ( x ) − c respectively.

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Horizontal Translations
If c is added to the variable of the function, where the function becomes y = f ( x + c) , then the graph of f ( x ) will horizontally shift to
the left c units. If c is subtracted from the variable of the function, where the function becomes y = f ( x − c) , then the graph of f ( x )
will horizontally shift to the right c units.
In general, a horizontal translation means that every point ( x, y ) on the graph of f ( x ) is transformed to ( x − c, y ) or (x + c, y ) on the
graphs of y = f ( x + c ) or y = f ( x − c ) respectively.

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 8
Reflection

If the function or the variable of the function is multiplied by − 1 , the graph of the function will undergo a reflection. When the
function is multiplied by − 1 where y = f ( x ) becomes y = − f ( x ) , the graph of y = f ( x ) is reflected across the x-axis.

On the other hand, if the variable is multiplied by − 1 , where y = f ( x ) becomes y = − f ( x ) , the graph of y = f ( x ) is reflected across
the y-axis.

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 9
Vertical Stretching and Shrinking

If c is multiplied to the function then the graph of the function will undergo a vertical stretching or compression. So when the function
becomes y = cf ( x ) and 0 < c < 1 , a vertical shrinking of the graph of y = f ( x ) will occur. Graphically, a vertical shrinking pulls the
graph of y = f ( x ) toward the x-axis. When c > 1 in the function y = cf ( x ) , a vertical stretching of the graph will occur. A vertical
stretching pushes the graph of y = f ( x ) away from the x-axis. In general, a vertical stretching or shrinking means that every point
(x, y ) on the graph of f (x ) is transformed to (x, cy ) on the graph of y = cf (x ) .

Horizontal Stretching and Shrinking

If c is multiplied to the variable of the function then the graph of the function will undergo a horizontal stretching or compression. So
when the function becomes y = f (cx ) and 0 < c < 1 , a horizontal stretching of the graph of y = f ( x ) will occur. Graphically, a vertical
shrinking pulls the graph of y = f ( x ) away from the y-axis. When c > 1 in the function y = f (cx ) will occur. A horizontal shrinking
pushes the graph of y = f ( x ) toward the y-axis. In general, a horizontal stretching or shrinking means that every point ( x, y ) on the
graph of f ( x ) is transformed to ( x / c, y ) on the graph of y = f (cx ) .
Transformation can be combined within the same function so that one graph can be shifted, stretched, and reflected. If a function
contains more than one transformation it may be graphed using the following procedure.

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 10
Steps for Multiple Transformations
Use the following order to graph a function involving more than one transformations:
1. Horizontal Translation
2. Stretching or shrinking
3. Reflecting
4. Vertical Translation

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 11
1.2 THE MODULUS FUNCTION
(Washington, pp 3, 477 – 480)

1. Absolute values
Definition: The absolute value or modulus of a real number a, denoted by a , is the numerical value of the number without its sign.
Examples: 2 =2 −7.6 =
7.6 −π =
π 2 = 2
2. Basic equations and inequalities
a) x = 3 ⇒ x = 3 or − x =3 , that is, x = 3 or x = −3
b) x < 2 ⇒ x < 2 or − x < 2 ⇒ x < 2; x > −2 , that is −2 < x < 2
3. Applications
• In complex numbers: z =x + jy ⇒ mod( z ) =z = x 2 + y 2
• Magnitude of a vector: a = x i + yj ⇒ a = x2 + y 2
• The limitations on the binomial formula when expanding (a + b) n if n is NOT a non-negative integer: b < a
• Indicate the distance between two numbers Distance = 3 Distance = 3
o x =3 ⇔ x =3 or x =−3 ⇔ x is 3 units form 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Example: Distance = 5

x − 2 =5 ⇒ x is a distance 5 from 2. Why? Solving for x yields x − 2 = 5 ⇒ x = 7 Distance = 5

or −( x − 2) =5 ⇒ x =−3 as represented in Figure 1. -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 Figure 1 Absolute value as distance
4. The modulus function y
4
 x if x ≥ 0
Definition: f ( x=
) x=  3
− x if x < 0 2
• An example of a piecewise defined function 1
because the function is defined in
two "pieces": y = x on the interval x ∈ [0; ∞) and y = − x on the interval x ∈ (−∞;0)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 12
 • Sometimes called the absolute value function
• Domain: x ∈  ; Range: y ∈ [0; ∞)
5. More graphs

• Take note of the translations.

• MUST indicate intercepts with axes and coordinates of maximum/minimum point
• Maximum/minimum point is called the salient point
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.2 (KA Motsepe)
1. Determine the value of the following:
1.1 3− 4 1.2 4−3 1.3 3−4 1.4 4−3
2. Is a − b = a − b for all values of a and b? Motivate your answer using suitable mathematical examples.
4. Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
3.1 f ( x)= x + 1 3.2 g ( x=
) x +1 3.3 h( x ) = 1 − x 3.4 k ( x)= x − 1 3.5 m( x)= 1 − x
4. Calculate x if
4.1 x = −5 4.2 x = 13 4.3 2x < 6
5. Explain, in your own words, the meaning of x − 1 =3.
6. Consider the function g ( x) = x − 2 − 3 .
6.1 Calculate the intercepts of the graph of g(x) with the axes.
6.2 Calculate g (5) and g (−5) .

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 13
6.3 Sketch the graph of g(x) for x ∈ [−5;5] .
ANSWERS 1.2
1.1 1 1.2 1 1.3 -1 1.4 1
2. No. For example, 2 − 3 ≠ 2 − 3
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 & 3.5

4.1 No solution. Absolute values is always positive 4.2 x = ± 13 4.3 −3 < x < 3
5. x is a distance of three units from 1, that is, x = 4 or x = −2 .
6.1 y-intercept: (0;-1); x-intercepts: (-1;0), (5;0) 6.2 g (5)= 0; g (−5)= 4
6.3
4
y
3

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x
-1

-2

-3

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1.3 EXPONENTS AND LOGS
(Washington pp. 313 – 330; 363 – 383)

1. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION AND NATURAL LOGARITHM

• =
y e=
x
exp( x)
e lim (1 + 1x )
x
o =
x →∞

o e = 2.71828182845904523536 is an irrational number

• = =
y log e x ln x
o y = ln x : natural log
o = y log = x log10 x : common log

• Graphs

Figure 2: The influence of the base on the curve Figure 3: Exponential growth and decay

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 15
• If f ( x) = e x and g ( x) = ln x , then f −1 ( x) = g ( x) and g −1 ( x) = f ( x) , that is, the exponential function is the inverse of the log
function, and vice versa.

• Laws/properties
5
Exponential functions Logarithmic functions y
m, n ∈  x, y, a, b all positive
1. e m × e n =em+ n =
1. ln( xy ) ln x + ln y 4

em x
2. n = e m − n 2. ln  = ln x − ln y 3
e  y
3. ( e m ) = e mn
n
( )
3. ln x = n ln x
n

2
1 4. ln e x = x
4. n = e − n
e
1
5. e n = n e 5. eln x = x
1

6. e n = n e m
m
6. e x ln a = a x
7. e0 = 1 7. ln e = 1 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
8. e1 = e 8. ln1 = 0 x
-1
log a x
9. log y x =
log a y
-2

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 16
 1. Applications Figure 4: Exponential and log functions

• Compound interest
• Radioactive decay, e.g. carbon dating, N (t ) = N 0 e kt
• Exponential growth, e.g. population growth, N (t ) = N 0 e kt
• Richter scale, measuring the magnitude of an earthquake,= M log A − log A0

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.3 (KA Motsepe)

1. Simplify the following into a single algebraic fraction:
3

1.1
y x (4 xy ) 2
x2
+
y2
1.2 (x −1
− y −1 )
−1

2. Evaluate the following. Round off to 4 decimal places where necessary

3(
log3 80 − log3 4 ) 5
2.1 without using a calculator. 2.2 log 3 2 + π 2.3
2 + ln 7
3. Express the following expressions as a single logarithm.
1
3.1 ln x − b ln z + a ln y ln(1 + x 2 ) + ln x − ln sin x
3.2
2
4. Change the subject in the following equations to x:
ex −1  e2x − 1 
4.1 y= x 4.2 y = ln 

e +1  2 
5. Solve for x (to 3 decimal places where necessary) if:
5.1 3 x+2 − 3 x = 6 x 5.2 e2 x +3 − 7 = 0 5.3 3 2 x − 3 x +1 − 31 = 30
1− x
5.4 5e − 4 = 40 5.5 2 + 2 = 6 x +1
x +3 x
5.6 1 + ln x = ln(1 + x)
5.7 2 ln( x − 2) − ln x = 0 5.8 log 2 x + log x = 2 5.9 (1.25) x = 2
5.10 (
5 1.12 x+3 = 200 ) 5.11 2 2 x +1 − 3 × 2 x = 2 5.12 e x + e−x = 3

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 17
 x
5.13 3log x − 2 log =
2 5.14 ln(5 − 2 x) =
−3
2

Log worksheet
= ln x log = e x;log x log10 x
1. Use the log laws to write the following expressions as a single log in its simplest form.
1.1 log 2 x + log 2 y − log 2 z 1.2 2 log b x + 12 log b y 1.3 5log 3 (2 x − 1) − 5log 3 ( x − 2)
1.4 2 log x + 4 log x − 8 log x
1 4 1 4 1 8
1.5 log 4 x − log 4 y − 1 1.6 log 2 5 + log8 5
2. Write the following expressions as the sum and difference of logs without powers.
3x 2 9 100
2.1 log 2 2.2 log 3 2 2.3 log
y x x +1

2.4 (
ln 2 e x 3x
) 2.5 ln (sin x) tan x
 2.6 y = ln 
( )
 1 − x 2 cos x 

 e3 x 
3. Solve for x. Round off to two decimal places where necessary.
3.1 log 2 x = 5 3.2 log x 10000 = 4 3.3 log x 128 = 7
3.4 log x 81 = 4 3.5 x = log 5 125 3.6 x = log 5.2 1
3.7 3x = 7 3.8 9.1x = 3.2
4. Solve for x.
 Always try to simplify first!
 Always check your answer. Remember, in the real number system we can't determine the log of a negative number.
4.1 ln(2 x) + ln(3 x − e) − 2 =ln 8 4.2 log(2 x + 8) =1 + log( x − 4) 4.3 log(2 x +=
3) log(2 x − 1)
4.4 ln x + ln( x − 1) =
5 4.5 ln( x + 2) + ln x 2 =
ln x 4.6 −1 + ln( x − 2) =ln x

ANSWERS 1.3
y 2 + 8 x3
3
xy
1.1 1.2 2.1 20 2.2 0.2370 2.3 1.2671
y−x
3 1
x 2y 2

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  xy a   x 2 (1 + x 2 )   1+ y 
1

3.1 ln  b  3.2 ln   4.1 x = ln   4.2=x 1

ln(2e y + 1) 5.1 3
 1− y 
2
 z   sin x 

5.2 −0.527 5.3 1.262 5.4 −1.175 5.5 0.369 5.6 0.582

5.7 4 5.8 2.902 5.9 3.106 5.10 17.852 5.11 1

5.12 ±0.962 5.13 25 5.14 2.475

ANSWERS Worksheet
1.1 log 2 xyz ( ) 1.2 (
log b x 2 y ) 1.3 log 3 ( 2xx−−21 )
5
1.4 log x 2 1.5
log 4 ( )
x
4y

1.6 4
3 log 2 5 2.1 log 2 3 + log 2 x − log 2 y 2.2 2 − log 3 x 2.3
2 − log( x + 1)
2.4 x ln 2 + 3x 2.5 tan x ln(sin x) 2.6 ln(1 − x 2 ) + ln(cos x) − 3 x 3.1 32
3.2 10 3.3 2 3.4 3 3.5 3 3.6 0
3.7 1.77 3.8 0.53 4.1 3.62 4.2 6 4.3 No solution
4.4 12.69 4.5 0.41 4.6 No solution
More Logarithms
1. Express the following expressions as a single logarithm.
1
1.1 ln x − b ln z + a ln y 1.2 ln(1 + x 2 ) + ln x − ln sin x
2

2. Evaluate the following: Round off to 4 decimal places where necessary

3(
log3 80 − log3 4 )
2.1 without using a calculator.
5
2.2 log 3 2 + π 2.3
2 + ln 7

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3. Solve for x. Round answer off to 4 decimal places where necessary.
x
3.1 3log x − 2 log = 2 3.2 e2 x +3 − 7 =0
2
3.3 5 (1.12 x+3 ) = 200 3.4 5e1− x − 4 = 40
3.5 ln(5 − 2 x) =
−3 3.6 ln x + ln( x − 1) =
1

Logarithms Answers
 xy a   x 2 (1 + x 2 ) 
1

1.1 ln  b  1.2 ln   2.1 20

 z   sin x 
2.2 0.2370 2.3 1.2671 3.1 25
3.2 −0.5270 3.3 17.8520 3.4 −1.1748
3.5 2.4751 3.6 2.2229

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 1.4 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

1. The basics

Function cosh x sinh x tanh x coth x sech x csch x

Name Hyperbolic cosine Hyperbolic sine Hyperbolic Hyperbolic Hyperbolic secant Hyperbolic
tangent cotangent cosecant
Definition e x + e− x e x − e− x sinh x cosh x
sech x =
1
csch x =
1
cosh x = sinh x = tanh x = coth x =
2 2 cosh x sinh x cosh x sinh x
e x − e− x e x + e− x 2
= x −x = x −x
2
= x −x = x −x
e +e e −e e +e e −e
3 6 1.0 3
y y y y y y
Graph 4
0.8

0.6 2
0.9

0.8
2

0.7
0.4 1
2 1 0.6
2 0.2
0.5

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 0.4 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-0.2
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x 0.3

1 x -0.4 -1 0.2 -1

-2 -0.6 0.1

-0.8 -2 -2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
-4 -1.0
-3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x -6

Domain (−∞; ∞) (−∞; ∞) (−∞; ∞) (−∞;0) ∪ (0; ∞) (−∞; ∞) (−∞;0) ∪ (0; ∞)

Range [1; ∞) (−∞; ∞) (−1;1) (−∞; −1) ∪ (1; ∞) (0;1] (−∞;0) ∪ (0; ∞)
Derivative d d d d d d
(cosh x) (sinh x) (tanh x) (coth x) (sech x) (csch x)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
= sinh x = cosh x = sech 2 x = −csch 2 x = −sech x tanh x = −csch x coth x

∫ cosh xdx ∫ sinh xdx ∫ sech ∫ csch ∫ sech x tanh xdx ∫ csch x coth xdx
Integral 2
xdx 2
xdx
= sinh x + c = cosh x + c = tanh x + c = coth x + c = −sech x + c = −csch x + c
⊕ The unit of the x in cos x is either radians or degrees; the x in cosh x may have any unit depending on the application
2. Inverse hyperbolic functions

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 21
sinh −1 x Function cosh −1 x tanh −1 x coth −1 x sech −1 x csch −1 x
Inverse Name Inverse hyperbolic Inverse hyperbolic Inverse hyperbolic Inverse hyperbolic Inverse
hyperbolic sine cosine tangent cotangent secant hyperbolic
cosecant
sinh −1 x Definition cosh −1 x tanh −1 x coth −1 x −1
sech x csch −1 x

(
= ln x + x 2 + 1 ) = ln x + x 2 − 1 ( ) 1  1+ x 
= ln  
2  1− x 
1  x +1 
= ln  
2  x −1 
 1 + 1 − x2
= ln 

=

1
ln  +
1 + x2 
 x  x x 
  
5 5 6 3
y y y y y y
2

Graph 2.0 4

3
4

3
5
2

1 2 2 4
1.5 1
1 1
3

1.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

x -3 -2 -1 1 2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -1 -1 x 2

-2 -2 -1
-1 0.5 1
-3 -3
-2
-4 -4 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
0.0 -5 x
-2 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 -5 -3
x

(−∞; ∞) Domain [1; ∞) (−1;1) (−∞; −1) ∪ (1; ∞) (0;1] (−∞;0) ∪ (0; ∞)
(−∞; ∞) Range [0; ∞) (−∞; ∞) (−∞;0) ∪ (0; ∞) [0; ∞) (−∞;0) ∪ (0; ∞)
⊕ Because hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of exponential functions, the inverse hyperbolic functions are written in
terms of log functions.
⊕ The shaded information is enrichment only – there is no need to memorize it!

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 22
3. Comparative identities
Osborn's rule
To obtain the formula for hyperbolic functions from the analogous identity for the trig function, replace each trig
function by the corresponding hyperbolic function AND change the sign of every product or implied product of
two sines.
Trigonometric identity Hyperbolic identity
cos x + sin x =
2 2
1 cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1
cos x − sin x =
2 2
cos 2 x cosh x + sinh x =
2 2
cosh 2 x
cos 2 x = 1 − 2sin x
2
cosh 2 x = 1 + 2sinh x2

=
cos 2 x 2 cos x − 1
2
=
cosh 2 x 2 cosh 2 x − 1
1 + tan 2 x =sec 2 x 1 − tanh 2 x =sech 2 x
1 + cot 2 x =csc 2 x coth 2 x − 1 =csch 2 x
sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x sinh 2 x = 2sinh x cosh x
sin( x=
± y ) sin x cos y ± cos x sin y =
sinh( x ± y ) sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
cos( x ± y ) =
cos x cos y  sin x sin y =
cosh( x ± y ) cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
tan x ± tan y tanh x ± tanh y
tan( x ± y ) = tanh( x ± y ) =
1  tan x tan y 1 ± tanh x tanh y
sin 2=
x 1
2 (1 − cos 2 x) =
sinh 2 x 1
2 (cosh 2 x − 1)
cos =
2
x 12 (1 + cos 2 x) =
cosh x 12 (cosh 2 x + 1)
2

sin(− x) =− sin x sinh(− x) =− sinh x

cos(− x) =cos x cosh(− x) =cosh x

4. More relationships (enrichment)

Relationship between trig and hyperbolic functions: cosh θ =cos jθ ⇔ cosh jθ =cos θ
sinh jθ = j sinh θ ⇔ sinh jθ = j sin θ

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 23
 x2 x4 x3 x5
Series expansions: cosh x =+
1 + + sinh x =x + + +
2! 4! 3! 5!
5. On the calculator
1 1 1
csch x = sech x = coth x =
sinh x cosh x tanh x
6. Applications
Important note: The two photographs here were obtained from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catenary and its use was approved
by the legal department of the Tshwane University of Technology.
 Catenaries (free hanging chains/cables supported at the end points only)
Typical equation: For some constants A and B, Hanging chain from
y= A + cosh Bx
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catenary

 Arches in buildings such as the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri

Gateway Arch from
Typical equation: For some constants A and K depending on a specific
y A ( cosh Kx − 1)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catenary
=
building,

 Potential difference E between a telegraph line and earth (James, 2001: 140) with A and B constants, x the distance from the
transmitting end, r the resistance per kilometre of the conductor and R the insulation resistance per kilometer
 r   r 
= E A cosh  x  + B sinh  x 
 R  R

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 24
7. Motivation for the name hyperbolic function
Trig (or circular) functions Hyperbolic functions
The points (cos t ;sin t ) lie on a circle with a radius of 1 unit The points (cosh t ;sinh t ) lie on a right half of an equilateral
hyperbola

References
• James, Glyn. 2001. Modern Engineering Mathematics. 3rd ed. Pearson Education: London.
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catenary

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.4

1. Use a calculator to evaluate the following expressions correct to three decimal places.
1.1 sinh 3.5 1.2 tanh(−2.1) 1.3 cosh(2.5) 1.4 coth(ln 3) 1.5
sech ( 23 )
1.6 cosh(−1.2) 1.7 csch 2.5 1.8 coth 2.1 1.9 sech (−1.7) 1.10
cosh 0.5
2. Use the definitions of the hyperbolic functions to prove the following.
2.1 cosh x − sinh x = e− x 2.2 tanh 2 x + sech 2 x =
1 2.3 tanh(− x) =− tanh x
3. Are the hyperbolic functions periodic? Motivate your answer.
4. Classify the six hyperbolic functions as even or odd.
5. Rewrite each of the following expressions in terms of exponential functions. Simplify your answer as much as possible.

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 25
5.1 3cosh(ln x) 5.2 sinh(3ln x) 5.3 cosh 3x − sinh 3x 5.4 cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x
6. Solve the following equations, accurately to three decimal places.
6.1 sinh x = 3 6.2 4 tanh x − 1 =0
7. Use the definitions of sinh x and cosh x to solve for x in the equation cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x =
0.5 . Give your answer correctly to
THREE decimal places.
⊕ Practice on derivatives and integrals of hyperbolic functions will be included in the supplementary exercises on differentiation
and integration.

ANSWERS 1.4

1.1 16.543 1.2 -0.970 1.3 6.132 1.4 1.250 1.5 0.813
1.6 1.811 1.7 0.165 1.8 1.030 1.9 0.354 1.10 1.128
2.1 Proof 2.2 Proof 2.3 Proof 3. No. Does not repeat at regular
intervals
4. Even: cosh, sech; Odd: tanh, coth, sinh, csch
5. Rewrite each of the following expressions in terms of exponential functions. Simplify your answer as much as possible.
3x 3 x3 1
5.1 + 5.2 − 3 5.3 e −3x 5.4 e2 x
2 2x 2 2x
6.1 1.818 6.2 0.255 7. 0.347

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 26
 1.5 TRIG BASICS
(Washington, pp. 544 – 554)

1. The basics

Function sin x cos x tan x cot x sec x csc x / cosec x

Name Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent Secant Cosecant
Definition y x y 1 1 1
sin A = cos A = tan A = coth A = sec A = csc A =
r r x tan A cos A sin A
x r r
= = =
y x y
Domain (−∞; ∞) (−∞; ∞) x ≠ ±90°; ±270°; x ≠ ±0°; ±180°; ±360°; x ≠ ±90°; ±270°; x ≠ ±0°; ±180°; ±360°;
Range [−1;1] [−1;1] (−∞; ∞) (−∞; ∞) (−∞; −1] ∪ [1; ∞) (−∞; −1] ∪ [1; ∞)
Period 360° 360° 180° 180° 360° 360°
Even/odd Odd Even Odd Odd Even Odd
Derivative d d d d d d
(sin x) (cos x) (tan x) (cot x) (sec x) (csc x)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
= cos x = − sin x = sec 2 x = − csc 2 x = sec x tan x = − csc x cot x

∫ sin xdx ∫ cos xdx ∫ sec ∫ csc ∫ sec x tan xdx ∫ csc x cot xdx
Integral 2
xdx 2
xdx
=
− cos x + c = sin x + c = tan x + c =
− cot x + c = sec x + c =
− csc x + c

⊕ Note the reciprocal trig functions sec x , csc x = cosec x and cot x .
⊕ Reciprocal ≠ inverse in this context!!!

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 27
EXAMPLES – memorize!

θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

sin θ 0 1
2
1
2
3 1
2

csc θ Undefined 2 2
2
3
1
cos θ 1 3 1
2
1
2
0
2

sec θ 1 2
3 2 2 Undefined
tan θ 0 1
3
1 3 Undefined
cot θ Undefined 3 1 1
3
0

=
sin 23° 0.3907  ⇒= csc 23=
° sin123° 2.5593 ≈ 2.559
cos 97° = −0.1218 ⇒ sec 97° = cos97
1
° = −8.2055 ≈ −8.206

=
tan 263 ° 8.1443 ⇒ cot 263
= ° tan= 1
263° 0.1227  ≈ 0.123

⊕ Use the x −1 key on your calculator!!!!

⊕ Note that rounding takes place in the last step only.

DON'T round off the value of=

sin 23° 0.3907  ≈ 0.391 and then determine the inverse
= 1
0.391 2.5575 ≈ 2.558 - this answer is
INCORRECT!!!!!!

1 1
Remember, sin −1 x ≠ since = csc x
sin x sin x

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 28
2. Graphs of trig functions and their reciprocals

⊕ Note the asymptotes (vertical lines approached but never intercepted)

Memorize the properties of all six graphs (the intercepts with axes, positions and values of maxima and minima; asymptotes)
3. More identities/properties
cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1 cos 2 x − sin 2 x =cos 2 x 1 + tan 2 x = sec 2 x 1 + cot 2 x = csc 2 x
sin(− x) = − sin x cos(− x) = cos x tan x = cos
sin x
x cot x = cos x
sin x
Compound angles
tan x ± tan y
sin( x=± y ) sin x cos y ± cos x sin y cos( x ± y ) =
cos x cos y  sin x sin y tan( x ± y ) =
1  tan x tan y
Double angles
sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x cos 2 x = 1 − 2sin 2 x =
cos 2 x 2 cos 2 x − 1
⇒ sin x cos x =
1
2 sin 2 x ⇒ sin 2 x =2 (1 − cos 2 x )
1
⇒ cos 2 x =
2 (1 + cos 2 x )
1

4. Inverse trig functions

• Note the asymptotes!
• Take note of the domain and range of the inverse functions – we are interested in functions!

Function sin −1 x cos −1 x tan −1 x cot −1 x sec −1 x csc −1 x

Name Inverse sine Inverse cosine Inverse tangent Inverse Inverse secant Inverse cosecant
cotangent

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 29
Defini- y = sin −1 x y = cos −1 x y = tan −1 x y = cot −1 x y = sec −1 x y = csc −1 x
tion
⇔x= sin y ⇔x= cos y ⇔x= tan y ⇔x= cot y ⇔x= sec y ⇔x= csc y
Domain −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 All real numbers All real x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1
numbers
Range − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 0≤ y ≤π − π2 < y < π2 0< y <π
0 ≤ y < π2 or − π2 ≤ y < 0 or

π
2< y ≤π 0 < y ≤ π2
Deriva- d d d d d d
sin −1 f ( x)  cos −1 f ( x)   tan −1 f ( x)  cot −1 f ( x)  sec −1 f ( x)  csc −1 f ( x) 
tive dx  dx  dx dx dx  dx 
f '( x) − f '( x) f '( x) − f '( x) f '( x) − f '( x)
= = = = = =
1 − [ f ( x)] 1 − [ f ( x)] 1 + [ f ( x)] 1 + [ f ( x) ] f ( x) [ f ( x)] − 1 f ( x) [ f ( x) ] − 1
2 2 2 2 2 2

Integral du - du - du -
∫
a2 − u2 + a2 ∫u 2 ∫u
a2 − u2
= sin −1 ( ua ) + c = 1a tan −1 ( ua ) + c = a1 sec −1 ( ua ) + c

⊕ The shaded information is enrichment only – there is no need to memorize it now (Mathematics II work!).

since cot −1 x = tan −1 ( 1x ) . Can you prove this?

1
⊕ cot −1 x ≠
tan −1 x

5. Graphs of inverse trig functions

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 30
 1.6 ANGLE UNITS AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS
(Washington, pp. 240 – 249)

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 31
1. The radian as angle unit
• 1° = 360
1
of a revolution
o Sexagesimal system (base 60): 1 degree = 60 minutes; 1 minute = 60 seconds
 12°13'15" ≈ 12.2208°
 30.689° ≈ 30°41'20.4"
 Use your calculator!
 Application: GPS coordinates
• 1 grad = 1 decimal degree (not used in this course)

• 1 radian = angle at centre of circle subtended by an arc s equal in length to the radius r
o The radian (or rad) is NOT an SI unit; it is a derived SI unit, similar to the newton
• 180° =π rad
o 1° = 180
π
rad and 1 rad = 180 π
°

• Why is it OK to leave out the unit and write, for example, π3 instead of π3 rad, but WRONG to leave out the unit in 60° ?
o θ = rs metres π π
metres : the units cancel; rad is a dimensionless quantity, and thus, when working with angles, 3 = 3 rad
o 60 means "60 radians" which is completely different from 60° !
• Remember to check the calculator mode when solving trig equations!
o Always give angles in the unit specified in the question. For example, sin = x 0.5, x ∈ [0; π ] means the angles must be in
radians
1 revolution 360° 2π radians π
• =
1 revolution per minute = = = rads/sec
1 minute 60 seconds 60 seconds 30
Memorize the following table.
Degrees 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 270° 360°

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 32
Radians 0 π
6
π
4
π
3
π
2
2π
3
3π
4
5π
6
π 3π
2
2π

2. Polar coordinates
• Coordinate system: A reference system used to specify the position of a point/object
• Cartesian/rectangular coordinate system (x;y): Specify the position of a point in terms of its perpendicular distance from
two (or three) mutually perpendicular axes
• Polar coordinate system (r;θ): Specify the position of a point in terms of its distance from a fixed point, called the origin or

pole, and an angle, called the polar angle, from a fixed direction
o Polar axis/ray: axis in a fixed direction, usually coinciding with the x axis
o Radial coordinate r: Distance from the pole
 r ≥ 0 in this course
o Angular coordinate 2: Angle between r and the polar axis
 Anticlockwise positive; clockwise negative
 θ ∈ (−π ; π ] are called principal values
• Graphs in polar coordinate systems
o There is special graph paper available for sketches in polar coordinate systems consisting of concentric circles and
radial lines as shown in the supplementary exercises
• Conversion between coordinate systems

o By hand and on your calculator

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 33
 =
o From polar to rectangular: cos θ ; y r sin θ
x r=
o From rectangular to polar: r =x 2 + y 2 ; θ =
tan −1 ( )
y
x

• Uniqueness of coordinates
o Every point (x;y) in a rectangular system is unique
o In a polar coordinate system a point may have more than one representation (r ;θ ) =
(r ;θ + 2π k ), k ∈ 
 For example, (1; 4 ), (1; 4 ) , (1; − 4 ) all represent the same point
π 9π 7π

 Work therefore with principal values θ ∈ (−π ; π ]

• Uses
o In complex numbers to determine roots and logs of negative numbers
o In vectors in two dimensions
o By air traffic controllers to describe the position of a plane
o In calculus
o In modelling such as the groundwater flow equation
• Other coordinate systems
o The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional system
o The system can be extended to a three-dimensional system (beyond the scope of this course)
 The cylindrical coordinate system
 The spherical coordinate system
 The following website has more information as well as links to other sites, should you be interested
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.6

1. Sketch the following pairs of graphs on one system of axes on the interval indicated.
1.1 = f ( x) 2sin x=; g ( x) sin 2 x; x ∈ [−π ; π ] 1.2 p ( x) = cos x; q ( x) = cos( x + π4 ); x ∈ [0; 2π ]
2. Solve for x if x ∈ [0; 2π ] and
2.1 sin x = −0.356 2.2 cos x = −0.513 2.3 2 tan x = −0.5
3. Convert the following angles in degrees to radians without using a calculator.
3.1 25° 3.2 35°30 ' 3.3 178° 3.4 320°

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 34
4. Convert the following angles in radians to degrees.
π 7π π
4.1 4.2 4.3 3π 4.4
7 5 13
5. Convert 3 500 revs/min to rads/sec.
6. Convert, by hand and with a calculator, the point (2; π3 ) from polar to Cartesian coordinates.
7. Represent the point with rectangular coordinates (1;-2) in polar coordinates with angle in degrees.
8. Determine the polar coordinates of the points with the following rectangular coordinates. Give angles in radians.
8.1 (2; 2) 8.2 (2 2; −2) 8.3 (−1; − 3) 8.4 (−2;3)
ANSWERS 1.6

2.1 3.506;5.919 2.2 2.109; 4.174 2.3 2.897; 6.038

5π 71π 89π 16π
3.1 36 3.2 360 3.3 90 3.4 9
4.1 25.714° 4.2 252° 4.3 540° 4.4 13.846°
5. 366.519 = 25
9 π 6. (1;1.732) 7. (2.237;-63.435 ° )
8.1 (2.828; π4 ) 8.2 (3.464; −0.615) 8.3 (2; −2.094) 8.4 (3.606; 2.159)

1.7 TRIGONOMETRIC WAVES (SINUSOIDS)

1. Formulas for waves

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 35
• =
General equation: y R sin(ω t ± α )
o R: amplitude – watch out for the unit!
o ω: angular velocity – rad/s
o α: Phase angle/phase
• Period: time taken to complete one cycle
2π
o T= seconds
ω
• Frequency: number of cycles in one second
ω
o f = Hz ⇒ ω = 2πf
2π

• Compare y = sin t and y1 = sin(t − π4 ) :

o y1 = sin(t − π4 ) is y = sin t shifted π 4 radians to the right
o y1 = sin(t − π4 ) lags y = sin t by π 4 since y1 peaks after y
• Compare y = sin t and y1 = sin(t + π4 ) :
o y1 = sin(t + π4 ) is y = sin t shifted π 4 radians to the left
o = y1 sin(t + π4 ) leads y = sin t by π 4 since y1 peaks before y
• In general:
o R sin(ωt − α ) lags R sin(ωt ) by α ω
o R sin(ωt + α ) leads R sin(ωt ) by α ω
o Time displacement: this lead/lag time

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 36
  time displacement = α ω
 lag
• Sketching curves: label the axes, indicate maxima and minima, starting and end point of curve

The facts, such as the sine and cosine rules, are not included here since they are assumed to be general knowledge!
2. Applications
• =
The sinusoid f (t ) A cos(ωt + α ) , a function in the time domain is associated with the phasor F = Ae jα , a function in the
frequency domain. (Mathematics IV)
• The simple harmonic motion of, for example, a swinging pendulum is written in the form of a sinusoid.
• The Fourier series of Mathematics III is expressed as a combination of sinusoids.

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1.7 (KA Motsepe)

1. Simplify the following expressions:
1.1 sin θ .cot θ .sec θ 1.2 sec θ .cos θ + tan 2 θ 1.3 sin x.sec x
cos θ
1.5 cot 2 A ( sec 2 A − 1)
1 1
1.4 −1 1.6 +
sec θ csc A − 1 csc A + 1 7
2. Prove the following identities:
2.1 tan A.cosec 2 A cos 2 A = cot A 2.2 sec 2 θ .cot 2 θ − 1 =cot 2 θ 2.3 (1 − sin θ )(1 + tan θ ) =
2 2
1
( sin α + cos α ) 1 + 2sin α .cos α
2
2.4 = 2.5 sin 4 x − cos 4 x = sin 2 x − cos 2 x 2.6
sin 3 A − cos3 A =(sin A − cos A) (1 + sin A.cos A )
3. Use a calculator to evaluate the following. Round answers off to three decimal places where necessary.
3.1 2sec3 1120 − 1 3.2 2sec104.50 co sec104.50
4. Use a calculator to determine, accurately to one decimal place, the values of x ∈ 00 ; 3600  if:
2
4.1 cot x + 1.664 =
0 4.2 3sec x − 5.103 =
0 4.3 sec x + 1.544 =
0
3

Basic Mathematics: Functions basics © Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges 25/02/19 Page 37
 π 
5. Suppose the equation y = −6 cos  t  models a buoy bobbing up and down in water. The equilibrium point is y = 0. Describe
3 
the location of the buoy when t = 0.
π 
6. =
The temperature, in 0C, of a room varies according to the sinusoidal function T (t ) 5.8sin  (t − 11)  .
12 
6.1 Determine: (using the S.I. units)
6.1.1 the amplitude
6.1.2 the period
6.1.3 the frequency and
6.1.4 the time displacement of the wave, stating whether it is a lead or lag time.
6.2 Sketch one cycle of the graph of T(t).
ANSWERS 1.7
1.1 1 1.2 sec 2 θ 1.3 tan x 1.4 − sin 2 θ

1.5 1 1.6 2 tan A sec A 3.1 -39.0 3.2 -8.3

4.1 149.00 or 329.00 4.2 54.00 or 306.00 4.3 115.60 or 244.40
5. 6 units below the equilibrium point.
1
6.1.1 Amplitude = 5.8 0C 6.1.2 Tperiod = 24 s 6.1.3 f = Hz 6.1.4 time displacement = 11 s (lag).
24
6.2 T
5.8

0 35 t
11 23

-5.8

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